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Lecture EIGHT. Gender and Development.

The document discusses gender studies, emphasizing its role in examining how gender influences identity and social interactions, while providing tools for promoting equity. It outlines the construction of gender through socialization agents such as family, schools, workplaces, religious institutions, mass media, and peer groups, highlighting the importance of understanding gender roles and expectations. Additionally, it defines concepts like gender equality, equity, and empowerment, stressing the need for fairness and the elimination of stereotypes to achieve true equality.

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Mathias Marko
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
3 views88 pages

Lecture EIGHT. Gender and Development.

The document discusses gender studies, emphasizing its role in examining how gender influences identity and social interactions, while providing tools for promoting equity. It outlines the construction of gender through socialization agents such as family, schools, workplaces, religious institutions, mass media, and peer groups, highlighting the importance of understanding gender roles and expectations. Additionally, it defines concepts like gender equality, equity, and empowerment, stressing the need for fairness and the elimination of stereotypes to achieve true equality.

Uploaded by

Mathias Marko
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as DOCX, PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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Gender and Development

RODRIGES KIOWI

LECTURE EIGHT
INTRODUCTION: GENDER STUDIES
What is gender studies?
 The discipline of gender studies critically examines how gender
shapes our identities, our social interactions and our world.
 Gender studies allows students to develop a framework for
thinking about power relations connected to social constructions
of gender, race, class, sexuality, ability, age, and nationality
through multiple perspectives and theories.
 Gender Studies also provides students with the opportunity to
obtain practical tools for promotion of equity across social,
political, and economic spheres.
 Gender Studies is diverse in that it can be applied to several
other disciplines of study, like economics, finance, insurance,
social protection, literary theory, drama studies, film studies,
religious studies, performance theory, art history, anthropology,
sociology, psychology, and political science.
Concepts of Gender
Candice & Zimmerman (1970) – Define Gender as:
 An achieved social status; constructed through the process of
socialization which begins from the first day a child is born.
 The process of socialization shapes the individuals
psychologically by imparting cultural norms and values in line
with patriarchy principles to create differences of maleness
(masculinity) and femaleness (femininity).
 The created maleness and femaleness are thus oriented to
assume social roles, shape sexual preferences i.e. sexual feelings,
preferences and practices.
Concepts of
Gender refers to Gender......
the roles and responsibilities of men and
women that are created in our families, our societies and our
cultures.
 The concept of gender also includes the expectations
held about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely
behaviours of both women and men (femininity and
masculinity).
 Gender roles and expectations are learned.
 They can change over time and they vary within and
between cultures.
 Systems of social differentiation such as political status,
class, ethnicity, physical and mental disability, age and
more, modify gender roles.
 The concept of gender is vital because, applied to social
analysis, it reveals how women’s subordination (or men’s
Concepts of
domination) isGender......
socially constructed.
 As such, the subordination can be changed or ended.
 It is not biologically predetermined nor is it fixed
forever.
Concepts of
Gender......
Sex describes the biological differences between men and
women, which are universal and determined at birth.

Sex: A concept that ascribes the biological part of the individual:


The anatomy, hormones and physiology that cannot be changed.
GENDER VS SEX......
Concepts of
Gender Analysis Gender......
is the collection and analysis of sex-
disaggregated information.
 Men and women both perform different roles.
 This leads to women and men having different experience,
knowledge, talents and needs.
 Gender analysis explores these differences so policies,
programmes and projects can identify and meet the different
needs of men and women.
 Gender analysis also facilitates the strategic use of distinct
knowledge and skills possessed by women and men.
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS OF
SOCIALIZATION
• Crespi (2003) defines gender socialization as the learning of
behaviour and attitudes considered appropriate for a given sex.

• The gender socialization process occurs in multiple social


institutions including the family, religious and educational
institutions, mass media and peer networks (Sifuna et al, 2006;
Stromquist, 2007).

• In order to conform to the socially constructed gender labels,


individuals are compelled to feel obliged to fit into a pre-
determined stereotypical model of masculinity and femininity
(Chege & Sifuna, 2006).
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS OF
SOCIALIZATION
• The role of parents is very crucial in the learning process
(socialization) in the child’s early life.

• They are the first to socialize the child on gender roles based on
cultural patriarchal principles.
• The learning happens by way of many different agents of
socialization reinforcing gender roles and gender differences,
although the parents in the family environment play a unique
role.
• The agents of socialization include the family, the school,
peers/friends, the work place, the mass media, religious
institutions, recreational areas, the public, etc.
• The reinforcement of the gender roles is done both in countless
subtle and non subtle ways (Henslin, 1999)
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS OF
SOCIALIZATION…..
The Family: This is the most basic institution which plays an important
role as agent of socialization because it is the centre of the child’s
life.
Children are total dependents on Parents for every thing.
A socialization perspective highlights parents’ role as instructors,
reinforcers, and models of children's gender role attitudes
(Lytton & Romney, 1991). Specifically, parents directly
communicate their beliefs about gender by providing instruction,
guidance, and training to their children.
They also reinforce sex-typed behaviors by encouraging their
children's involvement in gender-stereotypical activities (Lytton
& Romney, 1991). For example, children learn that women and
men (should) act differently when they observe that mothers
spend more time on care-giving and fathers, on leisure activities
with their children.
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS OF

From this perspective, parents should pass their attitudes about


gender roles to their children, resulting in congruence between
parents' and children's gender role attitudes.
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS OF
SOCIALIZATION……
• According to Sociologists including Henslin (1999), parents socialize
gender roles in their children through four ways; These are:
– Shaping gender attributes through toys and activities
– Differing their interaction with children based on the sex of the
child
– Serving as primary gender models; dressing, division of Labour
ways of relating to spouse, norms of eating, ways of
communicating between spouses, etc
– Passing on/inculcating gender ideals and expectations into the
children
• Girls are taught kitchen work (cook, wash dishes, serve food etc)
• Girls are taught to care for children (feeding, cleaning and teaching
them norms of values of the family based on gender)
• Girls fetch water and firewood and are responsible for food
production with their mothers
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALISATION…..
• Embedded in the conceptualization of separate spheres, it was
assumed that, there are appropriate behaviors for women and men
• The religious literature likewise of the 19th century encouraged
home makers to be true women in the sense that, they were
supposed to guard their spheres and rightful place, the home with all
the virtues imbued in a wife and a mother such as piety, purity,
submissiveness and domesticity
• These virtues were supposed to be instilled into girls and
boys from their tender ages
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALISATION…..
.
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION….
The School
 In schools, gender socialization occurs through the school
curriculum and teacher-student interactions, which can either
perpetuate or challenge existing gender norms.
 There is also evidence of gender stereotyping in the school
curriculum, whereby women are portrayed as passive and
modest, while men are portrayed as assertive and ambitious
(Kabeer, 2001).
 In addition to their role as academic institutions, schools also
provide a social context in which children and adolescents
interact with their peers and form social networks.
• Is time for acquisition of language, fundamentals of culture,
personalities take shape
• In schools, formal education is offered.
• Learning content is structured and controlled by teachers
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION…..

• The professional knowers have norms and values which are based
on patriarchal principles
• Children in classroom are socialized basing on the patriarchal
norms and values.
• Boys and girls are treated differently in classroom situation to
make males children to believe they are better than female
children
• During outside activities girls and boys are given different activities
based on sex i.e. fetching water to water garden while boys dig
gardens
• Games are also differentiated for girls and boys (i.e. netball for
girls and boys for soccer, girls fetch water for school cleaning and
boys take other activities)
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALISATION…..
• Socially, boys and girls form different groups i.e. for lunch,
chatting and other related social activities.
• In other words, what was taught in the family at home
environment is enhanced at school
The Work Places
• At work places, workers are socialized to the organizational norms,
values and practices.
• The employee learn the knowledge and skills necessary which
enable them to work.
• New workers learn the organization’s history and cultural
procedures. It also helps them to know the work environment and
how it can affect their work abilities.
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION…..
• Further, workers learn about their group, the specific people they
will require to work with, their schedule of duties and the specific
skills required for their jobs.
• They learn how to interact among men to women; men to men
and women to women.
• They get aware of the patterns of dominance and submission in
discussion and the flow of ordinary talk so as to be conscious of
the existence of organization choice of appropriate work language
use.
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION…..
• Workers also learn the type of clothing and presentation of self in
their respective work place as per prescription based on gender.
• This process of socialization in an organization produces a
gendered individual identity.
• Gender is a constitutive element not only at family and kinship
levels but also at organization level.
• The gendered norms, values and practices taught at family and
school levels are replicated at workplaces to ensure dominance
and discipline
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION……
Religious Institutions
• The teachings from religious institutions have great impact on the
behaviour of individuals
• Religious teachings are like the teachings based on ethnic and
cultural norms and values which people get from tender age.
• This makes it impossible for individuals to break from religious
affiliation
• Socialization of the young from tender ages is likewise based on
parents and related adults’ religious affiliation
• Religious socialization is therefore based on patriarchal norms and
values which create gender differences
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION……
• For example, one of the religious teachings in Genesis 2:21 states
that, God created a woman from the man’s rib.
• Another teaching from religion is on what is taught for wedders in
1 Peter 3:1-7 wives to respect their husbands and Husbands to
treat well their wives with wisdom as their wives are not like them
• Also Efaso 5: 25 and 33: It says husbands should love their wives as
Jesus loved his church
• Wives to respect husbands
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION…..
The Mass Media
• The media plays a crucial role in the socialization process. It
delivers messages directed to the vast audience
• The main function of the media is to connect people delivering the
intended and designed messages to them
• The content of the messages is what matters as the messages have
enormous effects on the people’s attitudes
• Quoting McQuail D (2005), Says; the media teaches norms and
values …for different kinds of behaviour as presented in the
media; It is also a means of learning process whereby we learn
how to behave in certain situations
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION…..

• Women’s magazines reinforce the view that women need to


be slender and wear many cosmetics in order to be
considered beautiful.
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION…..
• As for adults’ prime-time television, more men than women
continue to fill more major roles in weekly shows, despite
notable women’s roles in shows such as The Good Wife and
Grey’s Anatomy.
• Women are also often portrayed as unintelligent or frivolous
individuals who are there more for their looks than for
anything else. Television commercials reinforce this image
(Yoder, Christopher, & Holmes, 2008).
• Women’s and men’s magazines reinforce these gender
images (Milillo, 2008). Most of the magazines intended for
teenaged girls and adult women are filled with pictures of
thin, beautiful models, advice on dieting, cosmetics ads, and
articles on how to win and please your man.
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
SOCIALIZATION……OF
Peer Group
Peer group socialization occurs among social group with common
social status, interest and age.
• This is common among the youth, but also among adults of same
interest like men drinking together, women having community or
economic activities together.
• It is theorized that, an individuals’ peer group rather than parents
influence more their personality and behaviour.
• They exchange views, opinion and influence one another.
• They learn experiences of one another including beliefs based on
their norms and values whose background is based on family,
school, religious and mass media socialization
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
SOCIALIZATION……OF
• Boys and males give each other strategies of how to
handle girls and their wives
• Girls and women exchange views and opinion on how to treat the
opposite sex partners etc
• They advice each other on how to behave as women, wives and
how to take care of their families based on the teachings of their
families, schools and religious beliefs
• Youth spend more time with their peers than parents and socialize
one another as they take comfort in discussing issues within their
peers instead of their parents.
• Youth peers play the role of enhancing gender differences through
nagging and nanying.
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
SOCIALIZATIONOF
• Henslin (1999) said, an important role of socialization is the
learning of culturally defined gender roles.
• Boys would learn to become boys and girls learn to be girls
through their behaviour, attitudes and duties considered
appropriate for their sex.
• Socialization at all stages of growth and through all its different
agents, patriarchy principles are instilled to bring gender
differences hence developing femaleness (femininity) and
maleness (masculinity) differences.
Concepts of Gender......
GENDER EQUALITY is where all human beings, both men and
women, are free to develop their personal abilities and make
choices without the limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender
roles, or prejudices.
 Gender equality means that the different behaviours,
aspirations and needs of women and men are considered,
valued and favoured equally.
 It does not mean that women and men have to become the
same, but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities
will not depend on whether they are born male or female.
GENDER EQUALITY
 The state or condition that affords women and men equal
enjoyment of human rights, socially valued goods,
opportunities, and resources.
SIDA, 1997
Concepts of Gender......
GENDER EQUITY
Process of being fair to women and men, including using measures
to compensate for historical and social disadvantages that prevent
men and women from operating on a level playing field. (CIDA,
1996).

GENDER EQUITY refers to fairness of treatment for women and


men, according to their respective needs.
 This may include equal treatment or treatment that is
different but considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits,
obligations and opportunities.
 In the development context, a gender equity goal often
requires built in measures to compensate for the historical and
social disadvantages of women.
 Hence, both gender equity and equality must be pursued in a
complementary manner where gender equality is the ultimate
goal. In other words, in order to achieve gender equality, it is
often necessary to pursue gender equity measures.
Concepts of Gender......

Empowerment is related to the word power.


In English, the concept leans on its original meaning of investment
with legal power— permission to act for some specific goal or
purpose (Rappaport, 1987).
The new meaning of the concept includes mainly references to
power that develops and is acquired.
People are managing to gain more control over their lives, either
by themselves or with the help of others.
The form to be empowered relates to what is both a process and
an outcome—to the effort to obtain a relative degree of ability to
influence the world (Staples, 1990).

Empowerment is about people -both women and men- taking control


over their lives: setting their own agendas, gaining skills, building self-
confidence, solving problems and developing self-reliance.
No one can empower another: only the individual can empower
herself or himself to make choices or to speak out.
 However, institutions including international cooperation
agencies can support processes that can nurture self-
empowerment of individuals or groups.
Concepts of
Gender......
Gender Division of Labour:
The way work is divided between men and women according to
their gender roles is usually referred to as the ‘gender division of
labour’.
This does not necessarily concern only paid employment, but more
generally the work, tasks and responsibilities that are assigned to
women and men in their daily lives, and which may, on their turn,
also determine certain patterns in the labour market.

 It is often argued that the gender division of labour is a result of


biological traits; however, if we notice that in some societies women
perform tasks and jobs that in some other societies are traditionally
considered as men’s jobs, and vice versa, we see the division of labour
has much to do with what each society perceives as appropriate for
both sexes.
 In most countries, house chores – like cleaning, cooking, washing
clothes – and everything that relates to sustaining the household – like
fetching water of fuel, small scale agriculture for self-sustainment – are
typically women’s or girls’ tasks, even when they have a paid job
outside the home. On the other hand, more technical house tasks, like
Concepts of
dealing with electricalGender......
or mechanic equipment, is traditionally a man’s
job.
Concepts of
Gender......
Gender Roles: The concept of ‘gender roles,’ refers to the activities
ascribed to women and men on the basis of their perceived
differences. Gender roles are socially determined, change over time
and space and are influenced by social, cultural and environmental
factors characterizing a certain society, community or historical
period.
Gender roles aim at setting boundaries between what is perceived as
appropriate for women and for men in the society with regards both
to the public and private domains. Such roles are accepted as ‘natural’
and internalized by girls and boys from a very early age, through the
gender models they learn through their social environment. In most
societies, individuals are strongly pressured to abide by such models,
not only directly by the family or the community, but also indirectly by
the role models underlying the social fabric – the labour market, public
policy, the taxation system etc., which often act as deterrents to social
change.
Concepts of
Gender......
Gender Roles…..
Both women and men perform multiple roles in their lives, in the
productive domain – which includes activities related to the
production of goods for consumption or trade and income
generating activities – and in the reproductive domain – which
includes tasks and activities relating to the creation and
sustaining of the family and the household.
Gender Roles

35
Gender Roles
Gender Roles
Concepts of
Gender......
A gender stereotype is a generalised view or preconception
about attributes, or characteristics that are or ought to be
possessed by women and men or the roles that are or should be
performed by men and women. Gender stereotypes can be both
positive and negative for example, “women are nurturing” or
“women are weak”. Harmful stereotypes can be both
hostile/negative (e.g., women are irrational) or seemingly benign
(e.g., women are nurturing). For example, the fact that child care
responsibilities often fall exclusively on women is based on the
latter stereotype.
Concepts of
Gender......
Gender stereotyping is the practice of ascribing to an individual
woman or man specific attributes, characteristics, or roles by
reason only of her or his membership in the social group of
women or men. Example of wrongful gender stereotyping are
the failure to criminalize marital rape based on societal
perception of women as the sexual property of men, and the
failure to effectively investigate, prosecute and sentence sexual
violence against women based on, e.g., the stereotype that
women should protect themselves from sexual violence by
dressing and behaving modestly.
Concepts of Gender......
PATRIARCHY is commonly described as „a system of social
structures and practices, in which men govern, oppress and
exploit women”.

Patriarchy is the manifestation and institutionalization of male


dominance against women and children in families and the
extension of this dominance against women in society.

Patriarchal sites where men have the power include all relevant
institutions of society (legal, economic, religious, family, culture,
etc). Patriarchy institutionalizes male privileges in these same
major institutions and is based on the control of women’s
productive and reproductive abilities.
Concepts of
Gender......
Gender Relations (Bravo – Baumann, 2000) Are the ways in which a
culture or society defines rights, responsibilities, and the identities of
men and women in relation to one another

Gender relations refer to relations between men and women that are
socially determined by culture, religion, or socially acceptable ways of
thinking or being. These relationships between men and women, as
they exist in most societies, are characterised by the marginalisation of
women in decision making and other forms of power sharing in the
home and places of authority. The economic exploitation of women
and extensive violence to the person and psyche of women the
problem of unequal gender relations is both personal and systemic.
This is giving rise to gender-based violence, death, poverty of families,
neglect of children and a variety of societal dysfunctions In the interest
of justice, empowerment and the development of families and
communities, these relations need to be analysed and new solutions
found for their transformation. The problem will need to be analysed
both from its personal and systemic roots.
Concepts of
Gender......
Gender-based violence is defined as violence that is directed
against a person on the basis of their gender or sex, including
acts that inflict physical, mental or sexual harm or suffering,
threats of such acts, coercion and other deprivations of liberty. It
includes physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated
or condoned within the family, the general community or by the
State and its institutions. Such violence can take many different
forms:
 Sexual violence: Includes actual, attempted or
threatened (vaginal, anal or oral) rape, including marital
rape; sexual abuse and exploitation; forced prostitution;
transactional/survival sex; and sexual harassment,
intimidation and humiliation.
Concepts of
Gender......
 Physical violence: Includes actual, attempted or
threatened physical assault or battery; slavery and slave-
like practices; and trafficking.

 Emotional and psychological violence: Includes abuse and


humiliation, such as insults; cruel and degrading
treatment; compelling a person to engage in humiliating
acts; and placing restrictions on liberty and freedom of
movement.
Concepts of
Gender......
 Harmful traditional practices: Include female genital
mutilation/cutting (FGM/C); forced marriage; child marriage;
honour or dowry killings or maiming; infanticide, sex-selective
abortion practices; sex-selective neglect and abuse; and
denial of education and economic opportunities for women
and girls.

 Socio-economic violence: Includes discrimination and


denial of opportunities or services on the basis of sex,
gender, or sexual orientation; social exclusion; obstructive
legal practices, such as denial of the exercise and
enjoyment of civil, social, economic, cultural and political
rights, mainly to women and girls.
Concepts of Gender......
Women in Development (WID) The WID approach aims to integrate women into
the existing development process by targeting them, often in women-specific
activities. Women are usually passive recipients in WID projects, which often
emphasize making women more efficient producers and increasing their income.

WID is an approach that calls for greater attention to women in development


policy and practice, and emphasizes the need to integrate them into the
development process.

The WID approach originated in the 1970s. According to Tinker (1997), two
different conglomerations of women gave rise to the impetus for integrating
women in development programmes. These included, the UN Commission on
the Status of Women and the US women’s movement. While the Commission
sought equality before law and pressed for greater access to education for
women, the US women activists pressed for right to equal employment which
was seen as the best way to achieve equal status for women as the society gave
ultimate importance to income and employment status. Both groups, however,
sought policy change in the US. These two groups came together during the UN
decade for Women and advocated for women in development.
Concepts of
Gender......
Gender and Development (GAD) The GAD approach focuses on
intervening to address unequal gender relations which prevent
inequitable development and which often lock women out of full
participation. GAD seeks to have both women and men
participate, make decisions and share benefits. This approach
often aims at meeting practical needs as well as promoting
strategic interests. A successful GAD approach requires
sustained long-term commitment.
Concepts of
Gender......
GENDER MAINSTREAMING is a strategy for making the concerns and
experiences of women as well as of men an integral part of the design,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and
programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that
women and men benefit equally. The ultimate goal of mainstreaming
is to achieve gender equality.

United Nations Economic and Social Council (UN ECOSOC) describes


gender mainstreaming as “the process of assessing the implications
for women and men of any planned action, including legislation,
policies or programmes, in all areas and at all levels. It is a strategy for
making women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences an
integral dimension of the design, implementation, monitoring and
evaluation of policies and programmes in all political, economic and
societal spheres so that women and men benefit equally and
inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender
equality”. (ECOSOC Agreed Conclusions 1997/2)
GENDER MAINSTREAMING BY THE GOVERNMENT OF
TANZANIA…….
The government has taken certain efforts in main streaming gender
development policies programmes and strategies through the following;
Tanzania is a signatory to various international human rights
instruments bind it normally and legally to adhere to equality policies
e.g. convention by the elimination of all forms of discrimination against
women (CEDAW).
Regional and sub regional instruments e.g. SADC declarations on
Gender and Development. African charter on human rights of 1989
Women’s rights are protected on harmful practices.
The Vision 2025 forum is to attain human development. It is
operationalized through PRSP I and II (MKUKUTA) that has addressed
Gender.
Equity principle is enshrined in the constitution (Bill) of rights and
women discrimination.
Government has adopted budgeting initiatives.
There are collaborative efforts between Civil Society Organization
(CSO), actors and individual’s government sectors e.g. campaign
promoting women and girls.
GENDER MAINSTREAMING BY THE GOVERNMENT OF
TANZANIA…….
1. Tanzania is a signatory to various international human
rights instruments which bind it morally, and legally to
adhere to equity policies and non discriminatory
policies in the development process.

The Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of


Discrimination against Women (CEDAW), Convention
on the Rights of Child (CRC); Beijing Platform of Action
etc and Regional and Sub Regional instruments: SADC
Declaration on Gender and Development,African
Charter of Human and Peoples Rights of 1981
(ACHPR); Women’s right Protocol on Harmful
Practices.
GENDER MAINSTREAMING BY THE GOVERNMENT OF
TANZANIA…….
GOT has ratified ILO Declaration on the
Fundamental Principles and Human Rights at work.
These instruments bind the government morally
and legally to pursue non- discriminatory policies
and development programmes and processes. In
this case, there are tools developed by GoT and ILO
for gender mainstreaming by government
employers.

2. The vision (2025) Focus is to attain human


development and achieve a fully developed
economy. The vision has been operationalised
through PRSP I and II (MKUKUTA), that has
addressed gender in the key outcomes areas and
targets.
GENDER MAINSTREAMING BY THE GOVERNMENT
OF
TANZANIA…….
3. Equality Principles are enshrined in the Tanzanian
Constitution through incorporating the bill of rights and
bans discriminations on all grounds including those
based on sex. The constitutional also provides for
affirmative action to redress gender gaps/ imbalances
in decision making.

4. The Government revised the Women Development


Policy 1992 to a Gender Policy in 2000 mandated the
Ministry of Community Development Gender and
Children (MCDGC) for overall national coordination of
gender issues in the country, including development of
Strategic Plan on Gender by the MCDGC (2006).
GENDER MAINSTREAMING BY THE GOVERNMENT
OF
TANZANIA…….
5. The GOT has provided for legal framework including
domesticating CEDAW and passing 3 laws that
promotes women’s rights: Sexual Offences (Special
Provision) Act (SOSPA, 1998); Land and Village acts
(1999).

6. Government (through MCDGC) is facilitating


number of gender institutionalization process in
various Sectors for example, establishment of
gender focal points, capacity building and training
on gender; gender budgeting initiatives has been
adopted and is institutionalized in selected sectors.
Key areas of inequality between women and men
Inequalities between men and women manifest themselves in all
areas of development. Inequalities are obvious in:
 Human development – a long and health life, access to
knowledge and
decent standard of living
 Economic development
 Gender based violence (or Violence against women)
 Participation in public life and policymaking
 Social attitudes and gender stereotyping
LINK GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT
 Gender and development is important because it focuses on
connections between gender and development initiatives and feminists’
perspectives, and deals with issues such as health and education,
decision making and leadership, peace building, violence against women
and economic empowerment. Development cannot be realized without
the very significant component of gender. Countries the world over have
proved that exclusion of women in development has rendered their
development efforts futile.

 Compared with men, women control fewer political and economic


resources, including land, employment and traditional positions of
authority. The World Development Report (WDR) 2012 highlights the
importance of directly targeting the persistent constraints and obstacles
to women’s equality (especially in areas of economic empowerment,
educational gaps, household/societal voice, and violence against women)
in order to enhance productivity and improve longer-term development
outcomes.
LINK GENDER AND DEVELOPMENT…….
 Gender enables enhanced social and economic impact of
development
 Gender increases possibilities for successful action in development
interventions
 Gender allows for a more efficient use of resources in development
 Gender enables development practitioners to determine the
behavior and actions of men and women in a development
interventions
 Gender helps to understand the relationship between men and
women in development in terms of power relations, decision making,
control of resources and income in households
 Gender allows for prioritization of development initiatives
 Social and institutional change
 Policy linkages
Why women’s empowerment is so important?
In some societies, women are still discriminated on their gender.
They are not given the same right as men. Women are still paid
less, expected to cook, clean etc. Women are still strict by their
culture and family. As women can’t go out at night or with the
guys. In some societies, women are determined by their parents
or husband. They still not allowed women to work or study far
away from their home because they believed that women are
weaker than men and some husbands get jealously. In
additionally, some women in these societies married in young age
and some also forced to married by their parents. Women’s
empowerment is really needed in the societies. It’s so important
for women self- esteem and also for societies.
Why women’s empowerment is so important?.....
Empowering women is to give women the right. Women can have
equal right to participate in education, society, economy and politically.
Women can involve in society as they are glad to choose their religious,
language, work and other activities. Women are allowed higher
education as men. They can go with the high-level of education, finish
their classes, learn the skill and study whatever they want. Women also
can join the politically as they have right to vote and do some activities
in political.
Women’s empowerment is a part to encourage women to feel strong
by telling them that they can do everything that they want to do.
Women can work outside their home, have opportunity to make up
their mind. Women are not depended on men. They can earn money to
support their family by working through their abilities. As some women
are not confident to work in a hard condition or a high position because
they still determine that it’s not women’s job.
Why women’s empowerment is so important?.....
Empowerment helps to reduce in domestic violence due people
promote and give the value to women. Women are not abused by
any factors such as sexual abuse, emotion abuse and physical
abuse.

These day women are achieving high-level job just as man do.
Some women are promoted to become a president, leader, chief
of commune and other high-level positions. And there are many
women now are participating in society, politically, education and
economically.
Facts and figures –Economic Empowerment
Benefits of economic empowerment:
•When more women work, economies grow: If women’s paid employment
rates were raised to the same level as men’s, the USA gross domestic product
would be approximately 9 % higher, the Euro zone’s would climb by 13 %, and
Japan’s would be boosted by 16 %. In 15 major developing economies, per
capita income would rise by 14 % by 2020, and by 20 % by 2030.
•Evidence from a range of countries shows that increasing the share of
household income controlled by women, either through their own earnings or
cash transfers, changes spending in ways that benefit children.
Women in the world of work:
In the majority of countries, women’s wages represent between 70 % and 90 %
of men’s, with even lower ratios in some Asian and Latin American countries.
If women had the same access as men to productive assets, agricultural output
in 34 developing countries would rise by an estimated average of up to 4 %.
This could reduce the number of undernourished people in those countries by
17 %, translating to up to 150 million fewer hungry people.
Source: "In Brief: Economic Empowerment of Women", UN Women
publications, 2013
Strategic Development Goals (SDGs), Gender Equality and
Women Empowerment
SDG 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and
girls
SDG 5 includes the following targets:
5.1 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls
everywhere;
5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the
public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other
types of exploitation;
5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced
marriage and female genital mutilation;
5.4 Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the
provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies
and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and
the family as nationally appropriate;
5.5 Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal
opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political,
economic and public life;
Strategic Development Goals (SDGs), Gender Equality
and Women Empowerment…….
5.6 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and
reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of
Action of the International
Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform
for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences;
5.a Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic
resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and
other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural
resources, in accordance with national laws;
5.b Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information
and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of
women;
5.c Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation
for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all
women and girls at all levels.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's empowerment
To tackle the discussed areas of inequality, the Department for
International Development (DFID) of the UK government has
outlined 10 objectives for women’s empowerment and a plan of
action to achieve each objective.

The DFID strategy reflects a donor's perspective, but it could be


used as a starting point for preparing a strategy at a national,
regional, local or CSO (civil society organisation) level, with
priorities based on regional and local situations.

Therefore, Tanzanians and the rest of developing countries can


adopt the same strategies in their countries.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's empowerment….
Objective 1: Advocacy to protect gender equality through
international and national policy reform
Action steps:
 Develop and implement equal opportunity policies.
 Develop new tools for better analysis and statistics of
national and international policymaking.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for women's
empowerment….
Objective 2: Greater access to assets and economic opportunities
for women
Action steps:
Improved access to financial institutions for women.
Improved access to water, energy, sanitation, transport.
Reform of land and inheritance laws.
Adherence to core labour standards.
Development of family-friendly
practices.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
empowerment….
Objective 3: More equality for women in human development
areas such as education and healthcare

Action steps:
 Remove gender barriers to education.
 Policies/programmes to bring down maternal mortality
and increase access to reproductive services.
 Improve the national statistics system to provide
sex- disaggregated data across all key social
indicators.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
empowerment….
Objective 4: More participation of women in decision-making and
leadership roles

Action steps:
 Capacity-building and other support to women’s organisations.
 Electoral and other reforms to increase women’s participation
in
public life.
 Public awareness campaigns to challenge gender stereotypes.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
Objective 5: Increaseempowerment….
women’s personal security and reduce
violence against women

Action steps:
 Reform and strengthen criminal and civil law.
 Raise awareness of women’s rights among the police
and judiciary.
 Public information campaigns.
 Support to women’s organisations.
 Improved knowledge and statistics.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
empowerment….
Objective 6: Advocacy to promote women’s participation in
government and civil society

Action steps:
 Civil service and public spending reforms to establish and
support appropriate government structures.
 Strengthening the role of civil society organizations in
advancing gender equality.
 Public awareness campaigns.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
empowerment….
Objective 7: Promote equality of women under the law

Action steps:
 Reform and strengthen criminal and civil law.
 Support to legal literacy programmes.
 Training and capacity-building for the police, judiciary and
civil society organisations.
 Public information campaigns.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
empowerment….
Objective 8: Reduce gender stereotyping and bring about changes
in social attitudes towards women

Action steps:
 Support to media projects and campaigns, including gender
training for journalists and programme-makers.
 Support to women’s organisations.
 Create awareness among policymakers and political leaders.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
empowerment….
Objective 9: Gender-aware approaches to management of the
environment

Action steps:
 Gender-aware planning and women’s participation in the
development of strategies for sustainable development.
 Strengthen tenure and common property rights in line
with gender equity.
 Ensure that local planning and access to natural resources
are gender-aware.
 Improved data and research.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
empowerment….
Objective 10: Uphold the rights of boys and girls in the Convention
on the Rights of the Child

Action steps:
 Implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
 Improved data, research and statistics.
 Support programmes to eliminate the worst forms of
child labour.
Indicators for measuring progress
One way of measuring progress in meeting the above goals is
using the International Development Targets set by the United
Nations to reduce poverty. Within each target there are indicators
that measure whether the targets have been met. Indicators that
can be used are:

 Child malnutrition; prevalence of underweight children in the 0-5 age-group


(by sex).
 Net enrolment in primary education (by sex); completion of education up to
Std 4 (by sex); literacy rate of 15-24-year-olds (by sex).
 Ratio of girls to boys in primary and secondary education; ratio of
literate females to males among 15-24-year-olds.
 Infant mortality rate by sex; under-5 mortality rate (by sex).
 Maternal mortality ratio; births attended by skilled health professionals.
 Contraceptive prevalence rate and HIV prevalence in 15-24-year-old pregnant
women.
Indicators for measuring
progress……
 In 2015, approximately 2,100,000 babies were born in United Republic of
Tanzania, or around 5,700 every day. (UN, 2015).

 Among young women (aged 20-24), 28 percent gave birth by age 18. (URT,
2016).

 Approximately 106 babies will die each day before reaching their first month;
129 stillbirths occur every day.

 Newborns with less educated mothers are more likely to die during the first
month of life, compared to those born to mothers with higher education.
Indicators for measuring
progress……
Tanzania - Mortality rate
Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births)
The value for Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births) in Tanzania was
53.00 as of 2018. Over the past 58 years this indicator reached a maximum
value of 243.00 in 1960 and a minimum value of 53.00 in 2018.

Definition: Under-five mortality rate is the probability per 1,000 that a


newborn baby will die before reaching age five, if subject to age-specific
mortality rates of the specified year.

Source: Estimates Developed by the UN Inter-agency Group for Child


Mortality Estimation (UNICEF, WHO, World Bank, UN DESA Population
Division) at www.childmortality.org.

 In 2015, more than 2.7 million Tanzanian children under 5 years of age were
estimated to be stunted and more than 600,000 were suffering from acute
malnutrition, of which 100,000 were severe cases.
Indicators for measuring
progress……
Tanzania Maternal mortality rate

Maternal mortality rate:


524 deaths/100,000 live births (2017 est.)

Definition of Maternal mortality rate: The maternal mortality ratio (MMRatio)


is the annual number of female deaths per 100,000 live births from any cause
related to or aggravated by pregnancy or its management (excluding accidental
or incidental causes). The MMRatio includes deaths during pregnancy,
childbirth, or within 42 days of termination of pregnancy, irrespective of the
duration and site of the pregnancy, for a specified year.

Source: CIA World Factbook


Indicators for measuring
progress……
Tanzania - Contraceptive Prevalence (% Of Women Ages 15-49)

 Contraceptive prevalence (% of women ages 15-49) in Tanzania


was reported at 38.4 % in 2016, according to the World Bank
collection of development indicators, compiled from officially
recognized sources.

 Definition
Contraceptive prevalence rate is the percentage of women who
are practicing, or whose sexual partners are practicing, any form
of contraception. It is usually measured for married women ages
15- 49 only.
Indicators for measuring progress……
Tanzania - Births Attended By Skilled Health Staff (% Of Total)
 Births attended by skilled health staff (% of total) in Tanzania was
reported at 63.7 % in 2016, according to the World Bank collection
of development indicators, compiled from officially recognized
sources.

 Births attended by skilled health staff of United Republic of


Tanzania increased from 38.2 % in 1996 to 63.7 % in 2016 growing
at an average annual rate of 9.49%.

Definition
 Births attended by skilled health staff are the percentage of
deliveries attended by personnel trained to give the necessary
supervision, care, and advice to women during pregnancy, labor,
and the postpartum period; to conduct deliveries on their own; and
to care for newborns.
Indicators for measuring
Net enrolment in preprogress……
and primary education
Elimu ya Awali

Mwaka 2017, wanafunzi 1,517,670 waliandikishwa katika elimu


ya awali ikilinganishwa na wanafunzi 1,562,770 walioandikishwa
mwaka 2016, sawa na upungufu wa asilimia 2.9. Kati ya hao,
wasichana walikuwa 751,774, sawa na asilimia 49.5 ya
wanafunzi wote na wavulana walikuwa 765,896. Wanafunzi
katika shule za Serikali walikuwa 1,436,322 mwaka 2017
ikilinganishwa na wanafunzi 1,488,439 mwaka 2016, sawa na
upungufu wa asilimia 3.5. Kati ya hao, wasichana walikuwa
712,022 na wavulana walikuwa 724,300.

Uwiano wa mwalimu mwenye sifa kwa wanafunzi katika shule za


awali za Serikali ulikuwa 1:183 mwaka 2017 ikilinganishwa na
1:169 mwaka 2016 wakati kiwango halisi cha uwiano
unaokubalika ni 1:25.
Indicators for measuring
progress……
Source: NBS Tanzania (2018), Hali ya Uchumi wa Taifa katika
mwaka 2017.
Indicators for measuring
progress……
Net enrolment
Elimu in pre and primary education…..
ya Msingi
Mwaka 2017, idadi ya wanafunzi katika elimu ya msingi
iliongezeka kwa asilimia 7.9 kufikia wanafunzi 9,317,791
kutoka wanafunzi 8,639,202 mwaka 2016. Kati ya hao,
wavulana walikuwa 4,629,215 na wasichana walikuwa
4,688,576, sawa na asilimia 50.3 ya wanafunzi wote. Aidha,
idadi ya wanafunzi katika shule za Serikali iliongezeka kutoka
wanafunzi 8,342,284 mwaka 2016 hadi wanafunzi 8,969,110
mwaka 2017, sawa na ongezeko la asilimia 7.5. Katika
ongezeko hilo, wasichana walikuwa 337,575 na wavulana
289,251.

Mwaka 2017, wanafunzi waliofanya mtihani wa kumaliza elimu


ya msingi walikua 909,950 ikilinganishwa na wanafunzi
789,479 mwaka 2016, sawa na ongezeko la asilimia 15.3. Kati
ya hao, wasichana walikuwa 480,784, sawa na asilimia 52.8 na
wavulana walikuwa 429,166. Kiwango cha ufaulu kiliongezeka
kutoka asilimia 70.4 mwaka 2016 hadi kufikia asilimia 72.8
Indicators for measuring
progress……
Net enrolment
mwaka 2017.in pre and primary education…..
Source: NBS Tanzania (2018), Hali ya Uchumi wa Taifa katika
mwaka
2017.
Indicators for measuring
progress……
Net enrolment
Elimu in pre and primary education…..
ya Sekondari
Mwaka 2017, kulikuwa na shule za sekondari 4,796
ikilinganishwa na shule 4,773 mwaka 2016. Shule za Serikali
zilikuwa 3,604 na shule za watu binafsi zilikuwa 1,1 92. Aidha,
mwaka 2017, kulikuwa na wanafunzi 1,908,857 wa kidato cha
kwanza hadi cha sita katika shule za Sekondari ikilinganishwa
na wanafunzi 1,806,955 mwaka 2016, sawa na ongezeko la
asilimia 5.6.
Mwaka 2017, watahiniwa 374,950 walifanya mtihani wa kidato
cha nne ambapo watahiniwa 287,713 walifaulu kwa kiwango
cha ufaulu cha asilimia 76.7 ikilinganishwa na kiwango cha
ufaulu cha asilimia 69.8 mwaka 2016.

Aidha, jumla ya watahiniwa 62,233 walifanya mtihani wa kidato


cha sita ambapo wanafunzi 58,556, sawa na asilimia 94.1
walifaulu ikilinganishwa na watahiniwa 64,861 waliofanya
mtihani mwaka 2016 ambapo wanafunzi 63,499 walifaulu,
sawa na ufaulu wa asilimia 97.9.
Indicators for measuring
progress……
Net enrolment
Source: in pre and primary
NBS Tanzania (2018),education…..
Hali ya Uchumi wa Taifa katika
mwaka 2017.

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