Solar PV Engineering and Installation

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Solar PV Engineering and
Installation

‘Sean’s book was instrumental to my passing the NABCEP exam. It really hit the nail
on the head.’
– Robert Wylie Hyde, Kaplan Clean Tech PV Instructor,
NABCEP Certified PV Installation Professional

‘I comfortably passed the NABCEP Exam and I couldn’t have done it without Sean’s book!’
– Tim Oyler, NABCEP Certified PV Installation Professional

The NABCEP PV Installation Professional (PVIP) Exam is the gold standard

certification exam for PV professionals and is famously difficult to pass. As
the industry grows and jobs have become more specialized, the Board has
responded to this with NABCEP Specialist Certification Exams.
As well as the content of the PVIP, this book also covers the material in the Design,
Installer and Commissioning & Maintenance Specialist Certification Exams, and
provides test-taking strategy that can be used to most effectively study for and
pass these assessments. Code and theory is explained in the first half of this guide,
acting as a useful background for the second half, which consists of practice
exam questions and answers, complete with detailed explanations. It also contains
essential strategy tools, short-term memory tips and recommended reading which
will be invaluable for anyone studying for the exams. The material covered in this
book is not limited to those taking the test, but will also act as a valuable tool for
career progression, helping the reader to work safely with code-compliant PV systems.
This second edition has been fully revised and updated to reflect the new
developments in solar and energy storage systems and new technologies.

Sean White is an experienced teacher, instructor and professional in solar PV

based in the USA. He received the 2014 IREC 3i Award (Innovation. Ingenuity.
Inspiration) in the category of Clean Energy Trainer of the Year and the 2011 Mike
Holt Enterprises 1st place Instructor award, and was on the NABCEP PV Installation
Professional Technical Committee. He is the author of Solar Photovoltaic Basics,
2nd edition (Routledge, 2018), Photovoltaic Systems and the National Electrical
Code (Routledge, 2018, with Bill Brooks) and PV Technical Sales (Routledge, 2016).
Solar PV Engineering
and Installation
Preparation for the NABCEP PV
Installation Professional, Specialist
and Inspector Certification Exams

Sean White
Second edition published 2019
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2019 Sean White
The right of Sean White to be identified as author of this work has been asserted
by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and
Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised
in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information
storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered
trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent
to infringe.
First edition published by Routledge 2015
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: White, Sean (Electrical engineer), author.
Title: Solar PV engineering and installation : preparation for the NABCEP PV
installation professional, specialist and inspector certification exams / Sean White.
Description: Second edition. | New York, NY : Routledge, [2019] | Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2019008203 (print) | LCCN 2019010775 (ebook) |
ISBN 9780429435553 (Master) | ISBN 9781138348578 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781138348592 (pbk.) | ISBN 9780429435553 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Photovoltaic power systems—Examinations—Study guides.
Classification: LCC TK1087 (ebook) | LCC TK1087 .W46 2019 (print) |
DDC 621.31/244—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019008203
ISBN: 978-1-138-34857-8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-138-34859-2 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-43555-3 (ebk)
Typeset in Rotis Sans Serif
by Apex CoVantage, LLC

iv
 Contents

Preface vii

Chapter 1 Memorize and familiarize 1

Chapter 2 The National Electrical Code 11

Chapter 3 Article 690: photovoltaic systems 43

Chapter 4 Article 705: interconnections 71

Chapter 5 Safety, strategy and investing your

time wisely 87

Chapter 6 Wire sizing 89

Chapter 7 Solar trigonometry 99

Chapter 8 Practice exam 1: 70 questions, four hours 107

Chapter 9 Practice exam 1: with answers and

explanations 123

Chapter 10 Practice exam 2: 70 questions, four hours 163

Chapter 11 Practice exam 2: with answers and

explanations 183

Chapter 12 Bonus practice exam questions:

30 questions 257

v
Contents

Chapter 13 Bonus practice exam questions: with

answers and explanations 267

Chapter 14 Strategy 291

Index 293

vi
 Preface

This book is written for those who would like an advanced knowledge of solar
PV systems and to prepare people for the NABCEP PV Installation Professional
(PVIP) exam, which is the gold standard certification exam for PV professionals.
This book is also designed to prepare students to sit for the NABCEP PV Special-
ist exams, including the NABCEP PV Design Specialist (PVDS) exam, the NABCEP
PV Installation Specialist (PVIS) exam, and the NABCEP PV Commissioning &
Maintenance Specialist (PVCMS) exams. This book will also help people study for
the NABCEP PV Inspector exam and other regional contractors licensing exams.
Perhaps the difference between a test question on a PVDS, PVIS, or PVCMS exam
is the wording and more so than the knowledge required to correctly answer
the question.
The PVIP exam is by far the most popular of all of these exams. It is also highly
recommended that anyone would start their studies by taking the NABCEP
Associate Exam, which is covered in my book Solar Photovoltaic Basics. Even if
you do not intend to take an exam, the material that you learn from this book
will be invaluable, help you further your career, salary, help you efficiently work
safely with code-compliant PV systems, and possibly even save lives.
The pass rate of the NABCEP PV certification exams is known to be low and the
exams are famously difficult, which is a good thing for those who pass, mean-
ing that they are known in the industry to understand PV systems inside and
out and are in high demand around the world. This book is designed to give
direction to study the material that can be learned. There is also material on the
exams, which is difficult to learn due to the vast amount of material covered.
This book will provide test-taking strategy that can be used to most effectively
study for and pass the exam.
Everyone in the PV industry knows someone who has failed the NABCEP PV
Installation Professional Exam at least once and many of us know intelligent

vii
Preface

people who have failed the exam multiple times. Using this book, along with
long hours of study, is the best way to ensure an 8.5” × 11” NABCEP PV Installa-
tion Professional Certificate shows up in your mailbox.
The heart of this book is the detailed explanations of practice exam questions.
We explain code and theory in the first half of the book, but putting everything
we have learned to practical use is the best way of learning, retaining, and
knowing how to perform calculations necessary for passing the exam and being
a successful NABCEP Certified PV Professional.
Before reading this book, you should either have a good basic knowledge of the
basics of PV from reading and studying Solar Photovoltaic Basics: A Study Guide
for the NABCEP Associate Exam or from equivalent studies. This book covers
the NEC, but for more in-depth NEC studies, read Photovoltaic Systems and
the National Electrical Code by Sean White and Bill Brooks. These books were
written to be easy to read and to fit easily in your bag or big pocket without
breaking your pocketbook. Studying this material is the best way to efficiently
pass exams.
No matter how good someone is at reading plans, following directions, and wir-
ing code-compliant safe and efficient PV systems, they still need to understand
how to use the NEC Code Book in order to pass these exams.
You can read this book in one day. But there is a difference between reading and
studying. The best way to use this book is to study it in detail and to go over it
many times until you can retain the information and concepts in it. You should
also spend time studying with this book and the NEC at the same time, so you
can learn to use the NEC for PV systems.
Different strategies for studying:

1. Study for years in order to pass the exam and read every book you can. Years
ago, four years of experience installing PV systems was required in order to
sit for the exam. This method is the best method for passing the exam.
2. Study as much as you can and if you are experienced at studying and per-
haps an electrician or an engineer and you read this book, you will have a
chance at passing the exam on your first try.
3. You are very busy installing and designing PV systems and you signed up
to take the exam, but have not had as much time to study as you thought
you would. You may not pass the exam on your first try, but it is a good

viii
 Preface

idea to take the exam to get a feel for it, which means you will have a bet-
ter chance at passing it next time around. This is a good book to cram with
and improve your score.

No book can contain the vast amount of information that can be covered on the
exam. However, I believe that studying with this book will reap the maximum
amount of correct answers per hour of study time.
Sean White

Certain tables in this work are reprinted with permission from NFPA 70®-2017,
National Electrical Code®, Copyright © 2016, National Fire Protection Asso-
ciation, Quincy, MA. This reprinted material is not the complete and official
position of the NFPA on the referenced subject, which is represented only by
the standard in its entirety.

ix
Memorize and Chapter
1
familiarize

This brief chapter is loaded with material that will help you prepare for the exam
and has some of the most important material that you should be able to access
in the NEC and (hopefully) your mind. It is recommended to study this chapter
on a regular basis and to commit as much as you can to memory.

There is so much information in the NEC, it is sometimes more difficult

to know which articles not to use, rather than to know what to use. This
book will steer you to the common articles that are used in designing PV
systems.

IMPORTANT NEC PV ARTICLES AND SECTIONS

690 PV systems
705 Interconnections (includes ac microgrids)
706 Energy storage systems (ESS)
710 Standalone systems
712 Direct current microgrids
Chapter 1 General
100 Definitions
110 Requirements for general installations
110.14(C) Terminal temperatures
110.16 Arc-flash hazard warning
110.21(B) Field applied hazard markings (ANSI references)
110.26(A)(1) Working spaces

1
Memorize and familiarize

110.28 Enclosure selection (NEMA enclosures)

Chapter 2 Wiring and protection
200 Use and identification of grounded conductors
200.6 6AWG and smaller can be marked white for PV
230 Services
240 Overcurrent protection
240.4(D) Small conductor rule
240.6 Standard fuse and breaker sizes
250 Grounding and bonding
250.52 Electrodes
250.52(A) Electrodes permitted
250.53 Grounding electrode system installation
250.66 AC GEC
250.166 DC GEC
250.122 (Table) ECG (ac and dc)
Chapter 3 Wiring methods and materials
300.5 (Table) Minimum cover requirements (how deep to bury conduit)
300.7 Raceways exposed to different temperatures
310 Conductors for general wiring (Wire sizing)
310.15(B)(2)(a) Ambient temperature correction factors
310.15(B)(3)(a) Adjustment for >3 current carrying conductors in conduit
310.16 Conductor ampacity in raceway cable or buried
310.17 Conductor ampacity in free air
314 Junction boxes, enclosures, outlets
320–362 Raceways (conduit) and cables
330 Metal-clad: MC cable
334 Non-metallic sheathed cable: NM, NMC and NMS
338 Service entrance cable: SE, USE (USE-2)
342 Intermediate metal conduit: IMC
344 Rigid metal conduit: RMC
352 Rigid PVC
352.44 Expansion joints required for rigid PVC if > ¼” expansion
356 Liquid tight flexible non-metallic conduit: LFNC
358 Electrical metallic tubing: EMT
Chapter 4 Equipment for general use
480 Batteries (also in articles 706, 710, and 712)
Chapter 6 Special equipment
690.2 Definitions

2
 Memorize and familiarize

690.7 Maximum voltage

690.8 Circuit sizing and current
690.9 Overcurrent protection
690.11 Arc-fault protection (dc)
690.12 Rapid shutdown
690.13–.15 Part III Disconnecting means
690.31–.34 Part IV Wiring methods
690.41–.50 Part V Grounding
690.51–.56 Part VI Marking
Article 691 Large-scale photovoltaic (PV) electric power production
facility
Chapter 7 Special conditions
705.10 Directory
705.12 Point of connection
705.12(A) Supply-side
705.12(B) Load side
705.12(B)(2)(1) Feeders
705.12(B)(2)(2) Taps
705.12(B)(2)(3) Busbars
705.12(B)(2)(3)(a) 100% rule
705.12(B)(2)(3)(b) 120% rule
705.12(B)(2)(3)(c) Sum rule (loads + breakers ≤ busbar)
705.31 Location of supply-side connection disconnect
< 10 ft
705.32 Connect to supply-side of ground-fault protection
(with exception)

CHAPTER 9: TABLES

Tables 1, 4, and 5 used for determining how many wires fit into conduit:
Table 1 Percentage cross-section of conduit
Table 4 Internal area of conduit for wires
Table 5 Dimensions of conductors
Table 8 for determining voltage drop
Table 8 Conductor properties (used for voltage drop calculations)

3
Memorize and familiarize

FLASH CARD MATERIAL

• Area of circle is 3.14 × radius2

• Area of cylinder is depth × 3.14 × radius2
• Length × width × height = volume
• 2.54 cm/inch
• 3.28 feet per meter
• Wind category B is urban/suburban or wooded with close obstructions
(typical)
• Wind category C is scattered obstructions
• Wind category D is no obstructions and wide open
• Wind category A is no longer in use
• Roof zone 3 = corners
• Roof zone 2 = edges
• Roof zone 1 = middle (best for solar)
• PV source circuit often called a string
• Dc-to-dc converter often called an optimizer
• PV module often called a panel (technically incorrect)
• PV source circuit is between PV and combiner
• PV output circuit is after parallel connections in combiner
• Dc-to-dc converter source circuits are between dc-to-dc converters
• PV maximum current definition = Isc × 1.25
• PV required ampacity for continuous current = Isc × 1.56
• Required ampacity for continuous current for other than PV source and
output circuits is 125% of current
• 156% ampacity correction only used for PV source and output circuits
• 156% not used with conditions of use; use 125% and compare
• Do not calculate continuous current and conditions of use in same calculation
• OCPD = overcurrent protection device = fuse or circuit breaker
• OCPD size is maximum circuit current × 1.25 and round up (under 800A)
• If disconnects are in different locations, then directory or plaque required
at each disconnect
• PV wire used for ungrounded arrays in free air
• Round-down string sizing for cold temperature high Voc calculations
• Round-up string sizing for hot temperature low Vmp calculations
• Rapid shutdown array boundary 1 foot outside and 3 feet inside building
• Pilot hole 67–80% of lag bolt size

4
 Memorize and familiarize

• 3 ft space at roof ridge for fire department usually

• For fine-stranded cable use fine-stranded compatible lugs
• No different orientations within PV source circuits
• Different orientations acceptable in dc-to-dc converter source circuits
• Width of working space = width of equipment or 30” whichever is
greater
• Time of use rates are usually more expensive on summer afternoons
• Tiered utility rates are more expensive as you use more
• Sine wave is less harmonic distortion
• Conductors in conduit outside have to be wet-rated
• Array gets 80% STC irradiance (current) at 800 watts per square meter
• ASHRAE can give temperatures and wind speeds for an area
• Multimodal inverter, utility shuts down, power critical loads
• A grounded conductor on an insulated lug is good for measuring voltage
• Ground fault protection required for PV on buildings
• Insulation testing good for checking intermittent ground faults
• Insulation testing is done with a megohmmeter (often called megger)
• A grounded conductor is always white or gray in North America (blue in
much of world)
• Do not have to upsize EGC when upsizing current carrying conductors for
voltage drop
• Ground rods are often copper coated steel 5/8” diameter 8 feet long
• Do not use aluminum GEC if GEC encased in concrete
• Functional grounded inverters include fuse grounded and transformerless
inverters
• Functional grounded inverters can use either PV wire or USE-2 wire on
source circuits
• Functional grounded inverters if fused in combiner only require fuses on
one polarity
• PV connectors are polarized (positive and negative)
• Bypass diode failure usually decreases voltage by one-third of a module
voltage
• 120/240 is called split phase or single phase and is used in residential wiring
in North America
• 120V inverter has single pole ac disconnect/breaker and is mostly seen on
off-grid systems
• No multiwire branch circuit sign is required with 120V inverter

5
Memorize and familiarize

• No more than six switches to turn off PV systems on a building (many invert-
ers with one switch can be a single PV system)
• No disconnect on grounded conductor with exceptions for GFDI, AFCI, and
maintenance
• PV source and output circuits must be separated from other circuits
• PV circuits must be polarized, marked, latching, and identified
• Load break rated manual disconnect within 10 feet of combiner required if
current > 30A
• Isolating device can be a connector or a disconnect. Not required to inter-
rupt current
• Isolating devices or disconnects need to be within 10 feet of equipment.
• Shading short edge of module typically kicks in all bypass diodes and
bypasses module
• Interactive inverters do not need clamped breaker
• Bond rails to each other (UL 2703 is for racking systems)
• UL 1741 is listing for inverters
• UL 1703 is listing for PV modules
• Max dc disconnect height under normal circumstances is 6.5 feet
• PV system disconnect with utility disconnect in different places, need plaque
or directory
• For lightning use lightning protection system and surge protection
• Add acid to water so acid doesn’t splash
• EMT supports required at least every 10 feet
• No disconnect or fuse on solidly grounded conductor
• No fuse by disconnect required on functional grounded conductor
• Changing inverter make sure string sizing works with new inverter
• Always follow manufacturer’s instructions
• Use torque wrench for installing lag bolts
• Solar system, HVAC and anything permanent is a dead load
• Designated safety person may not have other duties (distractions)
• No dc disconnect in bathroom (wet feet)
• Do not bond neutral in two places (dc disconnect and inverter GFCI)
• Person who puts on the lockout tagout removes it
• Insulation tester is megohmmeter or megger
• If disconnects not near one another use plaque or directory
• Battery bank sign should indicate grounded conductor and max voltage
• Equalization and cold temperature battery corrections increase max voltage

6
 Memorize and familiarize

• Equalization only for flooded lead acid battery maintenance

• Equalization fixes stratification and lead sulfate crystal on lead plates
• Battery working spaces require illumination (lights)
• Battery working spaces lights must not be automatically controlled only
• OSHA = Occupational Safety and Health Administration
• Employer can train and certify employee to work heavy equipment
• Fiberglass ladder with aluminum steps is safest
• Painted wooden ladder is unacceptable (paint hides cracks)
• Three-phase, 4 wire delta (stinger) high leg is orange

TRIGONOMETRY: SOH CAH TOA

SOH sin = opposite/hypotenuse

CAH cos = adjacent/hypotenuse
TOA tan = opposite/adjacent

Figure 1.1 Right triangle

7
Memorize and familiarize

String sizing
PV source circuit string sizing calculations were done in detail in the first
book in this series, Solar Photovoltaic Basics.

Calculator clicks (buttons that you push on a calculator) for determining

maximum PV source circuit size without using paper:

Delta T × Temp Coef Voc in %/C = A

A%/100% = B
B+1=C
C × Voc at STC = Voc cold temp
1/X button
multiply by high inverter input voltage
Round-down for max modules in series

Temperature coefficients and units

A 1-degree change in degrees K is the same as a 1-degree change in
degrees C. Kelvin starts at 273 below zero Celsius. When doing tem-
perature coefficient calculations and you see degrees in K, just do the
same as you would when it is degrees C. (C and K have almost the same
phonetic sound anyway.)
A 1.8-degree change in degrees Fahrenheit is the same as a 1-degree
change in degrees Celsius or Kelvin.

Here is an example of using this method:

Given:

Low temp = –10 (Delta T is –35 and you can always do this in your head)
Temp Coef Voc = –0.33%/C
Voc of module = 40V
Max inverter input = 600V

8
 Memorize and familiarize

35C × 0.33 %/C = 11.55% (you could multiply neg × neg = pos)
11.55%/100% = 0.1155
0.1155 + 1 = 1.1155
1.1155 × 40Voc at STC = 44.62Voc cold temp
1/X button gets you the inverse of 44.62, which is 0.022411
0.022411 × 600V = 13.4
13 modules in series max.

This can be done without writing anything down. Practice 10 times and
you should be able to do source circuit “string” sizing in 1 minute.

Calculator clicks for determining roof angle:

Example 4:12 slope roof
Enter:

4/12 = Inv Tan

Gives you 18.4 degrees
(inv tan is sometimes represented by tan–1)

Calculator clicks for the 120% rule to determine max inverter ac amps:
Enter:

Bus × 1.2 = –Main = /1.25 = inverter ac current

120% rule to solve for inverter power:
(((Busbar × 1.2)–Main) × 0.8) × grid voltage = max. inverter power

9
The National Chapter
2
Electrical Code

Every chapter in this book will focus on the National Electrical Code. The NEC is
so important that it also deserves its own chapter at the beginning. Since it is
an open-book exam, it is time to start getting close with your friend, the NEC.
(Having a positive attitude about your NEC Codebook will help.)
As of the writing of this book, NABCEP has decided to let computer based test-
ing examinees use an electronic version of the NEC that is on the computer at
the testing center that you would be taking your test on. The first round of test
takers with this new format had sufficient complaints about the navigation
of the online NEC that NABCEP decided to allow people to bring in their own
NEC Codebook. The computer based test (CBT) is also a take any time test. In
the past, the NABCEP certification exams were only given in person twice per
year. NABCEP will no longer be giving in-person exams. Be sure to check with
NABCEP for details. They are easy to contact by phone or email, which can be
found at www.nabcep.org.
The NEC, which is published by the National Fire Protection Association (NFPA), is
published every 3 years. For instance, you may be taking the exam that is based
on the 2017, 2020, or 2023 NEC. Usually, NABCEP will adopt the code one to one
and a half years after the code is published. If you study the wrong version, you
will probably miss zero to one more questions than you otherwise would have.
The goal of the exam is not to fail people studying earlier versions of the Code.
Only about two states adopt the NEC as soon as it is published. This gives every-
one else time to learn the NEC. Most of the solar installed in the USA is installed
in states that adopt the NEC 3 years after it is first published. For example, in
California, the 2017 NEC will not be used until 2020.
The NEC is officially called NFPA 70®: National Electrical Code. It is organized
mainly into Chapters, Articles, Parts and Sections. Chapters 1 through 4 are

11
The National Electrical Code

Table 2.1 Organization of the National Electrical Code

General for all Chapter 1 General
installations Chapter 2 Wiring and protection
Chapter 3 Wiring methods and materials
Chapter 4 Equipment for general use
Supplements or Chapter 5 Special occupancies
modifies Chapters 1–4 Chapter 6 Special equipment (PV goes here)
Chapter 7 Special conditions
Communications Chapter 8 Communication systems
Tables Chapter 9 Tables

general and apply to all electrical installations. Chapters 5, 6, and 7 are special
and can modify Chapters 1 through 4. Chapter 8 is for communications and
Chapter 9 is tables.
For example, Article 690.2 Definitions is in Chapter 6, Article 690 and Section
690.2. Articles, such as Article 690, can be divided into parts.
The version of the NEC that you will likely be using will be a paperback soft-
bound copy of the NEC Code Book. It is recommended that you get the exact
same book to study from.
Here are the different types of NEC books and accessories:

1. NEC Codebook (softbound): This is the book that NABCEP uses. It is recom-
mended to study with this book. If you do not have the NEC Codebook, it
is recommended that you order one now.
2. NEC Handbook: This has everything that the NEC Code Book has with
added explanations and images. This is good to have, but is not what you
will be using for the exam.
3. NEC on PDF: These are available and helpful, but not what you use on exam
day. If you take the computer based exam, the electronic format that you
are able to use is different than the PDF you can buy. The PDF that you can
buy is easy to search and index. Once you pass the exam, the PDF version
is easiest to use in my opinion.

12
 The National Electrical Code

4. Free NEC, available from www.nfpa.org, can only be used with a connec-
tion to the internet and does not currently have a search function. It is
difficult to use, but some say easier to use than the electronic format you
will have access to use at the testing center.
5. NEC books with tabs: Helpful, but probably not what you use on the exam.
Check with NABCEP for the latest.

It is highly recommended that you get very used to using the paper NEC Code-
book and learn how to use the index and the table of contents. There will be
information on the exam that you did not expect to be there that is in the NEC.
If you know how to use the book efficiently, you will be able to answer these
questions. I recommend that the night before the exam, besides getting a good
night’s sleep, you should read the index and table of contents. If you try to do
too much the night before, you will probably just stress yourself out, which is
not a good test-taking strategy.
Some people will sleep with their NEC book under their pillow or practice turn-
ing pages, getting to Article 690 as fast as possible.
Coming up are some common places in the NEC that you should be able to look
up quickly:
• Memorize the best you can.
• Look at the page in your NEC book if you have it with you.
• Consider flash cards (or an NEC tattoo).
The best way to use the remainder of this chapter is to read it once, know-
ing that you will not retain everything, and then to go back and study it
more.
Starting off with some major categories in order of importance.

ARTICLE 690: PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

Obviously, you should know how to look up everything here.

SECTION 705.12: INTERCONNECTIONS

Section 705.12 is almost a part of Article 690. In fact, in the 2011 NEC they
moved material from 690 to 705.

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The National Electrical Code

We will cover Articles 690 and 705 in greater depth later in their own dedicated
chapters. We will now cover the important code in numerical order.

ARTICLE 710: STANDALONE SYSTEMS

Another former part of Article 690, in the 2017 NEC, this material was moved
from Section 690.10 to its own article. Since Article 710 and Section 690.10 both
end with 10, it is convenient for memorization.

ARTICLE 706: ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS

They say this is the future, so good to get to know. Much of the material here
is new. We still have Article 480 Storage batteries, but energy storage systems
(ESS) can encompass more than just chemical batteries, 706 can include the
electronics that are part of the system. Many of our batteries today come fac-
tory assembled with controls.
Now in numerical order (wording of definitions is shortened here for easiness of use).

CHAPTER 1: GENERAL

ARTICLE 100

Definitions

Following are a few important definitions written in plain English:

Accessible (equipment): Not behind locked doors, elevation or other means.
Readily accessible: Not requiring tools, ladders or climbing to gain access. May
be behind locked doors.
Bonding: Connected for electrical continuity.
Multiwire branch circuit: Branch circuit with two or more ungrounded con-
ductors and one neutral grounded conductor.
Control circuit: Circuit that controls performance of another circuit. (Can be
used with 690.12 rapid shutdown for turning off power at combiner.)

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 The National Electrical Code

Feeder: Conductors between primary and secondary distribution.

Field labeled: Equipment that was evaluated by a Field Evaluation Body
and subsequently labeled by that body. For example, for a price UL can
come to your site and compensate for lack of a factory listing of a product.
Grounded, solidly: Connected to ground without any resistance or impedance
device. (Note: functional grounded inverters are not solidly grounded.)
Interrupting rating: The highest current that a device is intended to interrupt.
Photovoltaic (PV) system: The total components and subsystem that, in com-
bination, convert solar energy into electric energy for connection to a utilization
load.
Raceway: Channel for holding wires, cables or busbars, such as conduit.
Separately derived system: Electrical source having no direct connection to cir-
cuit conductors other than grounding and bonding. Examples are transformers.
Service: Conductors and equipment delivering (serving) electricity from utility.

110.14: Electrical Connections

Terminals and splices, which includes 110.14(C) Terminal temperature limitations.

110.21(B): marking/field applied hazard marking (for caution, warning or

danger signs)

110.21(B) is referred to many times throughout the NEC, including in Articles

690 and 705. It recommends in an informational note to look to Product Safety
Signs and Labels ANSI Z535.4-2011 for guidance.
Labels should be permanently attached and not hand-written unless the mark-
ing is “variable or subject to change.”
110.21(B) applies to PV systems in the following parts of the code. In these
places, it says: “Labels shall comply with 110.21(B).”
690.13(B) label for when both sides of a disconnect may be energized in the
open position label shall comply with 110.21(B).

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The National Electrical Code

Figure 2.1 Line and load label, courtesy of pvlabels.com

710.15(C) (formerly 690.10(C)) states that 120V standalone systems cannot

have 120/240V ac multiwire branch circuits:

Figure 2.2 Stand-alone 120V inverter label, courtesy of pvlabels.com

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 The National Electrical Code

Article 710 Standalone systems, which was relocated from Section 690.10
in the 2017 NEC. The reason we do not use multiwire branch circuits in
this case is so that we do not overload the neutral. If we have a 120/240V
split-phase panelboard and we bond line 1 to line 2 in order to modify the
panelboard for a 120V system, then we would have line 1 and line 2 in phase
and we would have double the current on the neutral. This is often done
when using a 120V inverter rather than a 120/240V split-phase inverter.

705.10 (Formerly 690.56(B)) Facilities with utility and PV need a plaque or

directory showing where the disconnect is if it is not at the same place as the
utility disconnect.
705.12(B)(2)(3)(b) Requires a 110.21(B) compliant sign when the 120% rule is
invoked and the solar breaker is required to be on the opposite side of the busbar
from the main breaker. This sign must be adjacent to the solar backfed breaker:

Figure 2.3 120% rule label, courtesy of pvlabels.com

When the people who write the NEC came up with 705.12(B)(2)(3)
(b), they were making sure that we would get the NEC book when we
take the NABCEP exam, because we cannot be expected to memorize
705.12(B)(2)(3)(b), which takes 26 key strokes!

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The National Electrical Code

705.12(B)(2)(3)(c) gives us a way to get around the 120% rule in some cases.
Read the sign and you will understand what 705.12(B)(2)(3)(c) lets us do:

705.12(B)(2)(3)(c) is often used when combining inverters in a sub-

panel, sometimes referred to as an “ac-combiner.” When we had to follow
the 120% rule in the past with subpanels, we were very limited in our
options and solar installers felt it was unfair. Now we can. For more infor-
mation see Chapter 705.

Table 2.2 From Table 110.26(A)(1) © 2014 NFPA

Voltage to ground Minimum distance

Condition 1 Condition 2 Condition 3
1 to 150V 3 feet 3 feet 3 feet
151 to 600V 3 feet 3.5 feet 4 feet
601 to 1000V 3 feet 4 feet 5 feet

Condition 1: Exposed live parts on one side and no live or grounded parts on the
other side. Also, exposed live parts on both sides that are guarded and insulated.
Condition 2: Exposed live parts on one side and grounded on the other. Con-
crete materials are considered grounded.
Condition 3: Exposed live parts on both sides of working space.

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 The National Electrical Code

Table 110.28: enclosure selection

This table has the various NEMA enclosure types, including NEMA 1, 2, 3, 3R,
3S, 3X, 3RX, 3SX, 4, 4X, 5, 6, 6P, 12, 12K and NEMA 13. Table 110.28 will show
you what conditions the NEMA enclosures will handle, such as rain, wind, dust,
submersion, etc. (Good to know 110.28 for NABCEP exams.)

CHAPTER 2: WIRING AND PROTECTION

ARTICLE 200: GROUNDED CONDUCTORS

200.6(A)(6)

6 AWG and smaller can be marked white for PV single conductor circuits (typi-
cally PV wire and USE-2 PV source circuits).

With the new in 2017 NEC functional grounded definition, it would be

extremely rare to have a white wire or a marked white wire in a PV sys-
tem. The only reason would be having a solidly grounded array, such as
with a direct well pump.
It is recommended when converting an older fuse grounded inverter
to a modern typical non-isolated (transformerless) inverter to apply
200.6(A)(6) in reverse and to mark the white wire with a black marking.
This may be accepted by some AHJs and not by others. Non-isolated
inverters are much safer than fuse grounded inverters, so the authors
of the NEC do not want to do anything to discourage the use of safer
inverters. Recall that also USE-2 wire, as well as PV wire may be used
for all inverters now.

ARTICLE 240: OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

240.4(B): overcurrent protection device (OCPD) rated 800A or less

Round-up to the next standard OCPD size. This means that it is possible for a
conductor to be rated less than the OCPD.

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The National Electrical Code

Once you understand it does not make sense, then you understand
the code.
Rounding-up above the ampacity of the conductors for an OCPD is one
of those things in the code that does not make sense! Since we want the
OCPD to protect the conductor, we want the OCPD to open the circuit
before the wire burns up.
Many people get stuck here. Once you understand it does not make
sense, then you understand the code. We will point this out in a few
different places in the code.
Why do they do this? When they came up with “ampacity” they left
room for more current beyond what the conductor is rated, so perhaps
a 10AWG wire that is rated for 40A can really handle 60A.
Another mechanism for safety is 240.4(D), “The small conductor rule.”
You are always allowed to use a larger conductor and, most of the time, your
calculations will give you a conductor with a greater ampacity than the OCPD.

240.4(D): small conductors (small conductor rule)

Minimum conductor size for OCPD for conductors 10AWG and smaller.

Table 2.3 Minimum OCPD for small conductors

OCPD Minimum copper conductor size

30A 10AWG
20A 12AWG
15A 14AWG

It is important to remember this when sizing wires later in the book.

240.15: ungrounded conductors

Ungrounded conductors must have OCPD with some exceptions.

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 The National Electrical Code

ARTICLE 250: GROUNDING AND BONDING

Grounding is connecting to earth and bonding is connecting everything

together.

250.52: grounding electrodes

Look here for the different types of grounding electrode, such as a ground rod,
metal pipe, metal building structure, concrete-encased electrode, ground ring,
plate, etc.

250.66, 250.166, and 250.122

Sizing grounding conductors (if you look at these numbers, there is a pattern. If
you remember the pattern, you can find the right section with three quick tries
(pattern: 66, 166, 122)).
250.66 is for sizing the ac grounding electrode conductor (ac GEC).
• Based on the largest ungrounded service entrance conductor in Table 250.66.
From Table 250.66, AC grounding electrode conductors (copper examples):

Table 2.4 From Table 250.66 ac GEC © 2014 NFPA

Size of largest ungrounded Size of ac GEC
Service entrance conductor
2 or smaller 8AWG
1 or 1/0 6AWG
2/0 or 3/0 4AWG

Usually the ac grounding electrode conductor is already installed

when adding PV to a building. Sometimes the AHJ will require a sepa-
rate ac grounding electrode conductor when installing a supply-side
connection.

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The National Electrical Code

250.166 is for sizing the dc grounding electrode conductor (dc GEC).

• Not smaller than the largest conductor and not smaller than 8AWG
copper
• 250.166 does not have a table

It is rare to have to install a dc grounding electrode conductor, since

functional grounded inverters do not require a dc grounding electrode
conductor, since they are not separately derived systems and they use
the ac equipment grounding conductor for reference to detect ground
faults. There is often confusion here among older installers who were
taught to install a dc grounding electrode conductor way back (10
years ago). A dc only system would require a dc grounding electrode
conductor.

250.122 is for sizing equipment grounding conductors (ac EGC and dc EGC).
• Based on OCPD (overcurrent protection device)
• If no OCPD as with 1 or 2 strings, then use 156% of Isc in place of OCPD in
Table 250.122 rating as per 690.45 and 690.9(B). (This was changed from Isc
in the 2014 NEC.)

From Table 250.122, Minimum size of equipment grounding conductor

(EGC):

Table 2.5 From Table 250.122 ac and dc EGC © 2017 NFPA

Overcurrent device size Copper EGC minimum size
15A 14
20A 12
60A 10
100A 8

Since you have the book, use it. There are often exceptions to rules.

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 The National Electrical Code

CHAPTER 3: WIRING METHODS

TABLE 300.5: MINIMUM COVER REQUIREMENTS

Look up here how deep to bury conduit and direct burial cables. Good material
for exam questions and real life.

SECTION 300.7: RACEWAYS EXPOSED TO DIFFERENT TEMPERATURES

300.7(A): sealing raceways

Raceways that have different portions that are exposed to different tempera-
tures (such as a freezer) need to be sealed.

300.7(B): expansion, expansion-deflection and deflection fittings

Expansion of raceways (and even solar rails) have temperature coefficients for
expansion, which you can calculate with methods similar to temperature coef-
ficients for voltage. We have a practice test question later in the book and have
done the calculations for an expansion fitting. Often, in the field, installers will use
an approved flexible conduit at certain locations in order to allow for expansion.

ARTICLE 310: CONDUCTORS FOR GENERAL WIRING

(WIRE SIZING – MOST POPULAR PAGES OF THE NEC)

Know how to use the following Article 310 wire-sizing tables. Later in this
book, we will size wires with these tables.

Tables 310.15(B)(2)(a), 310.15(B)(3)(a), 310.15(B)(16) and 310.15(B)(17)

are perhaps the most used pages in the NEC. Many people copy these
pages – so they do not get worn out and for convenience.
310.15(B)(3)(c) Ambient temperature adjustment for raceways or cables
exposed to sunlight over rooftops was REMOVED in the 2017 NEC.

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The National Electrical Code

Table 310.15(B)(2)(a)

Ambient temperature correction factors. (Hot temperatures mean wire will

heat up faster.) The same information in 310.15(B)(2)(a) is in Table 690.31(A)
with very minor exceptions. The NEC tells us to use 690.31(A) rather than
310.15(B)(2)(a), but there will likely never be a difference in the outcome during
your long and prosperous career.

Table 2.6 From Table 310.15(B)(2)(a) © 2017 NFPA

Ambient temperature 75C conductor 90C conductor
26–30C 1 1
31–35C 0.94 0.96
36–40C 0.88 0.91

Table 310.15(B)(2)(b)

Do not use Table 310.15(B)(2)(b), which is based on 40C ambient temperatures.

Some people deface their NEC, so they do not actually use this page.

Table 310.15(B)(3)(a)

Adjustment factors for more than three current-carrying conductors (too

many conductors in a pipe cannot dissipate heat efficiently).
From Table 310.15(B)(3)(a), Derating for more than three current carrying con-
ductors in raceway or cable:

Table 2.7 From Table 310.15(B)(3)(a) © 2017 NFPA

Number of conductors Derating factor
4–6 80
7–9 70
10–20 50
21–30 45
31–40 40

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 The National Electrical Code

Table 310.15(B)(3)(c) REMOVED

Ambient temperature adjustment for raceways or cables exposed to sunlight

over rooftops. If a raceway is installed less than 7/8” from a rooftop, then a 33C
temperature adder should be added to the high ambient design temperature,
however, you should not install a raceway less than 1” from a rooftop, so that
there is space for debris to go under the raceway.

Table 310.15(B)(16)

Sizing conductors in raceway, cable or earth (everything that is not in free air).
From Table 310.15(B)(16), Allowable ampacity for conductors in conduit at 30C:

Table 2.8 From Table 310.15(B)(16) © 2017 NFPA

Size of wire 75C rated conductor 90C rated conductor
14AWG 20A 25A
12AWG 25A 30A
10AWG 35A 40A

Table 310.15(B)(17)

Sizing single insulated conductors in free air (if wire is in free air, it can dissipate
heat more easily).
From Table 310.15(B)(17), Allowable ampacity for single insulated conductors
in free air at 30C:

Table 2.9 From Table 310.15(B)(17) © 2017 NFPA

Size (AWG) 75C 90C
18AWG – 18A
16AWG – 24A
14AWG 30A 35A
12AWG 35A 40A
10AWG 50A 55A

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The National Electrical Code

If you are having trouble understanding the terminology, such as

ampacity, OCPD, raceway, electrode, EGC, GEC, 10AWG, etc., it is rec-
ommended that you study the first book in this series, Solar PV Basics, in
order to make the most of your time and your educational experience.

ARTICLE 314: OUTLET, DEVICE, PULL AND JUNCTION BOXES;

CONDUIT BODIES; FITTINGS; AND HANDHOLE ENCLOSURES

You may need to look up some rules regarding how much space you need in a
junction box. Just be familiar with how to look up Article 314.

ARTICLES 320 THROUGH 362

Table 2.10 Articles for raceways and cables

Article Raceway or cable articles used most often with PV installations
320 Armored cable: AC
330 Metal-clad cable: MC
334 Nonmetallic-sheathed cable: NM, NMC and NMS (romex)
338 Service entrance cable: SE and USE (USE-2)
340 Underground feeder and branch-circuit cable: UF
342 Intermediate metal conduit: IMC
344 Rigid metal conduit: RMC
348 Flexible metal conduit: FMC
350 Liquidtight flexible metal conduit: LFMC
352 Rigid polyvinyl chloride conduit: PVC
356 Liquidtight flexible nonmetallic conduit: LFNC
358 Electrical metallic tubing: EMT (most commonly used)

These articles are about different types of raceway, conduit and cable. Know
how to use the NEC table of contents to find the correct wiring method.

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 The National Electrical Code

MC has different meanings in the solar industry. MC cable in the NEC is

metal-clad cable, which is a cable assembly commonly used for PV dc
circuits inside a house. PV source and output circuits have to be in MC
cable or a metal raceway (usually EMT) from the PV until the first readily
accessible dc disconnect when within a building. The other type of MC is
the MC connector, which is often the type of connector in between the
PV modules. Multi Contact is a company that makes the MC connectors,
so in this case MC is for a brand name of a connector. The most common
type of module interconnect is MC-4 or MC-4 compatible.

CHAPTER 4: EQUIPMENT FOR GENERAL USE

ARTICLE 480: STORAGE BATTERIES

To remember this, think of 48-volt battery bank for 480. Batteries are also covered
in Article 706 Energy storage systems and many other places in the code, which
will change rapidly over the next few code cycles as energy storage becomes
mainstream, in order to bottle the sunlight captured by PV systems. A common
question is: “Where should we look in the NEC when installing batteries?” and the
answer is not so clear. When the 2017 NEC was written, some thought that the old
lead–acid oriented Article 480 would be taken out of the Code, but here it remains …
for now. Perhaps if lead–acid batteries are installed, we could look primarily to
article 480 and when other technologies are used, we can look to 706. Often
lithium batteries are more than just batteries, they often have electronics working
with them in an enclosure that is only to be opened by the factory, making them
more of an energy storage system than just a battery. Another clue we can use as
to which article will apply to your installation is that Article 706 applies to energy
storage systems over 50Vac and 60Vdc. That leaves less than 60Vdc for article 480.

480.2: definitions/nominal voltage

Nominal means “in name only” and it says in the code that nominal voltages are
given for “convenient designation.” For example, your car battery is 12V (2V per cell)
nominal. When it is sitting it will be about 12.6V (2.1V per cell), when it is being
charged it will be somewhere around 14.5V (2.4V per cell). Your car battery will be

27
The National Electrical Code

12V (2V per cell) if it is somewhere in the neighborhood of halfway discharged, which
hopefully never happens. It will also drop down in voltage for a split second when you
are starting the car with an electric starter. Most car batteries are lead–acid batteries
and have about the same voltage characteristics as other lead–acid batteries.
Nominal voltages from Informational Note in Section 480.2:

Table 2.11 Battery chemistry nominal voltages

Battery technology Nominal voltage per cell
Lead–acid 2V
Alkali 1.2V
Lithium ion (Li-ion) 3.6 to 3.8V

Informational note: informational notes in the code are good advice or

tips and not rules that have to be followed in the code. The AHJ, how-
ever, can enforce whatever it sees fit to enforce.

Definition of sealed cell or battery: A sealed cell cannot accept addition of fluid
for maintenance. A sealed lead–acid battery will have a valve to release pressure.

480.10(C): spaces about battery systems

For battery racks, there should be a minimum clearance of 1” between a cell con-
tainer and any wall or structure on the side not requiring access for maintenance.

490.2: high-voltage definition

Over 1000V (for purposes of this article):

Oftentimes we talk about medium-voltage ready inverters that are con-

nected on the ac side to thousands of volts.

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 The National Electrical Code

If you are confused about the different definitions of high, medium, and low
voltages, do not worry. It is confusing for everyone. One thing is for sure,
though, medium voltage is thousands of volts.

CHAPTER 5: SPECIAL OCCUPANCIES

If you are installing PV systems at a gas station, hospital, trailer park, marina,
aircraft hangar, or in a barn with animals, you should check Chapter 5 for
special requirements.

CHAPTER 6: SPECIAL EQUIPMENT

This is where PV falls, along with electric vehicles, industrial machinery, IT equip-
ment, swimming pools, fuel cells, wind, and other special equipment.

ARTICLE 690: PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS

This is covered in Chapter 3 of this book.

ARTICLE 691: LARGE-SCALE PV ELECTRIC POWER

PRODUCTION FACILITY

This article covers very large PV systems and is not the focus of any NAB-
CEP exams. Article 691 is covered in more depth in another book in this
series Photovoltaic Systems and the National Electrical Code. That being
said, let us take a look at Article 691.
Article 691 was written because PV systems were the only large power
plants that were being looked at by local electrical inspectors. Most large
power plants are not subject to the NEC and are covered by the National
Electrical Safety Code. These systems are usually manned, have big fences
around them, and are only accessible by qualified people. It is not like a
building where a kid might climb on the roof to get a frisbee. Much of
the intent of 691 is to have a way to work around the requirements of
Article 690 when under engineering supervision.

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The National Electrical Code

691 only applies to systems that meet all of these requirements:

• 5MWac and larger systems.
• Sole purpose of supplying utility power (no loads or net-metering).
• Accessible only to authorized personnel.
• Connection through medium or high voltage switchgear.
• Not on buildings.
Systems may be larger than 5MWac and are not required to invoke Article
691. 691 requirements are less safe in a way, but more safe because of
special procedures to limit access.
691 may allow systems to forgo the arc-fault requirements of 690.

The National Electric Safety Code (NESC) is the code that the utilities
use. You can see that utility power lines go high in the sky. They are
many thousands of volts and the conductors are often bare, with no
insulation at all. Why does the bird sitting on the line not get bothered?
It is not bothered unless it is completing the circuit. There are different
rules for equipment on utility property, including power poles. Often-
times people consider large “utility-scale” PV plants to be the property
of a utility and not required to be NEC-compliant.

Figure 2.4 Bird on bare high voltage line, Wikimedia: http://commons.wikimedia.

org/wiki/ File:BirdChaparalles.JPG

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 The National Electrical Code

CHAPTER 7: SPECIAL CONDITIONS

There are articles in Chapter 7 that we will use on a regular basis in the solar
industry and this is becoming more prevalent with the modernization of the
grid. We will only cover the renewable energy relevant articles in Chapter 7.

ARTICLE 705: INTERCONNECTED POWER PRODUCTION SOURCES

This is covered in Chapter 4 of this book and includes how we connect to the grid.

ARTICLE 706: ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEMS (ESS)

706.1: scope

Article 706 applies to permanently installed energy storage systems over 50Vac
or 60Vdc. (If there were an energy storage system under 50Vac, if would fit
neither in 480 nor 706.)

706.2: definitions

Energy storage system (ESS): “One or more components assembled together

capable of storing energy for use at a future time. ESS(s) can include, but are not
limited to batteries, capacitors, and kinetic energy devices (e.g., flywheels
and compressed air). These systems can have ac or dc output for utilization
and can include inverters and converters to change stored energy into electrical
energy.”
Discussion: Article 706 covers modern energy storage devices, many which are
in the state of development and will undoubtedly look different in a decade.
Some say that super-capacitors are the holy grail of energy storage, if they
could only figure out how to make them hold more energy. If you are studying
for a NABCEP exam, they often do not cover recent changes. It has been said
that as of 2019, nobody had yet seen a lithium battery question.
Self-contained energy storage system:
Components are assembled into a single energy storage unit.

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The National Electrical Code

Pre-engineered energy storage system (of matched components):

Components are field assembled from components supplied by a single entity.
Flow battery definition: “An energy storage component similar to a fuel cell
that stores its active materials in the form of two electrolytes external to the
reactor interface . When in use, the electrolytes are transferred between reactor
and storage tanks.”

706.7: disconnecting means

Discussion: Disconnecting means shall be provided for all ungrounded conduc-

tors and be within line of sight and readily accessible or if controlled by remote
actuation, the remote disconnect shall be capable of being locked in the open
(off) position and the location of the controls shall be marked on the discon-
necting means.
According to 706.7(D), the marking of the disconnecting means shall indicate:

1. nominal ESS voltage

2. maximum available short circuit current
3. clearing time or arc duration based on short circuit current and OCPD
4. date calculation was performed.

706.7(D): exception

Label not required if arc-flash label is applied.

Arc-flash labels are covered in NFPA 70E (NFPA 70 is the NEC, which is a differ-
ent book to buy).

706.7(E)(3)

When fused disconnects are used, the line side of the disconnect should be con-
nected towards the energy storage system.
This makes sense for a lot of renewable energy and it is always a good idea to
put the line side of equipment towards where there could be more current if
there were a short circuit.

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 The National Electrical Code

706.10: ENERGY STORAGE SYSTEM LOCATIONS

706.10(A): ventilation

Ventilation is now only required to be appropriate with the energy storage

technology. In previous version of the Code, ventilation was required for
batteries and not all batteries require ventilation. This was because when lead–
acid batteries are overcharged, they split H2O into hydrogen and oxygen via
electrolysis, which is a way to make explosive rocket fuel. When the inspectors
of the past read the Code, they often would enforce ventilation for lithium bat-
teries, which is no longer required, unless ventilation is in the manufacturer’s
instructions.
Anything in the manufacturer’s instructions is always required according to
110.3(B).

706.10: directory

A plaque or directory shall be at each service entrance location and at

all sources capable of being interconnected. If the facility is standalone,
then the plaque or directory shall be readily visible on the exterior of the
building and indicate the location of the standalone system disconnecting
means.

706.10(C): spaces about ESS components

• Comply with 110.26 working spaces.

• For battery racks, a minimum of 1” between a cell and any wall or structure
on the side not requiring maintenance or permitted to contact if free air is
not less than 90% of the length.

706.20: CIRCUIT SIZING AND CURRENT

This is where we define currents, much like currents are defined in 690.8, which
is where we define PV system currents. Some of this material was moved from
Article 690 when we took most references to energy storage or batteries out of
Article 690 in the 2017 NEC.

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The National Electrical Code

706.20(A)(1): nameplate-rated circuit current

The nameplate rated current of an ESS shall be the maximum rated current used
for sizing wires for pre-engineered systems.

706.20(A)(2): inverter output circuit current

The inverter continuous output current is used. Note that standalone inverters
often have greater surge current ratings that are not considered the rated cur-
rent for wire sizing purposes.

706.20(A)(3): inverter input circuit current

The inverter input current shall be the continuous input current rating at the
lowest voltage. Note that when input voltage is lowest, it takes the most cur-
rent to get continuous power. Continuous current is a current that can be for 3
hours, whereas a surge current is less time.

706.20(B): conductor ampacity and overcurrent device ratings

Feeder circuit from ESS to wiring system serving loads shall not be less than
the greater of:

1. Nameplate current
2. ESS overcurrent protective device

Occasionally, with normal wire sizing it is possible to have a wire with less
ampacity than the overcurrent protection device due to rounding up of con-
ductor ampacity. This is not the case here with ESSs.

706.21: OVERCURRENT PROTECTION

706.21(D): current limiting

Listed current limiting OCPD shall be installed for each ESS dc output, unless
provided already in ESS device.
A current limiting overcurrent protection device, unlike regular overcurrent pro-
tection device is a device that can interrupt huge currents from short circuits,

34
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
how to clean the bird. I showed them how to spit it and turn it over
their fire.
Later, I shared a small piece of the meat in their feast. They were
gleeful and greasily amorous during the meal.
When I had to leave, it was dark. I warned them to stand watches,
keep the fire burning low and take to the tree above if anything
approached. The male walked a little away with me when I left the
fire.
I said again, "Promise me you won't leave here until we've made you
ready for it."
"We like it here. We will stay. Tomorrow you bring more of us?"
"Yes. I will bring many more of you, if you promise to keep them all
here in this woods until they're ready to leave."
"I promise." He looked up at the night sky and, in the firelight, I saw
his wonder. "You say we came from there?"
"The old ones of your kind told me so. Didn't they tell you?"
"I can't remember any old ones. You tell me."
"The old ones told me you came long before the red men in a ship
from the stars." Standing there in the dark, I had to grin, visioning
the Sunday supplements that would be written in about a year,
maybe even less.
He looked into the sky for a long time. "Those little lights are the
stars?"
"That's right."
"Which star?"
I glanced about and presently pointed over a tree. "From Venus."
Then I realized I had blundered by passing him an English name. "In
your language, Pohtah."
He looked at the planet a long time and murmured, "Venus. Pohtah."
That next week, I transported all of the volplas out to the oak
woods. There were a hundred and seven men, women and children.
With no design on my part, they tended to segregate into groups
consisting of four to eight couples together with the current children
of the women. Within these groups, the adults were promiscuous,
but apparently not outside the group. The group thus had the
appearance of a super-family and the males indulged and cared for
all the children without reference to actual parenthood.
By the end of the week, these super-families were scattered over
about four square miles of the ranch. They had found a new
delicacy, sparrows, and hunted them easily as they roosted at night.
I had taught the volplas to use the fire drill and they were already
utilizing the local grasses, vines and brush to build marvelously
contrived tree houses in which the young, and sometimes the adults,
slept through midday and midnight.
The afternoon my family returned home, I had a crew of workmen
out tearing down the animal rooms and lab building. The caretakers
had anesthetized all the experimental mutants, and the metabolic
accelerator and other lab equipment was being dismantled. I wanted
nothing around that might connect the sudden appearance of the
volplas with my property. It was already apparent that it would take
the volplas only a few more weeks to learn their means of survival
and develop an embryonic culture of their own. Then they could
leave my ranch and the fun would be on.
My wife got out of the car and looked around at the workmen
hurrying about the disemboweled buildings and she said, "What on
Earth is going on here?"
"I've finished my work and we no longer need the buildings. I'm
going to write a paper about my results."
My wife looked at me appraisingly and shook her head. "I thought
you meant it. But you really ought to. It would be your first."
My son asked, "What happened to the animals?"
"Turned them over to the university for further study," I lied.
"Well," he said to her, "you can't say our pop isn't a man of
decision."
Twenty-four hours later, there wasn't a sign of animal
experimentation on the ranch.
Except, of course, that the woods were full of volplas. At night, I
could hear them faintly when I sat out on the terrace. As they
passed through the dark overhead, they chattered and laughed and
sometimes moaned in winged love. One night a flight of them
soared slowly across the face of the full Moon, but I was the only
one who noticed.

I made daily trips out to the original camp to meet the oldest of the
males, who had apparently established himself as a chief of all the
volpla families. He assured me that the volplas were staying close to
the ranch, but complained that the game was getting scarce.
Otherwise things were progressing nicely.
The males now carried little stone-tipped spears with feathered
shafts that they could throw in flight. They used them at night to
bring down roosting sparrows and in the day to kill their biggest
game, the local rabbits.
The women wore bluejay feathers on their heads. The men wore
plumes of dove feathers and sometimes little skirts fashioned of
rabbit down. I did some reading on the subject and taught them
crude tanning of their rabbit and squirrel hides for use in their tree
homes.
The tree homes were more and more intricately wrought with expert
basketry for walls and floor and tight thatching above. They were
well camouflaged from below, as I suggested.
These little creatures delighted me more and more. For hours, I
could watch the adults, both the males and females, playing with the
children or teaching them to glide. I could sit all afternoon and
watch them at work on a tree house.
So one day my wife asked, "How does the mighty hunter who now
returns from the forest?"
"Oh, fine. I've been enjoying the local animal life."
"So has our daughter."
"What do you mean?"
"She has two of them up in her room."
"Two what?"
"I don't know. What do you call them?"
I went up the stairs three at a time and burst into my daughter's
room.
There she sat on her bed reading a book to two volplas.
One of the volplas grinned and said in English, "Hello there, King
Arthur."
"What's going on here?" I demanded of all three.
"Nothing, Daddy. We're just reading like we always do."
"Like always? How long has this been going on?"
"Oh, weeks and weeks. How long has it been since you came here
that first time to visit me, Fuzzy?"
The impolite volpla who had addressed me as King Arthur grinned at
her and calculated. "Oh, weeks and weeks."
"But you're teaching them to read English."
"Of course. They're such good pupils and so grateful. Daddy, you
won't make them go away, will you? We love each other, don't we?"
Both volplas nodded vigorously.
She turned back to me. "Daddy, did you know they can fly? They
can fly right out of the window and way up in the sky."
"Is that a fact?" I said testily. I looked coldly at the two volplas. "I'm
going to speak to your chief."

Back downstairs again, I raved at my wife. "Why didn't you tell me a

thing like this was going on? How could you let such an unusual
thing go on and not discuss it with me?"
My wife got a look on her face that I don't see very often. "Now you
listen to me, mister. Your whole life is a secret from us. Just what
makes you think your daughter can't have a little secret of her own?"
She got right up close to me and her blue eyes snapped little sparks
all over me. "The fact is that I was wrong to tell you at all. I
promised her I wouldn't tell anyone. Look what happened when I
did. You go leaping around the house like a raving maniac just
because a little girl has a secret."
"A fine secret!" I yelled. "Didn't it occur to you this might be
dangerous? Those creatures are over-sexed and...." I stumbled into
an awful silence while she gave me the dirtiest smile since the days
of the Malatestas.
"How did you ... suddenly get to be ... the palace eunuch? Those are
sweet lovable little creatures without a harm in their furry little
bodies. But don't think I don't realize what's been going on. You
created them yourself. So, if they have any dirty ideas, I know where
they got them."
I stormed out of the house. I spun the jeep out of the yard and
ripped off through the woods.
The chief was sitting at home as comfortable as you please. He was
leaning back against the great oak that hid his tree house. He had a
little fire going and one of the women was roasting a sparrow for
him. He greeted me in volpla language.
"Do you realize," I blurted angrily, "that there are two volplas in my
daughter's bedroom?"
"Why, yes," he answered calmly. "They go there every day. Is there
anything wrong with that?"
"She's teaching them the words of men."
"You told us some men may be our enemies. We are anxious to
know their words, the better to protect ourselves."
He reached around behind the tree and, right there in broad
daylight, that volpla pulled a copy of the San Francisco Chronicle out
of hiding. He held it up apologetically. "We have been taking it for
some time from the box in front of your house."
He spread the paper on the ground between us. I saw by the date
that it was yesterday's. He said proudly, "From the two who go to
your house, I have learned the words of men. As men say, I can
'read' most of this."

I just stood there gaping at him. How could I possibly recoup this
situation so that the stunning joke of the volplas wouldn't be lost?
Would it seem reasonable that the volplas, by observing and
listening to men, had learned their language? Or had they been
taught it by a human friend?
That was it—I would just have to sacrifice anonymity. My family and
I had found a colony of them on our ranch and taught them English.
I was stuck with it because it was the truth.
The volpla waved his long thin arm over the front page. "Men are
dangerous. They will shoot us with their guns if we leave here."
I hastened to reassure him. "It will not be like that. When men have
learned about you, they will leave you alone." I stated this
emphatically, but for the first time I was beginning to see this might
not be a joke to the volplas. Nevertheless, I went on. "You must
disperse the families at once. You stay here with your family so we
remain in contact, but send the other families to other places."
He shook his head. "We cannot leave these woods. Men would shoot
us."
Then he stood and looked squarely at me with his nocturnal eyes.
"Perhaps you are not a good friend. Perhaps you have lied to us.
Why are you saying we should leave this safety?"
"You will be happier. There will be more game."
He continued to stare directly at me. "There will be men. One has
already shot one of us. We have forgiven him and are friends. But
one of us is dead."
"You are friends with another man?" I asked, stunned.
He nodded and pointed up the valley. "He is up there today with
another family."
"Let's go!"
He had the advantage of short glides, but the volpla chief couldn't
keep up with me. Sometimes trotting, sometimes walking fast, I got
way ahead of him. My hard breathing arose as much out of my
anxiety about the manner of handling this stranger as it did out of
the exertion.
I rounded a bend in the creek and there was my son sitting on the
grass near a cooking fire playing with a baby volpla and talking in
English to an adult volpla who stood beside him. As I approached,
my son tossed the baby into the air. The tiny planes opened and the
baby drifted down to his waiting hands.
He said to the volpla beside him, "No, I'm sure you didn't come from
the stars. The more I think about it, the more I'm sure my father—"
I yelled from behind them, "What business do you have telling them
that?"

The male volpla jumped about two feet. My son turned his head
slowly and looked at me. Then he handed the baby to the male and
stood up.
"You haven't any business out here!" I was seething. He had
destroyed the whole store of volpla legends with one small doubt.
He brushed the grass from his trousers and straightened. The way
he was looking at me, I felt my anger turning to a kind of jelly.
"Dad, I killed one of these little people yesterday. I thought he was a
hawk and I shot him when I was out hunting. I wouldn't have done
that if you had told me about them."
I couldn't look at him. I stared at the grass and my face got hot.
"The chief tells me that you want them to leave the ranch soon. You
think you're going to play a big joke, don't you?"
I heard the chief come up behind me and stand quietly at my back.
My son said softly, "I don't think it's much of a joke, Dad. I had to
listen to that one crying after I hit him."
There were big black trail ants moving in the grass. It seemed to me
there was a ringing sound in the sky. I raised my head and looked at
him. "Son, let's go back to the jeep and we can talk about it on the
way home."
"I'd rather walk." He sort of waved to the volpla he had been talking
to and then to the chief. He jumped the creek and walked away into
the oak woods.
The volpla holding the baby stared at me. From somewhere far up
the valley, a crow was cawing. I didn't look at the chief. I turned and
brushed past him and walked back to the jeep alone.
At home, I opened a bottle of beer and sat out on the terrace to
wait for my son. My wife came toward the house with some cut
flowers from the garden, but she didn't speak to me. She snapped
the blades of the scissors as she walked.
A volpla soared across the terrace and landed at my daughter's
bedroom window. He was there only briefly and relaunched himself.
He was followed from the window in moments by the two volplas I
had left with my daughter earlier in the afternoon. I watched them
with a vague unease as the three veered off to the east, climbing
effortlessly.
When I finally took a sip of my beer, it was already warm. I set it
aside. Presently my daughter ran out onto the terrace.
"Daddy, my volplas left. They said good-by and we hadn't even
finished the TV show. They said they won't see me again. Did you
make them leave?"
"No. I didn't."
She was staring at me with hot eyes. Her lower lip protruded and
trembled like a pink tear drop.
"Daddy, you did so." She stomped into the house, sobbing.
My God! In one afternoon, I had managed to become a palace
eunuch, a murderer and a liar!

Most of the afternoon went by before I heard my son enter the

house. I called to him and he came out and stood before me. I got
up.
"Son, I can't tell you how sorry I am for what happened to you. It
was my fault, not yours at all. I only hope you can forget the shock
of finding out what sort of creature you had hit. I don't know why I
didn't anticipate that such things would happen. It was just that I
was so intent on mystifying the whole world that I...."
I stopped. There wasn't anything more to say.
"Are you going to make them leave the ranch?" he asked.
I was aghast. "After what has happened?"
"Gee, what are you going to do about them, Dad?"
"I've been trying to decide. I don't know what I should do that will
be best for them." I looked at my watch. "Let's go back out and talk
to the chief."
His eyes lighted and he clapped me on the shoulder, man to man.
We ran out and got into the jeep and drove back up to the valley.
The late afternoon Sun glared across the landscape.
We didn't say much as we wound up the valley between the
darkening trees. I was filled more and more with the unease that
had seized me as I watched the three volplas leave my terrace and
climb smoothly and purposefully into the east.
We got out at the chief's camp and there were no volplas around.
The fire had burned down to a smolder. I called in the volpla
language, but there was no answer.
We went from camp to camp and found dead fires. We climbed to
their tree houses and found them empty. I was sick and scared. I
called endlessly till I was hoarse.
At last, in the darkness, my son put a hand on my arm. "What are
you going to do, Dad?"
Standing there in those terribly silent woods, I trembled. "I'll have to
call the police and the newspapers and warn everybody."
"Where do you suppose they've gone?"
I looked to the east where the stars, rising out of the great pass in
the mountains, glimmered like a deep bowl of fireflies.
"The last three I saw were headed that way."
We had been gone from the house for hours. When we stepped out
onto the lighted terrace, I saw the shadow of a helicopter down on
the strip. Then I saw Guy sitting near me in a chair. He was holding
his head in his hands.
Em was saying to my wife, "He was beside himself. There wasn't a
thing he could do. I had to get him away from there and I thought
you wouldn't mind if we flew over here and stayed with you till
they've decided what to do."
I walked over and said, "Hello, Guy. What's the matter?"
He raised his head and then stood and shook hands. "It's a mess.
The whole project will be ruined and we don't dare go near it."
"What happened?"
"Just as we set it off—"
"Set what off?"
"The rocket."
"Rocket?"
Guy groaned.
"The Venus rocket! Rocket Harold!"
My wife interjected. "I was telling Guy we didn't know a thing about
it because they haven't delivered our paper in weeks. I've
complained—"
I waved her to silence. "Go on," I demanded of Guy.
"Just as I pushed the button and the hatch was closing, a flock of
owls circled the ship. They started flying through the hatch and
somehow they jammed it open."
Em said to my wife, "There must have been a hundred of them.
They kept coming and coming and flying into that hatch. Then they
began dumping out all the recording instruments. The men tried to
run a motor-driven ladder up to the ship and those owls hit the
driver on the head and knocked him out with some kind of
instrument."
Guy turned his grief-stricken face to me. "Then the hatch closed and
we don't dare go near the ship. It was supposed to fire in five
minutes, but it hasn't. Those damned owls could have...."
There was a glare in the east. We all turned and saw a brief streak
of gilt pencil its way up the black velvet beyond the mountains.
"That's it!" Guy shouted. "That's the ship!" Then he moaned. "A total
loss."
I grabbed him by the shoulders. "You mean it won't make it to
Venus?"
He jerked away in misery. "Sure, it will make it. The automatic
controls can't be tampered with. But the rocket is on its way without
any recording instruments or TV aboard. Just a load of owls."
My son laughed. "Owls! My dad can tell you a thing or two."
I silenced him with a scowl. He shut up, then danced off across the
terrace. "Man, man! This is the biggest! The most—the greatest—the
end!"

The phone was ringing. As I went to the box on the terrace, I

grabbed my boy's arm. "Don't you breathe a word."
He giggled. "The joke is on you, Pop. Why should I say anything? I'll
just grin once in a while."
"Now you cut that out."
He held onto my arm and walked toward the phone box with me,
half convulsed. "Wait till men land on Venus and find Venusians with
a legend about their Great White Father in California. That's when I'll
tell."
The phone call was from a screaming psychotic who wanted Guy. I
stood near Guy while he listened to the excited voice over the wire.
Presently Guy said, "No, no. The automatic controls will correct for
the delay in firing. It isn't that. It's just that there aren't any
instruments.... What? What just happened? Calm down. I can't
understand you."
I heard Em say to my wife, "You know, the strangest thing occurred
out there. I thought it looked like those owls were carrying things on
their backs. One of them dropped something and I saw the men
open a package wrapped in a leaf. You'd never believe what was in it
—three little birds roasted to a nice brown!"
My son nudged me. "Smart owls. Long trip."
I put my hand over his mouth. Then I saw that Guy was holding the
receiver limply away from his ear.
He spluttered. "They just taped a radio message from the rocket. It's
true that the radio wasn't thrown out. But we didn't have a record
like this on that rocket."
He yelled into the phone. "Play it back." He thrust the receiver at
me.
For a moment, there was only a gritty buzz from the receiver. Then
the tape started playing a soft, high voice. "This is Rocket Harold
saying everything is well. This is Rocket Harold saying good-by to
men." There was a pause and then, in clear volpla language,
another voice spoke. "Man who made us, we forgive you. We know
we did not come from the stars, but we go there. I, chief, give you
welcome to visit. Good-by."

We all stood around too exhausted by the excitement to say

anything. I was filled with a big, sudden sadness.
I stood for a long time and looked out to the east, where the
sprawling mountain range held a bowl of dancing fireflies between
her black breasts.
Presently I said to old Guy, "How long do you think it will be before
you have a manned rocket ready for Venus?"
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK VOLPLA ***

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