LECTURE ONE INTRODUCTION TO THE STUDY OF HISTORY

Lecture One Outline

1:1 Introduction
1:2 Learning Outcomes
1:3 What is History: Definition of Terms
1:4 Sources of Studying Early Church History
1:5 Reasons for Studying Church History
1:6 Summary

1:1Introduction:
Welcome to the study of the history of the Early Church. This lesson is an introduction to the
study of Church history. The focus of the lesson is to understand the nature of Church history
and the main historical methods. Next, we will explore how to apply these methods to the study
of Early Church history as well as examining the primary sources available for understanding
this period. Finally, we will discuss why it is important for a student of Education to study
Church history.

1:2 Learning Outcomes:

By the end of this lesson the learners should be able to:
1. Evaluate the nature of historical study and be able to apply its methods to the study of
the history of the Early Church
2. Analyze the sources for studying Early Church
3. Understand why it is important for students of Education to study the history of the
Church.

1:3 What is History

History is a branch of knowledge which deals with past events. It reflects the past which is
never isolated from the present and the future. Our discovery of the past always changes our
present and the way we think about the future. Our expectation of the future revises our
perception of the past. Our knowledge of history makes us human and mature
‘According to Cicero, “not to know what happened before you were
born is to forever remain a child’.
History is a scientific discipline, which is critical of received opinion; rigorous in examining
evidence and has a systematic representation of its discoveries. It is an academic discipline
which inquires into the past, its meaning and purpose and also makes assessment of the
continued relevance of the past. History is life’s events as it flows through times. It makes both
change and continuity. The changes makes the past, present and future different, while
continuity links the periods together.
Some important terms in the study of history are Historie, Geschichte and Heilgeschite
(German terms). Historie is that which is verifiable according to generally acceptable standards
of history writing. It refers to persons or events of the past which are external and objective.
They can be verified by acceptable means of historical study; for example, you can prove that
the man Jesus lived in the first century. Geschichte is an internal and non-verifiable significance
ascribed to a historical person or event. It cannot be demonstrated through historical enquiry
and may or may not be true e.g. Christ of faith believed by some scholars to be the creation of
the early disciples or even virgin birth and resurrection. Heilsgeschichte is salvation history,
based on God who acts in history
History can be divided into two, Heilsgetchiste or salvation history and secular history.
Heilsgetchiste comes from a German word Heil- salvation, hence the translation salvation
history. This is the history about God’s saving acts. It is based on the belief in Christianity as a
faith in a God who acts in history. History is therefore based in the redeeming acts of God, or
revelation through the Holy Spirit. Salvation history is about divinity or history from a divine
perspective. The secular history is on the other hand a kind of research or inquiry. It is an
academic discipline that is scientific in its concerns and procedures. It must incorporate data
collection, analysis, interpretation and verification. Secular history is about worldly affairs.
According to Augustine it is pessimistic and always moving towards evil.
Scholars have argued that there is a distinction between secular history and salvation history.
According to Albert Schweitzer and Bultmann, salvation history was a solution which came as
a result of embarrassment or false development whose origin may be ascribed to the problems
arising out of the delay of the kingdom of God. They argue that the idea of salvation history
was completely foreign to Christ, and it is mainly a creation of the early Christians.
According to Frend, the main problem with historical study in Christianity is that all evidence
exists within Palestinian Judaism as depicted in scriptures. There is lack of contemporary views
of Christianity apart from the scriptures and any writings outside Christianity are viewed as
heretical. MaCulloh argues that since salvation history is based on revelation, it lacks
objectivity.
John Brigg argues that Christianity is essentially a historical religion therefore all history is
God’s history. However, no one can pretend to know God’s plan and therefore construct history
on that basis. According to some scholars salvation history looks beyond the present history
into God’s eternal grace as opposed to secular histories which egocentric focusing on nations
and tribes. Latourrette believes that there may be no distinctions between salvation history and
secular history because as one looks through the events of history, one can see how God and
particularly Christianity have shaped the history of humanity. The two therefore have no
distinction. On the other hand, Cullman argues that they must be distinct from one another
because revelation is absent from secular history.

1:4 Sources for Studying Early Church History

History is based on evidence, and therefore historical studies are based on gathering evidence
from primary sources, which give eye-witness accounts. One of the sources of early Church
history is both Hellenistic and Roman secular history. This includes the works of Eusebius who
was a Christian historian. He gathered all the material and imposed chronology on them.
Secondly are the writings of the apostolic fathers. These are a collection of writings which are
adjacent to or overlap with the later writings of the New Testament. These includes the works
of I Clement, Barnabas, II Clement, Didache, Ignatius, Polycarp and Hermas. They give insight
to the events in the early Church. The study of the documents also gives an ancient impression
of the organisations of the Christian community.
However, the main source of Early Church history is the New Testament accounts. The major
question is always on the authenticity of the New Testament as a historical source. NT is most
important for historical studies because it contains eye-witness accounts. Eye-witness accounts
are very valuable in studying ideas prevalent during the time of writing, in this case during the
early Church; they also show the nature of society at that time. The gospels mainly contain eye-
witness accounts of the acts and words of Jesus.
Secondly, the New Testament writings are like any other document and therefore like any other
document, historical criticism can be applied to verify its authenticity. Using historical
criticism, you can verify the author, time and occasion of writing. You can also apply content
analysis. The New Testament is very valuable as historical source because most of the writers
did not set out to write scriptures in the first place (Expound).
The Letters of Paul are a first-hand source for the history of the early Church, and they are very
valuable because they mainly deal with specific issues. Most of them are one sided because
they are presented from his own point of view, in many cases he is in conflict with either
Galatians or Corinthians. However, they are very valuable because you get to know the ideas
prevalent at the time. It gives a picture of the issues at stake during this period, nature of
society, major thoughts and some of the major events. It is clear from the writings of Paul that
there were different views and opinions at the time. Apart from the letters of Paul, later writings
can also be used to reconstruct history. The Book of Acts relies on other accounts and gives an
overview of the events in the early Church. It gives an account of the growth of the Church
from Jerusalem to Rome.
1:4 Reasons for Studying Church History
1. Christians are human and therefore possess an historical sense. The Church is part of
society and shares its history. Also, as Christians learning history would help us to know
who we are, and what the Church is. This is very important for our identity as individual
Christians and for the self-understanding of the Church.
2. Christianity is a historical religion and is based on historical facts .The Bible is full of
historical figures like Kings; prophets and the incarnation and resurrection are historical
events (Even if classify them as mythology-technically myths are important sources of
history of ideas).
3. Christianity is part of secular history, and you have to identify with it. Christians also
believe that all history is part of divine purpose moving towards a goal. Christians are
part of the overall history of the world and the church. This is as opposed to the view of
some evangelicals that history of the Christian faith begins with their own salvation.
4. History helps us to understand our faith, to learn and get encouragement from the
Fathers and mothers of the Church. It also helps us to learn from the intellectual debates
and practical questions of faith, asked and answered by Christians for the past 2,000
years (e.g. creed, three-fold ministry, Canon of scripture and other structures in the
Church). It helps us to get encouragement from the triumphs of the Church and also
learn from the tragedies of the Church. History helps Christians to derive wisdom,
power and inspiration (e.g. from martyrs, Church fathers and apologists) and therefore
carry on with what makes effective the mission of Christ and break loose from the past
which inhibits that mission.
5. History emphasizes the need for change. At times some questions need different
answers because of the change in context. It arouses the sense of difference between
past and present. Difference comes because of distance and difference in time, space
and different attitudes; therefore, the historians understand basic differences and do not
fictionalize history by dressing it up with modern language. The way a person in ancient
Rome understood history is different from our own perception so we are better able to
study, criticize, evaluate and learn.
6. History helps us to find identity and also to give us bearing.
7. It helps us to preserve aspects of Christian or Church life, therefore, to have continuity
(nobody can completely start anew). It helps us to know what is basic for our beliefs
e.g. scriptures, creeds, sacraments and other fundamentals. However, we can change
details e.g. clothing.
8. Helps us in developing a balanced judgment by widening our horizon and getting the
whole picture.
 9. Grapple with the story of God’s people, born of spirit and its visible human
organisations. The Church visible is related to a particular culture (with shortcomings)
but also points to the reality of the invisible Church. Church history is full of critiques
of church structures and organisations, but Church structures can never be avoided.
Structures have to allow freedom of the spirit to work because even good structures
outlive their usefulness.
1:6 Summary:
In this lesson we have learnt that history is a reflection of the past which is never isolated from
the present and the future. The main sources of studying Church history. The study of history is
based on gathering evidence from primary sources which give an eyewitness account. One of
the sources of early Church history is both Hellenistic and Roman secular history.
However, the main source of Church history is the New Testament. This includes the letters of
Paul. We have established that it is very important to study the history of the Church as
Christianity is a historical religion and the Church is also part of the Society. History helps us to
learn from the past triumphs of the Church and also learn from its mistakes so that we do not
repeat the same.

BACKGROUND TO THE DEVELOPMENT OF CHRISTIANITY: JUDAISM AND

THE WIDER JEWISH CULTURE
2:1 Introduction
2:2 Learning Outcomes
2:3 Relationship between Christianity and Jewish Religion and Culture
2:4 Problems between Christianity and Judaism
2:5 The Jewish Heritage of the Church
2:6 The Expansion of Christianity
2:7 The Gentile Mission
2:8 Paul’s Mission
2:9 Summary

2:1 Introduction:
Christianity is always established within a specific social, political and religious context. Jesus
was born a Jew and followed most of the Jewish cultural customs. Christianity was first
preached and established within the Jewish context. Christianity was preached within the
political context of the Roman Empire as Palestine was part of the Roman Empire. The
Preaching was done in the context of Judaism or Jewish religion and the wider Jewish culture.
Christianity embraced some aspects but also challenged aspects of Jewish religion and culture.

2: 2 Learning Outcomes:
1. By the end of the lesson the learners will be able to:
2. Develop a critical understanding of the establishment of Christianity within Judaism
and the wider Jewish culture
3. Evaluate the way Christianity related with Jewish religion and culture
4. Apply this to the way Christianity should relate to the religions and cultures in their
context.

2:3 Relationship between Christianity and Judaism plus the Wider Jewish Culture
Early Christianity should be viewed not as a sudden emergence but rather as a branch
extending from a deeply rooted and established tree: Judaism. By the time of Jesus' birth,
Judaism had developed over many centuries, and the majority of individuals identified as
Jewish were profoundly committed to their faith. To comprehend the significance of Jesus and
the early Christians, it is essential to explore the key historical events in Jewish history that
shaped their beliefs and expectations.
The Abrahamic Covenant
At the outset of Jewish history lies the Abrahamic Covenant, which represents a foundational
promise made by God to Abraham, regarded as the patriarch of the Jewish people. This
covenant encompasses promises of land, numerous descendants, and a unique relationship with
God, forming a core element of Jewish identity.
The Mosaic Covenant and the Law
Subsequently, the Mosaic Covenant emerged during a critical period of Jewish history. Moses,
leading the Israelites out of slavery in Egypt, received the Law — including the Ten
Commandments — from God on Mount Sinai. This covenant established the guidelines for
how the Jewish people were to engage in their relationship with God and with one another. The
Law thus became central to both their worship practices and daily lives.
The Period of Judges
Following their settlement in the Promised Land, the Israelites were governed by a series of
"judges," charismatic leaders who arose to deliver the people from oppression and guide them.
This era was marked by a decentralized form of leadership, reflecting a complex socio-political
landscape.
The Davidic Kingdom
The establishment of the Davidic Kingdom under King David marked a golden age for the
Jewish people, characterized by the formation of a powerful and unified state. This period is
often viewed nostalgically as a time of independence and strength, during which God promised
David that his lineage would reign eternally. This promise laid the groundwork for future
Messianic expectations regarding a leader emerging from David's line.However, following the
reign of Solomon, the kingdom experienced a fracturing, splitting into two entities: Israel in the
north and Judah in the south. This division led to internal conflicts and weakened the overall
stability of the Jewish nation.
The Exile
A significant turning point occurred with the Exile, when both kingdoms were eventually
conquered and their populations forcibly relocated — first the northern kingdom by the
Assyrians in the 8th century B.C., and later Judah by the Babylonians in the 6th century B.C.
This traumatic experience prompted profound reflection among the Jewish people regarding
their relationship with God and their national identity.
Rebuilding the Temple
Following the conquest of Babylon by the Persian Empire, a subset of Jewish exiles was
permitted to return to their homeland and undertake the reconstruction of the Temple in
Jerusalem. The Second Temple became the central place of worship for Jews, not only in Judea
but also for those in the Diaspora, creating a shared religious bond that connected Jewish
communities across diverse regions.
Persecution under the Greeks and the Advent of Hellenism
Centuries later, the rise of Alexander the Great introduced Greek culture (Hellenism) to the
region. His successors, particularly Antiochus Epiphanes, enacted policies that aggressively
sought to impose Greek culture upon the Jewish population, which included the defilement of
the Temple and suppression of Jewish religious practices.
The Maccabean Revolt
In response to this persecution, the Maccabee family led a revolt, fighting fervently for their
religious freedom and ultimately establishing a brief period of independent Jewish governance
under the Hasmonean dynasty (164 to 64 B.C.). During this time, the intensity of Jewish zeal
for their faith grew, emphasizing the High Priest's role as a central political and religious figure.
Persecution under Rome
By the 1st century B.C., the Roman Empire asserted control over the region, appointing Herod
— who married into the Maccabean family — as the king. This action effectively quashed the
Hasmonean aspiration for a truly independent kingdom governed by strict adherence to Jewish
law. Instead, the Jewish people found themselves ruled by Herod, whose primary focus was
consolidating power for himself and his lineage, leading to widespread tension and resentment
among the populace.
Conclusion
Notably, Jesus was born during the reign of King Herod and within the Roman administrative
framework. Therefore, understanding the historical context of Jewish faith, societal
expectations, and the political climate of this era is vital for grasping the environment into
which Jesus was born and the initial development of Christianity. It is important to recognize
that the first Christians were themselves Jewish, and their interpretation of Jesus was deeply
intertwined with the rich tapestry of Jewish traditions and scriptures.to deliver them from their
enemies and govern them. This was a time of less centralized leadership.
Christian faith was carried by the disciples after the crucifixion of Christ. Peter and the others
had returned to Galilee. Peter had seen the vision of the risen Lord and abandoned the life they
had returned to in Jerusalem (Jn. 21). There are two traditions about the original leadership of
the Church. The first is that Peter and Matthews were initial leaders in the Church in Jerusalem.
Second, I argue that James and Thomas were the initial leaders.
The early Jerusalem Company faithfully attended the temple. The temple was the centre of
Jewish worship and also Jewish nationalism (national pride). It was the symbol of Israel’s
election as God’s people, and also where the important feasts were performed. The Christians
also attended the synagogues. The synagogue was where a company of Jews met for prayers
and to study the law. It was the centre of worship and instructions. The order of worship
consisted of prayers, praises, exposition of the law, readings from the Pentateuch and from the
prophets.
The early Jerusalem Company faithfully obeyed the law and therefore was just like a sect
within Judaism. Judaism had very many sects and was therefore very diverse e.g.
• Pharisees who preserved the religious and theocratic character of Jewish life. They were
strict in observing Mosaic Law and scribal tradition of the law.
• Sadducees were leading aristocratic families. They upheld Mosaic Law but were not
bound by scribal tradition. They rejected resurrection.
• Essenes emphasized property sharing and also emphasized ceremonials e.g. keeping of
the Sabbath.
But on top of the normal Jewish practices, they had special house services with prayer of exhort
ion and breaking bread in the first day of the week. This was also an opportunity for fellowship
and also helps the needy. They expected the speedy return of Christ.
The Jews had generally immigrated to different parts of the Mediterranean due to foreign
domination and poor economy. The Jews who had migrated were referred to as Jews in
Dispersion or Diaspora. They maintained unity with their land by going for pilgrimage and
sending funds for upkeep of the temple. Wherever the Jews went they made followers or
proselytes (this became the first basis for Christian evangelism). In order to become a proselyte,
one had to
 • Make offerings
• Undergo the ceremony of washing called the bath of purity
• Obey the Law of Moses e.g. Circumcision, keep Jewish law of clean and unclean.
• Leave customs of the gentiles and adopt the Jewish way of life
Also attending the synagogue were God fearers (gentiles). Christianity eventually spread
through Jews in Diaspora to non-Jews. Many gentiles had already accepted Monotheism and
Jewish morality.
There were two distinct groups in dispersion namely the Hebraists, mainly speaking Hebrew or
Aramaic and most of them were traditional. The second group were Hellenist, mainly Jews who
had absorbed Graeco-Roman culture, except on matters of faith. They were broad minded.
NB: Jewish beliefs and Literature
 Jews have a special favor with God
 Monotheism – God is one, the creator and ruler of the heaven and earth. Only God.
 Mankind rebelled against God in the fall of Adam and Eve.
 God chose Israel and invited them into a covenant relationship in which they were to be
loyal to Him and He in return would aid them.
 The core of Judaism is summarized in Deut. 6:4-5- “ Hear all Israel, the Lord our God is
one Lord, and you shall love the Lord your God with all your hear and with all your
soul and with all your might”
 NB. The prophets were spokesmen of Yahweh; they spoke against sin.
Varieties of Judaism
a. Hellenistic Judaism – the Jews were scattered throughout the Mediterranean world.
They fell under the influence of Greek thought.
b. The Septuagint- the Greek translation of the Jewish scripture was a product to
Hellenistic Judaism. Hellenistic Judaism itself was varied since the level of Greek
influence in the Mediterranean world was not uniform. It was perhaps more attractive
to outsiders and did win a number of Gentile converts.
 Christianity had much of its early spread through the circles of Hellenistic Judaism.
 Hellenism was less influential upon the Jewish groups of Palestine- Samaritans,
Sadducees, Pharisees and Essenes.

2:4 Problems between Christianity and Judaism

When gentiles started becoming Christians, there was division in their attitude towards
Judaism. Christians believed that in Jesus there was the fulfilment of the Messiah who was to
come. They also believed that the second coming of the messiah would be very soon
When gentiles converted to Christianity there were divisions in the attitude towards Jewish
Christians. The main issue was whether gentiles should keep circumcision as a sign of entry to
the community of God, or whether they should keep clear of food with idolatrous association.
The Jews who were concerned with mission or the Universalists rejected the conservative
view. They argued that the ceremonial law of the Pentateuch was limited to the Jews. There was
a problem between conservatives and Universalists which led to an acute controversy resulting
in the general conference in Jerusalem (Acts XV). Eventually Paul won for gentile Christian’s
recognition to full membership of the Church.
Secondly, eventually the demands of Jesus on the Christian community could eventually not
have a Jewish counterpart
1. There was no Jewish counterpart of the Eucharist, with its memorial and sacrificial
elements. The rite only referred to Jesus.
2. Water baptism in the name of Jesus as a sole means of initiation, only had meaning by
virtue of Christ’s life, it did not relate to the Jewish purification washing.
3. According to Christians on top of the Jewish scriptures, the Christian writings on Jesus
and the letters of the apostle were also authoritative.
Thirdly, the Greek speaking Jewish Christians started seeing
Christianity as a universal religion which rejects Judaism. Stephen’s speech along these lines
led to his martyrdom.
Fourthly, was the fall of Jerusalem in 70AD. This was as a result of the Jewish revolt against
Rome (66-70 AD). The revolt found no Christian supporters. They rejected any rioting against
Rome and fled to Pella. They escaped the destruction of Jerusalem but earned the hatred of the
Jews. This was the greatest factor in the division between Christianity and Judaism. Fifth, the
climax of the separation was during the synod of Jamnia (AD 90). Judaism had survived AD 70
and decided to re-organise itself at the synod of Jamnia. It excluded the Christians from the
synagogue worship, added a curse against Christians in the liturgy and stopped them from even
entering the synagogue. They also excluded Christian writings from the Jewish religious
writings.
Sixth was the Bar- Choba revolt(132-135 AD). This was the final Jewish revolt against Rome.
It also failed but during this revolt, Jews persecuted Christians and Bar Choba claimed to be the
messiah. This made the relationship between the Jews and the Christians very sour.

2:5 The Jewish Heritage of the Church.

Despite the break the Church borrowed a lot from Judaism. First the Church borrowed
scriptures. Like the Jews, the first Christians accepted Old Testament alone as scripture. They
however differed with the Jews because they saw the Old Testament as a divine promise
fulfilled by Christ, while the Jews saw it as an expression of the divine law. The Old Testament
was freely used in the writings that were to become the New Testament because it was seen as a
Christian book.
Secondly, the Church borrowed a lot from Judaism in terms of worship. The Christian
Church was born in the context of the temple and the synagogue. The Sabbath and the Lord’s
Day were observed in the early Church. It is only in the fourth century, when the Lord’s Day
was officially adopted as a Christian holiday. Other Jewish festivals were also given Christian
meanings, e.g. the Passover and the Pentecost became Easter and Whitsun and these festivals
became the basis for the Christian year. Christian worship followed the synagogue worship in
having readings from the Old Testament, the Psalms and also in certain prayers and
benedictions. However, Christians also read their own writings during worship and celebrated
the Lords supper and baptism (which had no equivalent in Judaism). Christian worship above
all centered on the death and resurrection of Christ.
The other borrowings were Christian fasts which were held on Wednesdays and Fridays.
The Christian pattern of ministry also had Jewish influence. Paul’s council of elders resembled
the Jewish council of elders. They began to develop pastoral oversight which later developed
into the three-fold ministry of Bishop, Priest and Deacon.

2:6 The Expansion of Christianity

Christianity expanded from a Jewish religion to a world religion. The work began in
Jerusalem, Samaria and then extended to the rest of the Mediterranean world (Roman Empire).
Rome eventually became the centre of Christianity.
Historically, the Church was established during Pentecost, which was a Jewish festival. The
audience was predominantly Jews although both Hebrew (Palestinian) and Hellenist
(Dispersion) were present and also a few people from other regions (proselytes).
The preaching was in Jewish terms, they used the Old Testament scripture, especially quoting
from the prophecy of Joel-the power of the Spirit. They presented Jesus as the Messiah, rose
from the dead and argued that Christians had become the new Israel. They continued their
worship in temples and synagogues but were seen as a sect in Judaism before becoming a
distinct group. The apostles were naturally the leaders of the Church in Jerusalem. The main
pillars of the Church were Peter, James and John.
The Christians maintained some of the Jewish practices but were referred to as people of the
way. According to Peter, the way of joining the new religion was through repentance. The
Church in Jerusalem put emphasis on:
• Communal responsibility, pooling together of material resources.
 • Self-consciousness as the people of God set apart and who devoted themselves to the
apostle’s teachings and to fellowship.
• They were the nucleus of society and were courageous people.
Inauguration of the Gentile mission was done through the appointment of the seven deacons.
This had resulted from social disagreement over the use of funds. Among the seven, Philip and
Stephen seemed to have a preaching mission.
Stephen was the most prominent of the seven, was very charismatic and conducted many
debates in the synagogue. He was stoned to death for criticizing the Jewish system. According
to him Christianity was not part of Judaism, but a new religion given by God. He believed that
Christianity could not be confined to the Jews.
After Stephen’s death, there was dispersion and Christians scattered. Stephen’s philosophy was
therefore the major basis for the gentile mission. Preparatory mission work among the gentiles
was done by Philip in Samaria which was an ethnically mixed group. There were also a lot of
Ethnic tensions between the Samaritans and the Jews; therefore, it was surprising for a Jew to
preach in Samaria. Philip’s work was reinforced by Peter and John who visited Samaria. Philip
also made contact with the Ethiopian eunuch a proselyte. One of the major features of the
establishment of the early Church was therefore overcoming ethnic and racial barriers.

2:8 Paul’s Mission

Paul was basically a Christ centred apostle. He was born in a rich and varied environment,
combining the religion of the Jews, civilization of the Greek and lived under political
administration and also held Roman citizenship.
1. Israelite Background- Born in a strict Jewish family and was educated strictly in a good
Jewish fashion. He learnt the Hebrew language and scriptures. Paul was by conviction a
Pharisee and studied under Gamaliel in Jerusalem.
2. Greek Inheritance- Paul’s birthplace was Tarsus, which was a large and prosperous city,
with a lot of commerce. Intellectually, it was a Greek city, a Centre of Greek civilization
and a university town. The evidence of Greek influence is seen in Paul’s quotation of
Greek poets, borrows most of his illustration from Greek games like boxing and
running. He also used Greek and Roman ideas to illustrate the law processes.
3. Roman- He lived under Roman law, accepted Roman citizenship and valued this
privilege of dual citizenship (multi-cultural nature of society).
Prior to the Damascus experience, Paul had an emotional struggle. He had a sense of failure in
his struggle to keep the law perfectly and also witnessed the death of Stephen. Paul’s
conversion was therefore as a result of an inner crisis, around 35-37AD.
Paul visited Jerusalem but his life was under threat and so he went back to Tarsus, till he was
called by Barnabas to assist in Antioch. Antioch (Syria) was the main centre of mission to the
gentiles. From Antioch, he focused on mission to the unevangelized parts. Paul and Barnabas
were consecrated for mission, and they went to Cyprus, Asia Minor, Lystra and Derma. The
mission to the gentiles brought into focus several issues:
• Whether gentiles should be made Jews first, before being accepted into the Church.
• To what extent should the gentiles follow the precepts of the law.
These issues threatened to cause division in the Church and a council was called in Jerusalem to
discuss these issues. The council mainly focused on Jewish and gentile relationships and
universal Christianity. These were mainly focusing on issues of ethnicity and racism.
Paul’s success in his mission to the gentiles was mainly due to the fact that he was
adaptable, Paul could be all things to all people. Secondly, he purposely worked hard in
maintaining unity in the Church without avoiding discussion over contentious issues. He
developed a theological basis for his position, focusing on justification by faith through grace.
Christianity eventually spread from Jerusalem and Antioch to different ends of the world. At
Pentecost, converts were gathered from different parts of the world and spread the message.
From Antioch, the message was taken to Eddessa (Syria), which was strategic for advancing the
message eastward. Christianity also spread to Ethiopia, Nubia, India and Armenia.

2:10 Summary
Christianity was established within the Jewish context which was originally part of Judaism or
the wider Jewish religion and culture. Jesus was born and died a Jew. The early Christians
faithfully attended the temple and the synagogues. However, on top of that they met on the first
day of the week for fellowship and to break bread together. Eventually, problems developed
between Christianity and Judaism. First, the gentiles started questioning whether they must
become Jews as a condition of becoming Christians. Second, the demands of Jesus on
Christians could not find Jewish counterparts. Eventually Christianity separated from Judaism
but maintained its Jewish heritage.

GRAECO-ROMAN WORLD
3:1 Introduction
3:2 Learning Outcomes
3:3 Jewish Religion
3:4 Geographical Position of Palestine
3:5 Roman Rule
3:6 Roman Religious Context
3:7 Greek Language and Greek Philosophy
3:8 Summary

3:1 Introduction:
Christianity adopted some aspects of Judaism and Jewish culture which laid the foundation for
the Church. Jesus Christ was born and died a Jew and grew up with the Jewish religious and
cultural context. However, Christianity also challenged aspects of the Jewish culture and
religion. In this lesson we will look at Christianity moving from Palestine to the wider Roman
Empire. Christianity grew very fast in this context because of the advantages of the Roman
rule. Although Christianity was established in the context of the rule of the Romans the
predominant culture was the Graeco-Roman culture. The Church grew very fast because it used
positive aspects of Graeco-Roman religion, Greek language and Greek philosophy to preach
the gospel. The Greco-Roman world was an alien environment for Christianity yet much of it
favored the spread of the Christian faith and an influence upon it was well.

Culturally, the Mediterranean basin was dominated by two traditions -those of Greece- and
Rome and they profoundly shaped Christianity in organization and thought so much so that
Christianity has become associated with the Occidental (the heirs of Greco-Roman Culture,
that is the West) than with the near East.

3:3 Jewish Religion and Culture

Jews religion and culture offered the main background for the spread of Christianity. As we
have seen, although Christianity spread it did not completely loose its Jewish heritage. Infact
there was a lot of borrowing form Jewish religion and culture. Dispersal meant that Jews were
to be found all over the empire. Synagogue worship was common and widespread, attracting
many Gentile God-fearers. Most of the philosophers read the works of the Jewish prophets with
a lot of respect. There was already messianic hope among the Jews.
3:4 Geographical Position
Christianity began from Palestine, which was a very central place. It was the melting point of
two main cultures, i.e. East and west, Semitic and Graeco-Roman cultures, Jews and Gentiles.
The Church was therefore the heir to the best of all ancient civilizations.
3:5 Roman Rule
The Roman Empire was inaugurated in 27 BC, under the first emperor Augustus Caesar (27-
14AD). This was after military conquest. Augustus brought peace and prosperity after a long
period of anarchy. The Pax Romana (Roman Peace) brought efficiency and excellent
communication network both through roads and the sea-route. Commerce greatly flourished
and alongside trade there was a big movement of people and ideas. There was growth of
commercial cities which were cosmopolitan places for exchange of ideas. Trade was therefore a
major tool for the spread of Christianity. Romans settled in colonies in the main cities of the
empire and Roman citizenship could be obtained by people of all races. This politically stability
greatly helped the spread of Christianity, and an obvious example is through Paul who had
obtained citizenship. The society was a pluralistic society.
3:6 Roman Religions
The Roman religious background offered a great opportunity but also a big challenge to the
spread of Christianity. Romans believed in a pantheon of gods which somehow offered
opportunity to Christianity. First because Christianity could be just like one of the religions.
Secondly, the pantheon had been disqualified at least in the eyes of the educated classes. The
quarrels and the immoralities of the Roman deities had aroused their contempt. People
therefore lost interest in a religion that was so human in its outlook and so demanding in its
standards of conduct. This offered an opportunity for Christianity.
There were two aspects of religious life in the Roman Empire, namely personal and social
aspects:
• Personal religion which mainly consisted of astrological and metaphysical speculations.
The emphasis was on mystery religions and life was a matter of chance and fate that is
the idea that a person’s destiny had been fixed from the beginning, for example, by the
stars. Astrology was therefore very popular. But this led to the feeling that if everything
was determined, life was hopeless. The mythological approach led to spiritual
emptiness as people feared demons. Mythology also led to moral laxity and intellectual
muddle. Mystery religions from the east centred on a mythical dying and rising god
(Osiris and Mithras). This god revealed himself to the converts in a secret initiation
ceremony. Mithras, identified with the sun, kills a bull whose blood gives life to the
world. The initiation ceremony resembled something like Christian baptism and
communion services. Through it, the disciples participate in god’s dying and rising and
so gain immortality. This would be an important foundation for preaching the gospel of
Christ; however, Christ was different from Mithras because he was an historical figure
and the ethical demands on the Christian convert were greater. There was also nothing
like Church among the followers of Mithras.
• Second, there was the social approach to religion which included emperor veneration.
This was a national cult, it was political and was to ensure that law and order was kept
in the empire. Although the Romans had a policy of tolerance to other religions, there
was a limit to this tolerance. A person could worship any other God, provided the cult
was not seditious or immoral. The Romans especially refused to tolerate any organized
religion, which would become a political threat. This was especially due to Jewish
 religion, which they felt was the focal point for Jewish trouble making. The Jews were
the most troublesome of the subject races, but eventually they won a concession from
the Romans.
They became ‘religio licita’ or a licensed religion, exempt by law from the regulations
which governed other religions. Eventually, it became clear that Christianity was
distinct from the Jewish religion. The Romans had regarded Christianity as even more
dangerous than Jewish religion. The distinct Christian religion had no legal status and
was not exempted from emperor worship, which was not so much of a religion but a
political means of securing peace and obedience.
Religious rivals of the Greco-Roman world:

The favorable conditions of the Greco-Roman world did not necessarily mean that

Christianity would triumph

• State cults- Including those of Rome and of the city states of the Roman Empire.
That establishments of the Empire weekend this cult, the cities were seen as
dependent upon the favours of their gods, so some sought to maintain the cults.
For example, the cults of the Roman emperor or Imperial cult, was regarded as
important for the preservation of law and order.
• Mystery religions were prominent
These are often secretive about their ceremonies and rites. A number centered on a
savior- God figure that died and rose again with stories varying from call to cult. ,
They were characterized by secretiveness, many were dualistic teaching the
necessity Of the redemption of the spirit from the evil, Material world many
syncretistic. Their appeal may well have been their assurance of immortality and the
fellowship they afforded.
• Gnostic religions- This claimed possession of a secret knowledge through which
emancipation from the material world brackets (dualism) and the astral powers
(astrology) could be obtained. This knowledge also for the privileged few. Used
sacraments, ceremonial washings, and other rights.
• Philosophy. The most prominent philosophes represented in the world into which
Christianity came were stoicism, epicureanism, the Peripatetics ( Aristotelian
tradition), Pythagoreans, Latinists including Neoplatonists and the cynics. All these
philosophes had Greek roots and were developed further in the Hellenistic world
into which Christianity moved. Many had a strain of dualism. Several influenced
Christianity - stoicism, Aristotelian tradition and Neo-Platonism especially.
 • Judaism. Jewish communities were numerous and widely scattered the Jewish
scriptures had been translated into Greek and thousands of non-Jews were attracted
by the Jewish faith and either thought full incorporation into the Jewish people or
constituted a fringe who had accepted many Jewish beliefs.

Greek Culture and Philosophy

Although Mediterranean region was under Roman rule, the dominant culture was Greek
culture. Alexander the great had scattered the culture of the Greeks during the conquest, also
called Hellenism. Hellenist ideas dominated the intelligence of the Roman Empire and Greek
philosophy, both good and bad were scattered everywhere.
Greek language became the international language. It was the official language of trade and
also the language of the court. Greek language was also a rich language and therefore could be
used to express deep thoughts. Eventually, even Hebrew Scriptures was translated into Greek
i.e. Septuagint. Several documents and literature were also written in Greek. Greek language
made mission work very easy, because there was no need to learn many languages first. Jewish
traders could also spread their faith using Greek.
The common language also brought a sense of unity between the races. There was a
cosmopolitan atmosphere, local peculiarities could be uprooted, and people could easily take on
a new culture. The Roman Empire was therefore referred to as a melting pot.
3:7 Greek philosophy and Language
Greek philosophy played a main role in preparing people for Christianity. According to Plato’s
teaching, knowledge of the universe was possible beyond the visible world, and this could be
comprehended by the mind alone. Plato argued that above this world was a higher world of
abiding truth. This idea was originally used to explain the faith to outsiders, but it eventually
influenced the manner in which Christianity understood itself. Plato and Aristotle made a
distinction between being and becoming. They argued that in the world everything is subject to
change and decay, nothing is unchanging. The physical world is changing and perishable and
cannot be true. Physical objects are pale fleeting shadows of their eternal, unchanging
counterparts, i.e. the forms in the higher, ideal world.
Plato and Socrates criticized the ancient gods and talked of a Supreme Being who was perfect
and Immutable or unchangeable. This was a supreme transcendent God, and this monotheism
became the point of contact for Christian apologists. However, there was problem because the
Greek God belongs to the unchanging realm and therefore cannot have direct contact with the
world of becoming or change and is not subject to emotions or feelings. Hence the early Church
fathers had to grapple with the inherent contradiction between the Greek and the Biblical
concepts of God.
The Greeks argued that because God is unchanging or immutable and belongs to the world of
beings, He needs a mediator between himself and the world. The common title in Greek
thought for mediating power or principle is Logos, which means reason and word. The concept
of one true God and the word as a mediator has obvious parallel with John 1, which was
another contact point for Christian apologists. However, there was a problem because the Greek
word was needed not because of sin, but simply because God cannot deal directly with a
changing world. In addition, the Word is clearly separate from God and inferior to him. This led
to the denial of the deity of Christ.
Greek thought was predominantly negative about this world, felt that the world was temporal
and changing made by an inferior deity from pre-existent matter. It was not the creation of the
Supreme God. The philosophical approach to the world was ascetic, a philosopher sought to
rise above things of the world. At face level, this idea seemed similar to the New Testament but
for different reasons. A concept like resurrection of the body was radically opposed to the
Greek thought.
Stoicism put major emphasis on the reason or logos, which led to living a life of virtue. Virtue
consisted of living according to reason. Stoicism emphasized on high moral standards; this was
a good beginning point for Christians who criticized the morals of the time. However,
according to stoicism, there was no hope for immortality beyond the memory of one’s virtuous
deeds. A person could only maintain happiness and inner peace.

3:8 Summary
Christianity advanced very fast in the Graeco-Roman world in the early centuries due to five
major factors. Christianity advanced because of Jewish religion, the geographical position of
Palestine, Roman rule, Roman religious context and Greek language and philosophy. The
Jewish religion had provided the background for the spread of Christianity. Christianity also
began from Palestine which was a melting point for the major cultures i.e. Semitic and Graeco-
Roman culture i.e. both Jews and gentiles. The Church was therefore the heir to the best of all
ancient civilizations. Christianity also advanced due to the Roman rule which brought the
Roman peace or pax romana. The Roman rule also brought efficiency and excellent
communication system. Commerce or trade flourished. Trade was the major tool of evangelism.
The Roman religious background offered a great opportunity for the spread of Christianity.
Greek language, which was an international language of trade, made communication possible.
Greek philosophy was used explain the Christian message.

LECTURE FOUR: APOSTOLIC FATHERS

Lecture Four Course Outline
4:1 Introduction
4:2 Learning Outcomes
4:3 Who are Apostolic Fathers
4:4 Clement of Rome
4:5 Ignatius of Antioch
4:6 Polycarp
4:7 Summary

4:1 Introduction
Welcome to the fourth lecture. In our last lecture we looked at how Christianity was
established in the Graeco-Roman world. We learnt that Christianity spread very fast because of
Jewish religion, geographical position of Palestine, Roman rule, Roman religious context,
Greek language and Greek Philosophy. Today, we will look at the Apostolic fathers. The
Apostolic fathers refer to the group of writers who faithfully preserved the apostolic teachings
and traditions immediately after the apostles. They were the most orthodox Christian writings
outside the New Testament. They had direct contact with the apostles. The main apostolic
fathers were Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch and Polycarp.

4:3 Who are the Apostolic Fathers:

Apostolic fathers refer to a group of writers who faithfully preserved the apostolic teachings
and traditions between the time of apostles and later years in the second century. They are the
oldest orthodox Christian writings outside the New Testament. In fact, some of them were
regarded by the early Christians as equal to the New Testament. Apostolic Fathers are a group
of early Christian writers who had direct contact with apostles and were tutored by apostles.
Apostolic fathers mainly focused on Christian living i.e. morality and order. They warned
people against lapsing to paganism, Judaism, apostasy or heresy. The writings of the apostolic
fathers were:
• Practical and doctrinal- Most of the writings were pastoral and practical, and like the
letters of St. Paul, they were written to particular Churches about particular problems in
Church life, denouncing heresy and urging Christian morality.
• They were not in the same level as the NT writings, it is said that they deficient in Paul
understands of grace. Most of them stress moral law- e.g. shepherd of Hermas claim
that
 if you do good beyond what is commanded by God, you will get more honor. The
epistle of Barnabas is anti-Jewish.
• The main heresies denounced by apostolic fathers are Docetism and Judaizing tendency.
Judaizing tendency was continued focus on Judaism and Jewish law and also denying
that Christ is the Messiah. Docetism is from Greek word Dokeo or appears- Christ
appeared to be human, hence Christ’s humanity is unreal. He only appeared to suffer
and die on the cross. This was an attempt to reconcile Christianity and philosophy,
which always stressed the worthlessness and impurity of the body and material things.
Thus according to them Christ was so spiritual, that he could not have a human body at
all. Docetists often ignored obedience to the commandment on love and shunned the
Lord’s Supper. The apostolic fathers were Clement of Rome, Ignatius of Antioch and
Polycarp of Smyrna.
4:4 Clement of Rome:
Clement was one of the early Roman Presbyters/Bishops. He was an overseer over the house
churches. He is mentioned in Philippians 4:3 as a fellow laborer with Paul. He is also identified
with Titus Flavius, who was executed by Domitian. Clement is mainly seen as a writer, and his
writings were the earliest New Testament writings apart from the New Testament. He is the
writer of 1 Clement, a letter written from Rome in about AD 96, to the Church in Corinth. The
Corinthian Church had sacked all its leaders and Clement wrote in response to the divisions in
the Church and urged Christians to stop quarrelling among themselves. There was emphasis on
the need for order in the Church, reflecting traditional Roman values as well as Biblical
influence. Clement also emphasizes on the need for orderly succession in the Christian
ministry. God had sent Christ, who had sent the apostles. They in turn appointed Bishops and
Deacons. These, then appointed their successors and those who have duly succeeded them
should not be removed without cause. The Corinthians should therefore restore their deposed
leaders. Clement urged the Christians in Rome to remain strong and true to their faith even
under persecution. He was also writing to heal divisions caused by the rise of Gnostics to the
position of Presbyters. The older leaders were also being deposed by a younger clique. Clement
appeals to simple apostolic succession and argue for preservation of divine order.
Clement emphasised on the principles of Christian leadership and discipleship. He argued that
true discipleship consisted of obedience to duly appointed leaders. Christians should therefore
obey the Bishops that God had appointed over them. Some of the younger people had no
respect for Bishops and rejected them. I Clement also emphasizes the importance of faith
accompanied by good works. He argued that Abraham was saved due to both his faith and
hospitality. Clement was respected because he had contact with both Peter and Paul.
4:5 Ignatius of Antioch (98-115):
Ignatius was the Bishop of Antioch, which was one of the most important Christian cities, at
the beginning of the second century. This is the first place in which the name Christian was
used to refer to the followers of Christ. It is also the place from which Paul launched his
missionary journeys.
Ignatius was taken to Rome to be martyred. He believed that martyrdom was a gift from God.
In his letters he wrote
‘I want all men to know that I die for God of my own free will………… Let me be
given to the wild beasts, for through them, I can attain to God. I am God’s wheat
I am ground by the teeth of wild beasts, so that I may be found pure bread. Entice
the wild beasts, that they become my sepulchre and may leave no part of my body
behind, so that I may not if I am fallen asleep be burdensome to anyone. Then
shall I be truly a disciple of Christ, when the world shall not so much see my
body.’

Ignatius wrote seven letters on his way to Rome to be martyred. The letters were addressed to
Christians in Ephesus, Magnesia, Trallia, Rome, Philadelphia, Smyrna and to Polycarp. In most
of his letters he maintained that Christianity is greatest, when it is hated by the world.
Ignatius was the first writer to clearly present the threefold pattern of ministry: One bishop in a
Church with his Presbyters and Deacons. He vigorously argued in defence of this pattern of
ministry, an indication that it was not yet fully established. His letters to Rome is conspicuously
silent about a single (Monarchical) bishop there, showing that the threefold pattern had not yet
reached the west. His ideas are seen as the foundation for monarchical episcopacy. He argued
that there should be one Bishop in charge of the Church to avoid splits and ensured correct
beliefs were taught (symbol of authority). This is continued by later Christians who had the
tendency to elevate Bishops to special spiritual status and power.
Ignatius main concern is with the unity of the Church and the Bishop is seen as the
focus of unity against both schism and heresy. Ignatius therefore emphasizes on obedience to
the bishops
‘Do nothing without the Bishop and regard him as the Lord himself – because
the Bishop is nothing less than God’s representative to the congregation’.

To the Magnesian Christians he wrote:

‘As the Lord did nothing without the Father, either by himself or through the
apostles, so you must not do anything without the Bishop and the presbyters’.

To the Ephesians:
‘It is obvious therefore that we must regard the Bishop as the Lord himself.
 Ignatius also emphasised that a valid sacrament is one that is under the Bishops or to one
whom he has committed it. Where, the Bishop is, there is where Jesus is and also the universal
Church. Ignatius put high value on the Eucharist as the means of maintaining Christian unity.
4:6 Polycarp (110-155):
Polycarp was the Bishop of Smyrna. He was a faithful pastor a champion of apostolic tradition,
and a pillar of orthodoxy in the early Church. As a young person he sat at the feet of Apostle
John, and was believed to have been made a bishop by the apostles. He also met Irenaeus, one
of the most important Christian figures of the second century. He received a letter from Ignatius
while still a young Bishop. Polycarp had a letter writing ministry, and his most important letter
was addressed to the Philippians and written in Greek. He offered spiritual counsel to the
Church at Philippi.
Polycarp warned them against the love of money and Docetism. The letter shows the
development of the Church, and it is clear there is no mono-episcopacy. His emphasis is on the
responsibilities of the Presbyters, Deacons and lay people and does not mention Bishops at all
in his works. In Rome he converted Marcionites and Valentinians and claimed that Marcion was
Satan’s eldest son. Polycarp was martyred around 155 (177 according to some accounts), as an
old man. A moving letter is written to Smyrnaeans on the martyrdom of Polycarp. The Roman
governor tried to convince Polycarp to revile Christ in order to gain his freedom, and he replied
86 years, I have been his servant, and he has done me no wrong, How can I then blaspheme my
King who saved me.

4:7 Summary:
The Apostolic Fathers were the earliest orthodox Christian writers outside the New
Testament. Their writings mainly focused on Christian living i.e. morality and order in the
Church. They warned people against lapsing back to Judaism, paganism, apostasy or heresy.
Their writings were practical and doctrinal. The main heresies they denounced were Docetism
and Judaizing tendencies. They also encouraged the students to be strong in the face of
persecution. The apostolic fathers also emphasized on order in the Church, especially
respecting the office of the bishop.

LECTURE FIVE: THE PERSECUTIONS

Lecture Five: Course Outline

5:1 Introduction
5:2 Learning Outcomes
5:3 Reasons for Persecutions
5:4 Nero’s Persecution
5:5 Emperor Domitian
5:6 Emperor Trajan
5:7 Marcus Aurelius
5:8 Summary

5:1 Introduction:
Welcome to the fifth lecture. In our last lecture we looked at the Apostolic fathers. The
Apostolic fathers were the earliest orthodox writers. They had direct contact with the apostles.
Their writings mainly focused on Christian living. Today we will looked at the way the Church
related to the state. This was mainly through persecutions, which was a challenge from outside
the Church. The Church had grown very fast. The Roman state felt threatened with the first
growth of the Church. The situation was made worse because the Christians refused to
participate in the imperial cult. The Greek philosophers also felt offended by Christianity with
its Jewish ideas.

5:2 Learning Outcomes

By the end of the lesson the learners should be able to:
Analyze the reasons for the Persecution of the Church
Outline the Persecutions under the different emperors
Evaluate the impact of the Persecutions and the response of the Church

5:3 The Reasons for the Persecutions:

Christianity had grown to its fullness within the first century, however, there developed
problems:
1. The Greek philosophy which dominated the Roman world felt offended by Christianity,
with its Jewish ideas. They thought Christianity was superstitious and scoffed ideas like
the resurrection and the virgin birth. Christians were accused of obstinacy in their
adherence to depraved superstitions.
2. Although Romans were generally tolerant to other religions, there were limits to such
toleration. All the conquered people also had to adapt the worship of the Roman gods.
All religions were also tolerated provided their practices did not contravene the laws of
Rome. Some religions were subjected to restriction if some of their rites and practices
were not acceptable. Jews had refused an attempt by Pilate to introduce statues bearing
Insignia of divine rule of the emperor into the temple courts. They said they had to be
beheaded first, before this could happen. Around 41AD, there was an attempt to erect a
 statue in the temple of Jerusalem to be worshipped. This led to a Jewish revolt and as a
result Jews were exempted from participation in Roman worship. They were recognized
as a religion practicing monotheism. Initially Christianity was seen as part of Judaism
and therefore did not experience any problem. But eventually, Christianity was seen as a
new religion. Christianity was viewed as a threat to peace and political stability. It was
therefore felt that they either comply with the Roman law or face a death penalty.
Christianity was however seen as a threat to peace because first, both Jews and Pagans
were rioting against Christianity. Warfare between people was viewed as warfare
between their gods, and this would result in bad luck to the empire, which needed to be
at peace with heavenly fathers. Secondly, Christianity was viewed as more aggressive
than Judaism. Although the Jews as a nation were aggressive, and even violent, they did
not have a big following. They were therefore not a big menace to the empire. In
dispersion they could get proselytes but this was not a big number. However,
Christianity was spreading very fast. It gained a lot of converts and was therefore a
threat to the imperial cult. The Christians had even added to Creed, hear O Israel, the
Lord your God is the only God and Christ was the Lord God of heaven and earth. This
was sacrilege because Christ had been crucified by Romans as a criminal, yet they were
even giving him power exceeding that of the Roman government (competing with
emperor cult).
3. Christians had become a hated group and were branded haters of humanity and society.
There were many rumors going round about them. They were accused of different kinds
of evil, and this led to their persecution.

5:4 Emperor Nero’s Persecution 37-68 AD

The first major organized persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire was under Emperor
Nero. Nero was born in AD 37. This persecution was confined to Rome. There was no major
ideological conflict between the Church and the State.
Nero was a very unpopular ruler and had come to power in 59 AD after killing his own mother
who was acting as the regent(Emperor Claudius died in 54AD most probably poisoned by
Nero’s mother, Agrippina, but since Nero was only seventeen years, the mother acted as the
regent). However, Agrippina’s dominant position did not last long, as he was shunted aside by
Nero, who did not want to share power with anyone.
Nero was originally a very humane leader but eventually his leadership deteriorated. Nero
usually appeared in public in a sort of dressing gown without a belt, a scarf on his neck and
with no shoes. Eventually, Nero did not concentrate on his administrative duties but devoted his
time to horse-racing, singing, acting, dancing, poetry and sexual exploits. His advisors Seneca
and Burrus tried to guard him against too much excesses. However, Nero’s excesses went
beyond control, took the wife of his close friend and also governor as his mistress and
transferred the governor. Nero’s mother sided with his wife in opposing this kind of
relationship. Nero responded with several attempts to kill his mother, first through poisoning,
then rigging the ceiling over her bed to collapse while she was asleep but did not succeed.
Finally, he decided to build a collapsing boat, which was meant to sink, however, the boat sunk
but Nero’s mother Aggrippina managed to swim ashore. Nero was very exasperated and sent an
assassin who clubbed and stabbed her to death (AD 59). Nero defended himself that the mother
had planned to kill him.
Nero celebrated by staging even wilder orgies and creating two new festivals of chariotracing
athletics and also staged music contests. This created a moral outrage as people did not expect
the emperor to stage such performances. To make it worse, while Nero was performing nobody
was allowed to leave the auditorium. In 62 AD, Nero’s rule changed completely. First, his chief
advisor and protector Burrus died and the people who took over had very negative influence on
him. They encouraged Nero’s excesses rather than trying to curb them. Their first action in the
office was to revive the hated treason courts. Nero’s life was completely controlled by excesses
in sport, music, orgies and murder. He divorced his wife Octavia and had her executed on a
false charge of adultery. This was to allow him marry the mistress whom he also kicked to
death, for complaining that he was coming home late. This created a real scandal. In 64 AD
Nero gave his first public performance, and the very theatre in which he performed was shortly
after destroyed by an earthquake. This was seen as a bad omen.
In July AD 64, a great fire broke out and ravaged Rome for six days, destroying portions of the
city and economically devastating the Roman population. It was rumored that Nero started the
fire himself. This is first because Nero did not seem very keen to stop the fire, and secondly, he
used a very wide area destroyed by the fire to build his ‘Golden palace, which was turned into
a pleasure area for the emperor. Nero, always desperate to be popular, decided to look for
scapegoats on whom the fire could be blamed.
Nero therefore blamed the Christians, who were a hated group to turn the attention
from him, Christians, therefore became the scapegoat. Nero had described Christianity as a
novel and mischievous superstition.
Christianity was associated with everything degrading, haters of humanity, practice of
cannibalism and incest in nocturnal meetings. Christians were therefore accused of arson. Many
people who confessed that they had faith in Christ were arrested.
Nero offered his garden for display, putting up a circus where he mingled with the people in
the dress of a charioteer, while at times he drove in the chariot. The Christians clad in hides of
beast were hunted and torn to death by dogs to the amusement of the crowds. Some were set on
fire to illuminate the night while others were crucified. It is believed that it is at this time that
Peter and Paul met their death. However, eventually Nero’s method became counter-effective.
People felt that Christians were not being killed because they were guilty but mainly for the
amusement of one individual.

5:5 Emperor Domitian (81-96AD)

Domitian was viewed by his subjects as a tyrant. In 83 AD, he issued an edict to publicly
punish people with immoral behaviour. In 85 AD he declared himself as ‘Perpetual Censor’,
which granted him absolute power over the senate, and any senator who opposed his policies
was assassinated.
Domitian was also publicly seen as a religious persecutor. He was very rigorous in exacting
taxes from the Jews, which were imposed by the emperor for allowing them to practice their
faith. Many Christians were also tracked down to pay the tax based on the belief among the
Romans that they were Jews pretending to be something else.
In AD 90, Domitian stepped up the policy introduced by his father to track down and execute
Jews claiming descent from their ancient King David. It was view as an attempt to avoid
political rebellion but during Domitian’s reign it took a religious turn, as even Romans who
sympathized with the Jews were assassinated for godlessness.
Despite the emphasis on imperial cult, no Roman leader had openly come out seeking
divine honor. Some of the Emperors had even discouraged over enthusiastic subjects from
offering them divine worship. Divine worship was founded on the Greek idea of deification of
the founders of the Greek city states. Alexander the great had combined this Greek practice
with the Persian practice of prostration accorded to the emperors of Persia, and the deification
of Pharaohs in Egypt. Julius had identified himself with Jupiter, who was one of the gods.
Augustus Caesar maintained that the emperors fully became gods after their death, but while on
earth they were attended by a divine spirit. Augustus identified with Romulus as the divine
founder of Rome.
In 96 A.D, Domitian demanded and insisted on being worshipped as a god. He was
referred to as master and god, and the official oath ‘by genius of the emperor’ was made
obligatory. Domitian started the widespread persecution recorded in the book of Revelation.
Those who refused to worship Him were either killed or given forced labour. Domitian
developed into a great tyrant, accusing members of the senate and even his family of treason. A
plot was hatched and Domitian killed in 96.

5:6 Emperor Trajan 98-117

Trajan did not like his cult being made a compulsory loyalty. In 112, Pliny the younger, who
was a governor in part of the empire asked for guidance on the procedure of dealing with
Christians. This led to the development of an official policy in 112.
Pliny was concerned because Christianity had expanded very fast due to Trajan’s policy of
toleration. Christianity was expanding in both rural and urban areas. Pagan temples had become
empty, while meat of the sacrificial animals was not saleable. This had a great effect on the
economy and other local interests. Trajan therefore encouraged a policy of sporadic but
persecution at the local level. The focus was on leaders of the Christian community than on the
congregation. People were targeted for confessing Christianity and also crimes associated with
being a Christian. They were mainly accused of obstinacy and unbending perversity. Most of
the people were encouraged to recant and to go ahead and sacrifice to the Roman gods.
Christians who did not possess Roman citizenship were executed, while those who possessed
citizenship were tried. Pliny published a public edict banning secret societies. However, Trajan
insisted that Christians were not to be sought out, and those who recanted and worshipped
Roman gods were to be freed. During this period, Ignatius of Antioch was brought to Rome to
be devoured by beasts.

5:7 Emperor Marcus Aurelius

Another major persecution was under Marcus Aurelius. He gave a renewed force to the law
against strange religions around 176 AD and initiated a sharper period of persecutions. Aurelius
belonged to the Stoic school, which believed in an immediate absorption of death into the
Divine essence. Marcus Aurelius therefore considered the Christian doctrine of immortality of
the soul with its moral consequences, as vicious and dangerous to the welfare of the state. A law
was therefore passed, punishing everyone with exile who should endeavor to influence people’s
mind by fear of the divinity, and this law was aimed at Christians.
Aurelius persecution was mainly concentrated at Lyons and Vienna in Gaul. In 177AD about
48 Christians were killed in Lyons. This persecution was mainly prompted through mob action.
The main charge was that Christians were guilty of Thyestean banquets and oedipal intercourse.
Thyestean banquets signify eating of babies and the charge arose because the Christians at the
sacrament of the Lord ‘ate flesh and drank blood’. The Oedipal intercourse referred to the
accusation over incest, a charge frequently brought against religious groups meeting in secret
like Christians who admitted on the baptized for the Lord’s Supper.

5:8 Summary:
The Church grew very fast within the first century of its existence. However, this led to
problems between Christians and different groups within the Empire. The emperors felt that
Christianity was a threat because the Christians refused to participate in the imperial cult. The
Greek philosophers hated the Jewish ideas of Christianity. The Christians were persecuted
under different emperors like Nero, Domitian, Trajan and Marcus Aurelius.