a) Classification of Stability: Stability in power systems is categorized into:

Steady-State Stability:
Deals with small gradual disturbances. Analyzed using power-angle equations. Improved
with voltage regulators and stabilizers.

Transient Stability:
Deals with large sudden disturbances like faults. Analyzed using the Swing Equation and
equal area criterion. Improved by fast fault clearing, excitation control, and HVDC.

Dynamic Stability:
Involves small oscillations over time. Analyzed using eigenvalue analysis and damping ratios.
Improved using power system stabilizers.

(b) Block Diagram of SMIB Configuration (Classical Model)

A Single Machine Infinite Bus (SMIB) system includes:
Synchronous Generator,Transmission Line,Infinite Bus (fixed voltage and frequency)
Excitation System,Turbine and Governor

Block Diagram Components:

Mechanical Input Power (Pm),Electrical Output Power (Pe),Swing Equation Block
Transfer Function of the Generator,Voltage Regulator System,Damping Control

(c) Mode Shape & Participation Factor

Mode Shape: Describes oscillation patterns of system states.
Participation Factor: Determines the contribution of each state variable to system modes,
useful in damping analysis.

Rotor Angle Stability:

Rotor angle stability is the ability of the interconnected synchronous machines
running in the power system to remain in the state of synchronism. Two
synchronous generators running parallel and delivering active power to the load
depends on the rotor angle of the generator (load sharing between alternators
depends on the rotor angle).
During normal operation of the generator, rotor magnetic field and stator
magnetic field rotates with the same speed, however there will be an angular
separation between the rotor magnetic field and stator magnetic field which depends
on the electrical torque (power) output of the generator.
An increase in the prime mover speed (turbine speed) will result in the
advancement of the rotor angle to a new postion realtive to the rotating magnetic
field of the stator. On the other hand reduction in the mechanical torque will result
in the fall back of the rotor angle relative to the stator field.
In equilibrium condition there will be equilibrium between the input mechanical
torque and output electrical torque of each machine (generator) in the power system
and speed of the machines will remain same. If the equilibrium is upset which
results in the acceleration or deceleration of rotors of the machines.
If one of the inter connected generator moves faster temporarily with respect to
the other machine. Rotor angle of the machine will advance with respect to slow
machine. This results in the load deliver by faster generator increases and load
delivered by slow machine decreases. This tends to reduce the speed difference
between the two generators and also the angular separation between the slow
generator and fast generator.
Power system stability
It involves the study of the dynamics of the power system under disturbances. Power
system stability implies that its ability to return to normal or stable operation after
having been subjected to some form of disturbances.
From the classical point of view power system instability can be seen as loss of
synchronism (i.e., some synchronous machines going out of step) when the system
is subjected to a particular disturbance. Three type of stability are of concern:
Steady state, transient and dynamic stability.
Steady-state Stability:-
Steady-state stability relates to the response of synchronous machine to a
gradually increasing load. It is basically concerned with the determination of the
upper limit of machine loading without losing synchronism, provided the loading
is increased gradually.
Dynamic Stability:-
Dynamic stability involves the response to small disturbances that occur on the
system, producing oscillations. The system is said to be dynamically stable if
theses oscillations do not acquire more than certain amplitude and die out quickly.
If these oscillations continuously grow in amplitude, the system is dynamically
unstable. The source of this type of instability is usually an interconnection
between control systems.
Transient Stability:-
Transient stability involves the response to large disturbances, which may cause
rather large changes in rotor speeds, power angles and power transfers. Transient

Power system stability mainly concerned with rotor stability analysis. For this
various assumptions needed such as: For stability analysis balanced three phase system
and balanced disturbances are considered. Deviations of machine frequencies from
synchronous frequency are small. During short circuit in generator, dc offset and high
frequency current are present. But for analysis of stability, theses are neglected.
Network and impedance loads are at steady state. Hence voltages, currents
and powers can be computed from power flow equation.
Factors Affecting Transient Stability
Transient stability refers to the ability of a power system to maintain synchronism when
subjected to large disturbances such as faults, sudden load changes, or loss of generation.
The following factors significantly impact transient stability:
1. Inertia of the System (H)
Higher inertia (H) in generators increases transient stability. More kinetic energy storage
helps the system resist sudden disturbances.
2. Fault Clearing Time
Faster fault clearing improves transient stability. Delayed fault clearance increases rotor
angle deviation, leading to instability.
3. Fault Location & Severity
Nearer faults to the generator cause larger disturbances. Severe faults (3-phase faults) have
a greater impact compared to single-line faults.
4. System Reactance (X)
Higher transmission line reactance reduces power transfer capability, decreasing stability.
Lower reactance improves transient stability by allowing better power transfer.
5. Generator Internal Voltage (|E|)
A higher generator voltage improves transient stability. Voltage regulation helps maintain
system synchronism after disturbances.
6. Power Angle (δ) Before Fault
If the initial power angle δ0\delta_0 is high, the system is already near instability. A lower
initial angle allows more room for the rotor to swing and stabilize.
7. Excitation System Response
A fast and effective automatic voltage regulator (AVR) improves stability. Quick excitation
response helps maintain generator voltage after a disturbance.
8. Load Characteristics
Inductive loads cause more instability, while resistive loads help damp oscillations. Dynamic
loads like motors can worsen transient stability issues.
9. Use of Power System Stabilizers (PSS)
PSS helps damp oscillations and improves transient stability. Proper tuning of PSS enhances
damping of power swings.
Power System Stabilizer (PSS) with Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
A Power System Stabilizer (PSS) is used in power systems to enhance damping of low-
frequency electromechanical oscillations (power swings) in generators. It works in
coordination with the Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) to improve system stability and
maintain synchronism during disturbances.
2. Principle of Power System Stabilizer (PSS)
A generator’s rotor oscillates due to disturbances, affecting system stability. PSS provides a
supplementary control signal to the AVR based on speed or power variations. The PSS
output modifies the excitation voltage to introduce damping torque, reducing oscillations.
This stabilizing effect improves the dynamic response of the power system.
3. Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)
The AVR is responsible for: Regulating the generator’s terminal voltage by controlling the
exciter field current. Ensuring system voltage stability under varying load conditions.
Improving system steady-state and transient performance.
Block Diagram of Power System Stabilizer (PSS) with AVR

Working of the System

PSS detects changes in generator speed or power flow.
Input signals: Rotor speed deviation (Δω\Delta\omega), power fluctuations, or frequency
deviations.
A lead-lag compensator processes the signal to improve phase compensation.
The output of PSS is a stabilizing voltage VPSSV_{\text{PSS}}.
Prevents excessive control actions that may cause instability.

Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR)

Modifies the exciter input to adjust field voltage based on PSS output.
Regulates the generator’s field current to stabilize output voltage and enhance damping.
The generator reacts to changes, improving system damping and reducing oscillations.

Advantages of PSS with AVR

Improves transient and dynamic stability.
Enhances damping of low-frequency oscillations.
Ensures faster system response after disturbances.
Reduces the risk of voltage instability.

PSS, in combination with AVR, plays a critical role in maintaining power system stability. It
modulates the excitation voltage to introduce damping torque, reducing power oscillations
and improving overall system reliability.
Applications of Direct Methods of Transient Energy Function (TEF) Approach in Practical
Power Systems
The Transient Energy Function (TEF) approach is a direct method used to assess power
system stability by evaluating the system’s energy state. Unlike time-domain simulations,
TEF provides a fast and analytical way to determine system stability margins. It is
particularly useful for large-scale power systems where real-time assessment is required.

Key Applications of TEF Approach

1. Transient Stability Assessment
TEF helps determine the stability margin of a system after a large disturbance (e.g., faults,
sudden load changes). It calculates critical clearing time (CCT) for fault removal.
Faster than time-domain simulations, making it useful for real-time stability monitoring.
2. Preventive and Emergency Control
TEF is used for predicting instability and applying preventive measures. Helps in generation
rescheduling, load shedding, and dynamic braking to maintain stability. Supports
emergency fast-valving and excitation control in generators.
3. Online Stability Monitoring in Energy Management Systems (EMS)
Modern power grids use Wide Area Measurement Systems (WAMS) and PMUs (Phasor
Measurement Units). TEF is integrated with these technologies to continuously monitor the
stability margin of the grid. Helps grid operators take corrective actions before instability
occurs.
4. Stability-Constrained Optimal Power Flow (SC-OPF)
TEF is used in optimal power flow (OPF) analysis to ensure stable power dispatch.
Enhances economic operation while maintaining transient stability constraints.
5. Design of Power System Stabilizers (PSS) and Excitation Systems
TEF helps in optimizing control strategies for Power System Stabilizers (PSS).
Used in excitation system tuning to improve damping of electromechanical oscillations.
6. FACTS Controllers and HVDC System Design
TEF assists in designing Flexible AC Transmission System (FACTS) controllers like
STATCOM, SVC, and TCSC. Helps optimize HVDC converters for transient stability
support.
7. Renewable Energy Integration
TEF is applied in assessing the impact of wind farms and solar plants on transient stability.
Helps design energy storage and grid-forming inverters for better system resilience.
8. Islanding Detection and Microgrid Stability
Used in microgrid control systems for detecting unintentional islanding. Ensures stable
operation of distributed energy resources (DERs).

Advantages of TEF Approach

✅ Fast Computation – Suitable for real-time applications.
✅ Clear Stability Margin – Unlike numerical simulations, TEF directly provides a stability
index.
✅ Efficient for Large Systems – Can handle multi-machine power systems efficiently.
✅ Helps in Control Strategy Development – Used for designing various stability-enhancing
controllers.

The Transient Energy Function approach is a powerful tool for assessing and improving
transient stability in modern power systems. With the increasing complexity of power
networks, TEF-based techniques are becoming essential for real-time stability assessment,
renewable energy integration, and grid automation.