Date: 02/07/2024

Class: #1

Syllabus Topic: Units and Measurement

Title: Physical Quantities, Conversions, Vernier Calliper, Micrometer Screw Gauge

Physical Quantities

A physical quantity is the property of an object or phenomenon that can be measured with

an instrument. It is typically expressed as the product of a numerical magnitude and a unit.

For example, suppose a student measures his mass and records it as 55 𝑘𝑔. The numerical

magnitude in this case is 55. The unit of mass is the kilogram (𝑘𝑔).

There are two types:

• Basic/Fundamental Quantities

• Derived Quantities

Basic/Fundamental Quantities

➢ “stands by itself”

➢ Independent of other physical quantities, defined by a physical standard.

➢ There are seven fundamental or base quantities from which all other physical

quantities can be derived.

➢ Can you name them?

 Base Quantity Unit Symbol
mass (𝑚) kilogram 𝑘𝑔
length (𝑙) metre 𝑚
time (𝑡) second 𝑠
temperature (𝑇) kelvin 𝐾
electric current (𝐼) ampere 𝐴
amount of substance (𝑛) mole 𝑚𝑜𝑙
luminous intensity (𝑙𝑣 ) candela 𝑐𝑑

Derived Quantities

➢ Combination of fundamental quantities

➢ Units formed by means of multiplying or dividing a combination of fundamental

and/or derived quantities.

➢ The corresponding unit is derived from the relationship between the base units.

Can you name any examples?

Example:

Area is defined by the equation:

𝑨=𝒍×𝒃

where 𝐴 = area (𝑚2 )

𝑙 = length (𝑚)

𝑏 = breadth (𝑚)
Unit Analysis:

𝐴 = 𝑙×𝑏

𝐴=𝑚×𝑚

𝐴 = 𝑚2

∴ The SI unit for area is 𝑚2 .

Example:

Velocity is a derived quantity. It is defined by the following equation:

𝒔
𝒗= 𝒕

where 𝑣 is velocity (𝑚𝑠 −1 )

𝑠 is displacement (𝑚)

𝑡 is the time taken (𝑠)

From the definition, distance is a base quantity with unit 𝑚 (metre).

Time is also a base quantity with unit 𝑠 (second).

Unit Analysis:
𝑠
𝑣=𝑡

𝑚
𝑣= 𝑠

𝑣 = 𝑚𝑠 −1 or 𝑚/𝑠

∴ The SI unit for velocity is 𝑚𝑠 −1.

Example:

Pressure is defined by the following equation:

𝑭
𝑷=𝑨

where 𝑃 = pressure (𝑃𝑎)

𝐹 = force (𝑁)

𝐴 = area (𝑚2 )

Unit Analysis:

𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Pressure = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠×𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Pressure = 𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝑘𝑔×𝑚𝑠 −2
Pressure = 𝑚2

Pressure = 𝑘𝑔𝑚−1 𝑠 −2

Pressure = 𝑃𝑎𝑠𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑠

∴ The SI unit for pressure is 𝑃𝑎.

Prefixes

In order to avoid writing too many zeroes when a quantity being measured is too small or

too large, prefixes are used.

Prefix Factor Symbol

pico 10−12 𝑝

nano 10−9 𝑛

micro 10−6 𝜇

milli 10−3 𝑚

centi 10−2 𝑐

deci 10−1 𝑑

kilo 103 𝑘

mega 106 𝑀

giga 109 𝐺

tera 1012 𝑇
Let’s discuss some common examples:

Name Symbol Scaling Factor Common Examples

tera 𝑇 1012 Large computer hard drives can be terabytes in size.

giga 𝐺 109 Computer memories are measured in gigabytes.

mega 𝑀 106 A power station may have an output of 600 𝑀𝑊

(megawatts).

kilo 𝑘 103 Mass is often measured in kilograms

(i.e. 1000 grams)

deci 𝑑 10−1 Fluids are sometimes measured in decilitres

(i.e. 0.1 litres).

centi 𝑐 10−2 Distances are measured in centimetres

(i.e. 100th of a metre)

milli 𝑚 10−3 Time is sometimes measured in milliseconds.

micro 𝜇 10−6 micrometres are often used to measure wavelengths

of electromagnetic waves.

nano 𝑛 10−9 nanometres are used to measure atomic spacing.

pico 𝑝 10−12 picometres used to measure atomic radii.

Note

• When converting from a unit with a prefix to the base unit, you multiply by the factor.

Example: 6.2 𝑘𝑚 = 6.2 × 103 𝑚

2.9 𝑚𝐴 = 2.9 × 10−3 𝐴

• When converting from the base unit to a unit with a prefix, you divide by the factor.

Example: 3 100 000 000 𝑚 = 3 100 000 000 ÷ 109 𝐺𝑚 = 3.1 𝐺𝑚

0.0000084 𝑠 = 0.0000084 ÷ 10−6 𝜇𝑠 = 8.4 𝜇𝑠

Unit Analysis

Dimensional analysis is the analysis of the relationships between different physical

quantities by identifying their base quantities (such as length, mass, time, and electric

current) and units of measure (such as miles vs. kilometres, or pounds vs. kilograms) and

tracking these dimensions as calculations or comparisons are performed.

Example 1:

What is the unit of velocity, 𝑣?

Equation:

Distance
Speed = Time

𝑠
𝑣= 𝑡
Unit Analysis:
𝑚
Unit of velocity = 𝑠

Unit of velocity = 𝑚𝑠 −1

Example 2:

What is the unit of acceleration, 𝑎?

Equation:

change in velocity
Acceleration = change in time

∆𝑣
𝑎= ∆𝑡

Unit Analysis:

𝑚/𝑠
Unit of acceleration = 𝑠

𝑚
Unit of acceleration = ÷𝑠
𝑠

𝑚 1
Unit of acceleration = ×𝑠
𝑠

𝑚
Unit of acceleration = 𝑠2

Unit of acceleration = 𝑚/𝑠 2

Unit of acceleration = 𝑚𝑠 −2
Scientific Notation

Scientific notation is written of the form: 𝑨 × 𝟏𝟎𝒏 , where 1 ≤ 𝐴 < 10, 𝑛 ∈ ℤ.

Examples:

1000 = 1 × 103

1 000 000 = 1 × 106

Worked Examples:

1. 47 000 = 4.7 × 104

Recall: Jump to the right, use −ve index.
2. 150 600 = 1.506 × 105 Jump to the left, use +ve index.

3. 0.00017 = 1.7 × 10−4

4. 10.0017 = 1.00017 × 101

Exercise

Write the following numbers in scientific notation:

1. 51

2. 79 000

3. 30.09

4. 0.0045

5. 0.1901
Solutions:

1. 51 = 5.1 × 101

2. 79 000 = 7.9 × 104

3. 30.09 = 3.009 × 101

4. 0.0045 = 4.5 × 10−3

5. 0.1901 = 1.901 × 10−1

Conversions

Exercise:

1. Express 3 𝑘𝑔 in terms of 𝑔. [1 𝑘𝑔 = 1.0 × 103 𝑔]

2. Express 46 𝑔 in terms of 𝑘𝑔. [1 𝑔 = 1.0 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔]

Solutions:

1. Express 3 𝑘𝑔 in terms of 𝑔. [1 𝑘𝑔 = 1.0 × 103 𝑔]

1 𝑘𝑔 = 1000 𝑔

3 𝑘𝑔 = 3 × 1000

3 𝑘𝑔 = 3000 𝑔

3 𝑘𝑔 = 3 × 103 𝑔
2. Express 46 𝑔 in terms of 𝑘𝑔. [1 𝑔 = 1.0 × 10−3 𝑘𝑔]

1
1 𝑔 = 1000 𝑘𝑔

1
46 𝑔 = 46 × 1000

46 𝑔 = 0.046 𝑘𝑔

46 𝑔 = 4.6 × 10−2 𝑘𝑔
Measurement

We can take measurements using a ruler, vernier calliper and a micrometer screw gauge.

Ruler

Parallax errors are sometimes made when using a ruler to measure length.

Parallax error is the error caused in the apparent position of the object due to the viewing
angle that is other than the angle that is perpendicular (90 degrees) to the object.
Vernier calliper

We can use a vernier calliper to measure lengths such as the diameter (internal/external) of
any small cylindrical objects. For example, the diameter of a test tube.

The figure below shows the parts of a vernier calliper.

Reading a vernier calliper

There is a main scale and a vernier scale. When an object is placed between outside jaws, the
main scale is read first. On the vernier scale, one of the markings will line up with the main
scale. This gives the fraction of the millimetre scale that must be added to the main scale.

Reading = Main scale + Vernier Scale

Reading = 1.1 + 0.065

Reading = 1.165 cm

Try it!

Link: https://www.stefanelli.eng.br/en/virtual-vernier-caliper-simulator-05-millimeter/

You can attempt to read the vernier calliper by simulating problems via this link.

Enjoy!
Manipulatives

Example 1:

Solution:

Main scale reading = 3.4 𝑐𝑚

Vernier scale reading = 0.02 𝑐𝑚

∴ Reading = 3.4 + 0.02

∴ Reading = 3.42 𝑐𝑚
Example 2:

Solution:

Main scale reading = 1.1 𝑐𝑚

Vernier scale reading = 0.06 𝑐𝑚

∴ Reading = 1.1 + 0.06

∴ Reading = 1.16 𝑐𝑚
Micrometer Screw Gauge

The micrometer screw gauge is used to measure very small lengths such as the diameter of
a ball bearing or the width of a piece of copper wire. The figure below shows the part of a
micrometer screw gauge.
Reading a Micrometer Screw Gauge

It consists of a main scale on the shaft and a fractional scale on a rotating barrel.

The fractional scale has 50 divisions.

One complete turn represents 0.50mm.

Reading = main scale + rotating scale

Tip: Look out for the
Reading = 6.50 + 0.23
zero error in questions!
Reading = 6.73 mm

Try it!

Link: https://www.stefanelli.eng.br/en/simulator-virtual-micrometer-hundredths-

millimeter/

You can attempt to read the micrometer screw gauge by simulating problems via this link.

Enjoy!
Manipulatives

Example 1:

Main scale reading = 10.5 𝑚𝑚

Vernier scale reading = 0.35 𝑚𝑚

∴ Reading = 10.5 + 0.35

∴ Reading = 10.85 𝑚𝑚
Example 2:

Solution:

Main scale reading = 14.5 𝑚𝑚

Vernier scale reading = 0.30 𝑚𝑚

∴ Reading = 14.5 + 0.30

∴ Reading = 14.80 𝑚𝑚
Zero Error

(a) If the zero error = +0.03,

Then Accurate Final Value = 1.36 − 0.03

= 1.33 𝑐𝑚

(b) If the zero error = −0.03,

Then Accurate Final Value = 1.36 + 0.03

= 1.39 𝑐𝑚

Finding the area of irregularly-shaped objects

To find the area of an irregular object, first count the number of whole squares.

For squares that are partly filled, match up pairs which together make a full square.

Using smaller squares increases the accuracy of this method.

Try It!

Area of shape = 10.5 𝑐𝑚2

Density

Density is defined as the mass of a unit volume of a material substance.

Formula:

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

𝒎
𝝆= 𝑽

where mass is measured in kilograms (𝑘𝑔),

volume is measured in cubic metres (𝑚3 )

density is measured in kilogram per cubic metre (𝑘𝑔𝑚−3 ).

Worked Example

Consider the object below. The mass of the block is 360 𝑚𝑔. Find the density in 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3.

4 𝑐𝑚

5 𝑐𝑚
3 𝑐𝑚

Volume = 𝑙 × 𝑏 × ℎ

= 3 𝑐𝑚 × 5 𝑐𝑚 × 4 𝑐𝑚

= 0.03 𝑚 × 0.05 𝑚 × 0.04 𝑚

= 0.00006 𝑚3

= 6 × 10−5 𝑚3
Mass = 360 mg

Mass = 360 × 10−3 𝑔 (Multiply by the factor 10−3 )

Mass = 0.36 𝑔

Mass = 0.36 ÷ 103 (Divide by the factor 103 )

Mass = 0.00036 𝑘𝑔

Mass = 3.6 × 10−4 𝑘𝑔

Hence,

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
Density = 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒

3.6 × 10−4
Density = 6 × 10−5

Density = 6 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3

∴ The density of the block is 6 𝑘𝑔𝑚−3.

Note:

In the question, we see the #1 trick in Physics.

Tips:

• Convert first.

• Use scientific notation.

Precision vs. Accuracy

An easy way to understand the difference between precision and accuracy is to consider a

game of darts. The objective of the game is to hit the bull’s eye with the darts. Let us look at

the various scenarios.

We notice that accuracy has to do with how close the darts are to the bull’s eye (or true

value), whereas precision has to do with how close the darts are as a group.

• Measurements are accurate if the systematic errors are small.

• Measurements are precise if the random errors are small.

Random Error vs. Systematic Error

Error

Systematic Random
Error Error

Causes Minimizing Causes Minimizing

Method Method

Zero Error By Parallax By repeatedly

improving error taking the
the structure readings
The error cause by zero of apparatus Incorrectly
error is reduced by using the
subtracting the obtained apparatus
reading from the zero
error.

Incorrect
Calibration