Lecture EIGHT. Gender and Development.
Lecture EIGHT. Gender and Development.
RODRIGES KIOWI
LECTURE EIGHT
INTRODUCTION: GENDER STUDIES
What is gender studies?
The discipline of gender studies critically examines how gender
shapes our identities, our social interactions and our world.
Gender studies allows students to develop a framework for
thinking about power relations connected to social constructions
of gender, race, class, sexuality, ability, age, and nationality
through multiple perspectives and theories.
Gender Studies also provides students with the opportunity to
obtain practical tools for promotion of equity across social,
political, and economic spheres.
Gender Studies is diverse in that it can be applied to several
other disciplines of study, like economics, finance, insurance,
social protection, literary theory, drama studies, film studies,
religious studies, performance theory, art history, anthropology,
sociology, psychology, and political science.
Concepts of Gender
Candice & Zimmerman (1970) – Define Gender as:
An achieved social status; constructed through the process of
socialization which begins from the first day a child is born.
The process of socialization shapes the individuals
psychologically by imparting cultural norms and values in line
with patriarchy principles to create differences of maleness
(masculinity) and femaleness (femininity).
The created maleness and femaleness are thus oriented to
assume social roles, shape sexual preferences i.e. sexual feelings,
preferences and practices.
Concepts of
Gender refers to Gender......
the roles and responsibilities of men and
women that are created in our families, our societies and our
cultures.
The concept of gender also includes the expectations
held about the characteristics, aptitudes and likely
behaviours of both women and men (femininity and
masculinity).
Gender roles and expectations are learned.
They can change over time and they vary within and
between cultures.
Systems of social differentiation such as political status,
class, ethnicity, physical and mental disability, age and
more, modify gender roles.
The concept of gender is vital because, applied to social
analysis, it reveals how women’s subordination (or men’s
Concepts of
domination) isGender......
socially constructed.
As such, the subordination can be changed or ended.
It is not biologically predetermined nor is it fixed
forever.
Concepts of
Gender......
Sex describes the biological differences between men and
women, which are universal and determined at birth.
• They are the first to socialize the child on gender roles based on
cultural patriarchal principles.
• The learning happens by way of many different agents of
socialization reinforcing gender roles and gender differences,
although the parents in the family environment play a unique
role.
• The agents of socialization include the family, the school,
peers/friends, the work place, the mass media, religious
institutions, recreational areas, the public, etc.
• The reinforcement of the gender roles is done both in countless
subtle and non subtle ways (Henslin, 1999)
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS OF
SOCIALIZATION…..
The Family: This is the most basic institution which plays an important
role as agent of socialization because it is the centre of the child’s
life.
Children are total dependents on Parents for every thing.
A socialization perspective highlights parents’ role as instructors,
reinforcers, and models of children's gender role attitudes
(Lytton & Romney, 1991). Specifically, parents directly
communicate their beliefs about gender by providing instruction,
guidance, and training to their children.
They also reinforce sex-typed behaviors by encouraging their
children's involvement in gender-stereotypical activities (Lytton
& Romney, 1991). For example, children learn that women and
men (should) act differently when they observe that mothers
spend more time on care-giving and fathers, on leisure activities
with their children.
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS OF
• The professional knowers have norms and values which are based
on patriarchal principles
• Children in classroom are socialized basing on the patriarchal
norms and values.
• Boys and girls are treated differently in classroom situation to
make males children to believe they are better than female
children
• During outside activities girls and boys are given different activities
based on sex i.e. fetching water to water garden while boys dig
gardens
• Games are also differentiated for girls and boys (i.e. netball for
girls and boys for soccer, girls fetch water for school cleaning and
boys take other activities)
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALISATION…..
• Socially, boys and girls form different groups i.e. for lunch,
chatting and other related social activities.
• In other words, what was taught in the family at home
environment is enhanced at school
The Work Places
• At work places, workers are socialized to the organizational norms,
values and practices.
• The employee learn the knowledge and skills necessary which
enable them to work.
• New workers learn the organization’s history and cultural
procedures. It also helps them to know the work environment and
how it can affect their work abilities.
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION…..
• Further, workers learn about their group, the specific people they
will require to work with, their schedule of duties and the specific
skills required for their jobs.
• They learn how to interact among men to women; men to men
and women to women.
• They get aware of the patterns of dominance and submission in
discussion and the flow of ordinary talk so as to be conscious of
the existence of organization choice of appropriate work language
use.
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION…..
• Workers also learn the type of clothing and presentation of self in
their respective work place as per prescription based on gender.
• This process of socialization in an organization produces a
gendered individual identity.
• Gender is a constitutive element not only at family and kinship
levels but also at organization level.
• The gendered norms, values and practices taught at family and
school levels are replicated at workplaces to ensure dominance
and discipline
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION……
Religious Institutions
• The teachings from religious institutions have great impact on the
behaviour of individuals
• Religious teachings are like the teachings based on ethnic and
cultural norms and values which people get from tender age.
• This makes it impossible for individuals to break from religious
affiliation
• Socialization of the young from tender ages is likewise based on
parents and related adults’ religious affiliation
• Religious socialization is therefore based on patriarchal norms and
values which create gender differences
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION……
• For example, one of the religious teachings in Genesis 2:21 states
that, God created a woman from the man’s rib.
• Another teaching from religion is on what is taught for wedders in
1 Peter 3:1-7 wives to respect their husbands and Husbands to
treat well their wives with wisdom as their wives are not like them
• Also Efaso 5: 25 and 33: It says husbands should love their wives as
Jesus loved his church
• Wives to respect husbands
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION…..
The Mass Media
• The media plays a crucial role in the socialization process. It
delivers messages directed to the vast audience
• The main function of the media is to connect people delivering the
intended and designed messages to them
• The content of the messages is what matters as the messages have
enormous effects on the people’s attitudes
• Quoting McQuail D (2005), Says; the media teaches norms and
values …for different kinds of behaviour as presented in the
media; It is also a means of learning process whereby we learn
how to behave in certain situations
CONSTRUCTION OF GENDER BY AGENTS
OF
SOCIALIZATION…..
35
Gender Roles
Gender Roles
Concepts of
Gender......
A gender stereotype is a generalised view or preconception
about attributes, or characteristics that are or ought to be
possessed by women and men or the roles that are or should be
performed by men and women. Gender stereotypes can be both
positive and negative for example, “women are nurturing” or
“women are weak”. Harmful stereotypes can be both
hostile/negative (e.g., women are irrational) or seemingly benign
(e.g., women are nurturing). For example, the fact that child care
responsibilities often fall exclusively on women is based on the
latter stereotype.
Concepts of
Gender......
Gender stereotyping is the practice of ascribing to an individual
woman or man specific attributes, characteristics, or roles by
reason only of her or his membership in the social group of
women or men. Example of wrongful gender stereotyping are
the failure to criminalize marital rape based on societal
perception of women as the sexual property of men, and the
failure to effectively investigate, prosecute and sentence sexual
violence against women based on, e.g., the stereotype that
women should protect themselves from sexual violence by
dressing and behaving modestly.
Concepts of Gender......
PATRIARCHY is commonly described as „a system of social
structures and practices, in which men govern, oppress and
exploit women”.
Patriarchal sites where men have the power include all relevant
institutions of society (legal, economic, religious, family, culture,
etc). Patriarchy institutionalizes male privileges in these same
major institutions and is based on the control of women’s
productive and reproductive abilities.
Concepts of
Gender......
Gender Relations (Bravo – Baumann, 2000) Are the ways in which a
culture or society defines rights, responsibilities, and the identities of
men and women in relation to one another
Gender relations refer to relations between men and women that are
socially determined by culture, religion, or socially acceptable ways of
thinking or being. These relationships between men and women, as
they exist in most societies, are characterised by the marginalisation of
women in decision making and other forms of power sharing in the
home and places of authority. The economic exploitation of women
and extensive violence to the person and psyche of women the
problem of unequal gender relations is both personal and systemic.
This is giving rise to gender-based violence, death, poverty of families,
neglect of children and a variety of societal dysfunctions In the interest
of justice, empowerment and the development of families and
communities, these relations need to be analysed and new solutions
found for their transformation. The problem will need to be analysed
both from its personal and systemic roots.
Concepts of
Gender......
Gender-based violence is defined as violence that is directed
against a person on the basis of their gender or sex, including
acts that inflict physical, mental or sexual harm or suffering,
threats of such acts, coercion and other deprivations of liberty. It
includes physical, sexual and psychological violence perpetrated
or condoned within the family, the general community or by the
State and its institutions. Such violence can take many different
forms:
Sexual violence: Includes actual, attempted or
threatened (vaginal, anal or oral) rape, including marital
rape; sexual abuse and exploitation; forced prostitution;
transactional/survival sex; and sexual harassment,
intimidation and humiliation.
Concepts of
Gender......
Physical violence: Includes actual, attempted or
threatened physical assault or battery; slavery and slave-
like practices; and trafficking.
The WID approach originated in the 1970s. According to Tinker (1997), two
different conglomerations of women gave rise to the impetus for integrating
women in development programmes. These included, the UN Commission on
the Status of Women and the US women’s movement. While the Commission
sought equality before law and pressed for greater access to education for
women, the US women activists pressed for right to equal employment which
was seen as the best way to achieve equal status for women as the society gave
ultimate importance to income and employment status. Both groups, however,
sought policy change in the US. These two groups came together during the UN
decade for Women and advocated for women in development.
Concepts of
Gender......
Gender and Development (GAD) The GAD approach focuses on
intervening to address unequal gender relations which prevent
inequitable development and which often lock women out of full
participation. GAD seeks to have both women and men
participate, make decisions and share benefits. This approach
often aims at meeting practical needs as well as promoting
strategic interests. A successful GAD approach requires
sustained long-term commitment.
Concepts of
Gender......
GENDER MAINSTREAMING is a strategy for making the concerns and
experiences of women as well as of men an integral part of the design,
implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and
programmes in all political, economic and societal spheres so that
women and men benefit equally. The ultimate goal of mainstreaming
is to achieve gender equality.
These day women are achieving high-level job just as man do.
Some women are promoted to become a president, leader, chief
of commune and other high-level positions. And there are many
women now are participating in society, politically, education and
economically.
Facts and figures –Economic Empowerment
Benefits of economic empowerment:
•When more women work, economies grow: If women’s paid employment
rates were raised to the same level as men’s, the USA gross domestic product
would be approximately 9 % higher, the Euro zone’s would climb by 13 %, and
Japan’s would be boosted by 16 %. In 15 major developing economies, per
capita income would rise by 14 % by 2020, and by 20 % by 2030.
•Evidence from a range of countries shows that increasing the share of
household income controlled by women, either through their own earnings or
cash transfers, changes spending in ways that benefit children.
Women in the world of work:
In the majority of countries, women’s wages represent between 70 % and 90 %
of men’s, with even lower ratios in some Asian and Latin American countries.
If women had the same access as men to productive assets, agricultural output
in 34 developing countries would rise by an estimated average of up to 4 %.
This could reduce the number of undernourished people in those countries by
17 %, translating to up to 150 million fewer hungry people.
Source: "In Brief: Economic Empowerment of Women", UN Women
publications, 2013
Strategic Development Goals (SDGs), Gender Equality and
Women Empowerment
SDG 5: Achieve gender equality and empower all women and
girls
SDG 5 includes the following targets:
5.1 End all forms of discrimination against all women and girls
everywhere;
5.2 Eliminate all forms of violence against all women and girls in the
public and private spheres, including trafficking and sexual and other
types of exploitation;
5.3 Eliminate all harmful practices, such as child, early and forced
marriage and female genital mutilation;
5.4 Recognize and value unpaid care and domestic work through the
provision of public services, infrastructure and social protection policies
and the promotion of shared responsibility within the household and
the family as nationally appropriate;
5.5 Ensure women’s full and effective participation and equal
opportunities for leadership at all levels of decision-making in political,
economic and public life;
Strategic Development Goals (SDGs), Gender Equality
and Women Empowerment…….
5.6 Ensure universal access to sexual and reproductive health and
reproductive rights as agreed in accordance with the Programme of
Action of the International
Conference on Population and Development and the Beijing Platform
for Action and the outcome documents of their review conferences;
5.a Undertake reforms to give women equal rights to economic
resources, as well as access to ownership and control over land and
other forms of property, financial services, inheritance and natural
resources, in accordance with national laws;
5.b Enhance the use of enabling technology, in particular information
and communications technology, to promote the empowerment of
women;
5.c Adopt and strengthen sound policies and enforceable legislation
for the promotion of gender equality and the empowerment of all
women and girls at all levels.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's empowerment
To tackle the discussed areas of inequality, the Department for
International Development (DFID) of the UK government has
outlined 10 objectives for women’s empowerment and a plan of
action to achieve each objective.
Action steps:
Remove gender barriers to education.
Policies/programmes to bring down maternal mortality
and increase access to reproductive services.
Improve the national statistics system to provide
sex- disaggregated data across all key social
indicators.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
empowerment….
Objective 4: More participation of women in decision-making and
leadership roles
Action steps:
Capacity-building and other support to women’s organisations.
Electoral and other reforms to increase women’s participation
in
public life.
Public awareness campaigns to challenge gender stereotypes.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
Objective 5: Increaseempowerment….
women’s personal security and reduce
violence against women
Action steps:
Reform and strengthen criminal and civil law.
Raise awareness of women’s rights among the police
and judiciary.
Public information campaigns.
Support to women’s organisations.
Improved knowledge and statistics.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
empowerment….
Objective 6: Advocacy to promote women’s participation in
government and civil society
Action steps:
Civil service and public spending reforms to establish and
support appropriate government structures.
Strengthening the role of civil society organizations in
advancing gender equality.
Public awareness campaigns.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
empowerment….
Objective 7: Promote equality of women under the law
Action steps:
Reform and strengthen criminal and civil law.
Support to legal literacy programmes.
Training and capacity-building for the police, judiciary and
civil society organisations.
Public information campaigns.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
empowerment….
Objective 8: Reduce gender stereotyping and bring about changes
in social attitudes towards women
Action steps:
Support to media projects and campaigns, including gender
training for journalists and programme-makers.
Support to women’s organisations.
Create awareness among policymakers and political leaders.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
empowerment….
Objective 9: Gender-aware approaches to management of the
environment
Action steps:
Gender-aware planning and women’s participation in the
development of strategies for sustainable development.
Strengthen tenure and common property rights in line
with gender equity.
Ensure that local planning and access to natural resources
are gender-aware.
Improved data and research.
A broad-based, indicative strategy for
women's
empowerment….
Objective 10: Uphold the rights of boys and girls in the Convention
on the Rights of the Child
Action steps:
Implementation of the Convention on the Rights of the Child.
Improved data, research and statistics.
Support programmes to eliminate the worst forms of
child labour.
Indicators for measuring progress
One way of measuring progress in meeting the above goals is
using the International Development Targets set by the United
Nations to reduce poverty. Within each target there are indicators
that measure whether the targets have been met. Indicators that
can be used are:
Among young women (aged 20-24), 28 percent gave birth by age 18. (URT,
2016).
Approximately 106 babies will die each day before reaching their first month;
129 stillbirths occur every day.
Newborns with less educated mothers are more likely to die during the first
month of life, compared to those born to mothers with higher education.
Indicators for measuring
progress……
Tanzania - Mortality rate
Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births)
The value for Mortality rate, under-5 (per 1,000 live births) in Tanzania was
53.00 as of 2018. Over the past 58 years this indicator reached a maximum
value of 243.00 in 1960 and a minimum value of 53.00 in 2018.
In 2015, more than 2.7 million Tanzanian children under 5 years of age were
estimated to be stunted and more than 600,000 were suffering from acute
malnutrition, of which 100,000 were severe cases.
Indicators for measuring
progress……
Tanzania Maternal mortality rate
Definition
Contraceptive prevalence rate is the percentage of women who
are practicing, or whose sexual partners are practicing, any form
of contraception. It is usually measured for married women ages
15- 49 only.
Indicators for measuring progress……
Tanzania - Births Attended By Skilled Health Staff (% Of Total)
Births attended by skilled health staff (% of total) in Tanzania was
reported at 63.7 % in 2016, according to the World Bank collection
of development indicators, compiled from officially recognized
sources.
Definition
Births attended by skilled health staff are the percentage of
deliveries attended by personnel trained to give the necessary
supervision, care, and advice to women during pregnancy, labor,
and the postpartum period; to conduct deliveries on their own; and
to care for newborns.
Indicators for measuring
Net enrolment in preprogress……
and primary education
Elimu ya Awali