African catfish (Clarias gariepinus, Burchell 1822)

production with special reference to temperate zones

A manual
Cover photographs courtesy of Toth (2,3,8), Dani and Peteri (1, 4, 5, 6, 7).

i
African catfish (Clarias gariepinus, Burchell 1822) production
with special reference to temperate zones
A manual

Andras Peteri
Aquaculturist
Research Institute for Fisheries and Aquaculture (NARIC-HAKI), Szarvas, Hungary

Thomas Moth-Poulsen
Senior Fishery and Aquaculture Officer
FAO Subregional Office for Central Asia

Eva Kovacs
International Aquaculture Consultant
FAO Regional Office for Europe and Central Asia

Imre Toth
General Manager
INNOFLEX Ltd., Szarvas, Hungary

Andras Woynarovich
FAO Consultant
Budapest, Hungary

FOOD AND AGRICULTURE ORGANIZATION OF THE UNITED NATIONS

Budapest, 2015

ii
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ISBN 978-92-5-108982-8

© FAO, 2015

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iii
CONTENTS

1 Introduction ........................................................................................................................ 9
1.1 Aquaculture production of African catfish.................................................................. 9
1.2 World statistics and African catfish production in Europe ......................................... 9
1.3 Performance of the species in tank-based aquaculture systems .................................. 9
2 Biological characteristics of African catfish important for producers ............................. 11
2.1 Temperature requirement .......................................................................................... 11
2.2 Tolerance to water quality ......................................................................................... 11
2.3 Feeding habits ........................................................................................................... 12
2.4 Growth ....................................................................................................................... 12
2.5 Reproduction ............................................................................................................. 17
2.6 Development stages of eggs, larvae and nursed fry .................................................. 21
2.7 Development from fingerling to table fish ................................................................ 23
3 Rearing methods applied in temperate zoneS .................................................................. 24
3.1 Flow-through systems ............................................................................................... 24
3.2 Water recirculation systems ...................................................................................... 26
3.2.1 Main technical characteristics of the systems .................................................... 26
3.2.2 Operational and production figures ................................................................... 26
3.3 Combination of tank and pond rearing ...................................................................... 28
3.4 Combination of extensive and intensive rearing systems ......................................... 29
3.5 Environmental aspects of African catfish production ............................................... 29
3.5.1 Use of wetlands for cleaning farm effluents ...................................................... 30
3.5.2 Other methods for cleaning effluents ................................................................. 30
4 Production technology ..................................................................................................... 31
4.1 Broodfish management ............................................................................................. 31
4.2 Selection of broodfish for breeding ........................................................................... 31
4.3 Hormone-induced breeding ....................................................................................... 33
4.4 Ovulation, stripping and fertilization ........................................................................ 35
4.5 Incubation of eggs and hatching of larvae ................................................................ 43
4.6 Rearing of non-feeding fry and the start of exogenous feeding ................................ 47
4.7 Nursing of fish up to 1 gram ..................................................................................... 49
4.7.1 Tanks for rearing and stocking density .............................................................. 49
4.7.2 Feeding ............................................................................................................... 49
4.7.3 Treatment of fish ................................................................................................ 50
4.8 Production of small fingerlings ................................................................................. 52
4.8.1 Tanks for rearing and stocking density .............................................................. 52
4.8.2 Feeding ............................................................................................................... 53
4.8.3 Treatment of fish ................................................................................................ 53
4.9 Production of large fingerlings .................................................................................. 54
4.9.1 Tanks for rearing and stocking density .............................................................. 54
4.9.2 Feeding ............................................................................................................... 55
4.9.3 Treatment of fish ................................................................................................ 55
4.10 Grow-out phase...................................................................................................... 55
4.10.1 Tanks for rearing and stocking density .............................................................. 55
4.10.2 Feeding ............................................................................................................... 56
4.10.3 Treatment of fish ................................................................................................ 57
5 Health management, diseases and treatments .................................................................. 58
6 Processing of African catfish ........................................................................................... 61

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 6.1 Products and by-products .......................................................................................... 61
6.2 Processing plants ....................................................................................................... 63
6.2.1 Small-scale processing plants based on manual work ....................................... 63
6.2.2 Large-scale processing factories ........................................................................ 67
7 Economic aspects of African catfish production ............................................................. 70
8 References ........................................................................................................................ 71
9 Annexes............................................................................................................................ 77

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PREPARATION OF THIS DOCUMENT
FAO supports the development of freshwater fish production in the countries of Central and
Eastern Europe and of the Caucasus and Central Asia with technical information, training and
technology transfer. Its main objectives are to make fish more accessible for the whole
population, to help the utilization of local natural resources and to create new jobs through
the development of aquaculture. This work not only assists the rehabilitation of traditional
extensive fish farming but also encourages the introduction of intensive fish culture.
The purpose of this manual is to provide a practical guide for those interested in the
production of African catfish in Central and Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central Asia.

vi
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to express their gratitude to: Ep Ending (Wageningen University and
Research Centre) and Renatus Remmerswaal (Aquaculture Consultancy and Engineering) for
providing information on the main aspects of species production based on water recirculation
systems; Coppens International vb. for offering their data to be used in this work; the
Research Institute for Fisheries, Aquaculture and Irrigation (HAKI, Szarvas), Janos Kondacs
and Csaba Weber for facilitating the preparation of photographs on fish breeding and
fingerling production; Gyorgy Hoitsy for providing information on fish processing; Gergo
Gyalog for the collection of statistical data; and Dr Eva Kerepeczky, Dr Denes Gal, Krisztian
Csavas and Zoltan Sallai, who beyond professional information also provided important
photos for the manual. Special thanks are due to Attila Toth and to the Fisheries and
Aquaculture Department of FAO for editing the text.

vii
FAO. 2015. African catfish (Clarias gariepinus, Burchell 1822) production with special
reference to temperate zones: a manual, by Andras Peteri, Thomas Moth-Poulsen, Eva
Kovacs, Imre Toth and Andras Woynarovich. Rome, Italy. 93 pp.

ABSTRACT
This manual provides potential investors and fish producers with an overall guide to African
catfish production in temperate zones.
It starts with a concise review of the development of African catfish production technologies,
followed by a description of those biological characteristics of the species that make this fish
particularly suitable for intensive tank-based production. It provides charts on the
development of fish in order to inform producers about the expected performance of the
species. It briefly describes production systems used in temperate regions, such as rearing
units based on water recirculation, flow-through systems and combined pond and tank
production, and summarize simple methods suitable for decreasing the environmental load of
catfish farms. The manual describes all phases and elements of the production technology,
including seed and table fish production and health management. Photographs and diagrams
(with explanations) are provided in order to help people who are new to working with the
species.
The manual also includes information on the processing of African catfish, with a special
emphasis on small-scale plants. Finally, the main factors affecting the economics of
production are also examined.

viii
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Aquaculture production of African catfish
As a consequence of the limited success of widespread introduction of small-scale tilapia
farming to Africa in the late 1950s and the 1960s (Haylor, 1989), extensive efforts were made
to find another fish species suitable for aquaculture production there. African catfish (Clarias
gariepinus, Burchell, 1822) was selected as a promising candidate (Richter, 1976) owing to
its high environmental tolerance and easily controllable breeding habits.
All aspects of pond and tank production of African catfish were elaborated during the
following decades (De Kimpe and Micha, 1974, Viveen et al, 1985; Bovendeur, Eding and
Henken, 1987). Initial trials were done in the Central African Republic, Côte d’Ivoire, South
Africa and Nigeria (Hogendoorn, 1979, 1980a, 1980b; Janssen, 1987; De Graaf and Janssen,
1996) for semi-artificial and artificial breeding together with tank and pond rearing of catfish.
The species was introduced in the Netherlands for research purposes in 1977. It soon became
apparent that mass production of African catfish was profitable in closed systems located in a
temperate zone, and the market accepted the filleted fish well. Since then, many water
recirculation systems (RAS) have been established for catfish production in the Netherlands
(Dijkema, 1992; Eding and Kamstra, 2002). Based on the results of Hecht (1985), hybrids of
Clarias gariepinus and Heterobranchus bidorsalis (another species of African catfish) have
also been produced in a few countries. Catfish fry were transferred to some European
countries (Belgium, Germany, the Czech Republic, Poland and Hungary) from research units
in the Netherlands. However, in these countries, African catfish production has remained
significant only in Hungary. Large-scale production started there in 1990 in flow-through
systems supplied with geothermal water.
1.2 World statistics and African catfish production in Europe
On the basis of FAO reports (FAO, 2015 aquaculture production of Clarias gariepinus was
about 182 000 tonnes in 2012, while catches were about 49 000 tonnes. In addition to this,
hybrids of Clarias gariepinus x Clarias macrochepalus and Clarias gariepinus x
Heterobranchus species are produced in many countries. In Europe, production was highest
(7 320 tonnes) in 2009. Much less (about 4 250 tonnes) African catfish was produced in the
temperate regions of Europe in 2013 (FAO, 2015). Recently, the largest producer of African
catfish in Europe has been Hungary (2 050 tonnes in 2013). In the country, fish were reared
in geothermal water-based flow-through and partial reuse systems. In 2013, the second-most
important producer was the Netherlands with 1 200 tonnes of production in recirculation
systems (FAO, 2015). A proportion of European production (about 2 400 tonnes) was reared
in RASs and 1 850 tonnes in geothermal water-based flow-through or water reuse systems.
Market acceptance of processed African catfish is excellent in both Western and Eastern
Europe. The main consumers are Germany, Italy (Van de Berg, H. 2004). and Hungary (RIAE,
2014 and HCSO 2014 ).. However, the import of filleted Pangasius from Southeast Asia has
had an unfavourable effect on both the production and consumption of African catfish in
Europe, resulting in a production decline between 2009 and 2014.
1.3 Performance of the species in tank-based aquaculture systems
There are three phases of African catfish production, regardless of whether it is applied in a
flow-through or a water recirculation system.
The first phase is fish seed production. The broodfish population represents about
0.2 percent of the total annual production quantity in weight (Bojtárné, 2011). From one
female fish, 20 000–40 000 fry (5–10 g fish) can be expected on average (Coppens
International bv, 2006). Fingerlings of 100–150 g are reared in the second phase. Table fish

9
weigh about 1.1–1.6 kg. The time needed for production (from breeding) is 30–50 weeks.
With reasonable management, between 300 kg (Hungarian flow-through systems) and
1 500 kg (Netherlands RASs [Eding and Kamstra, 2002]) of table fish can be harvested
annually from each 1 m3 of tank volume with a feed conversion ratio (FCR) of 0.9–1.4.

10
2 BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF AFRICAN CATFISH IMPORTANT
FOR PRODUCERS
2.1 Temperature requirement
The optimal temperature range for rearing African catfish is 25–30 °C (Hogendoorn et al.,
1983). For gonad development, at least 22 °C is necessary (De Graaf and Janssen, 1996),
which is somewhat below the optimal 25–27 °C. The optimal temperature for breeding is
25 °C (Hogendoorn and Vismans, 1980; Huisman and Richter, 1987), while the suggested
temperature for larval rearing is 27–30 °C (Britz and Hecht, 1987). At lower than 20 °C, the
species is very sensitive to bacterial diseases. Although these catfish are able to survive in
temperatures as low as 10 °C in natural habitats, in artificial systems mortality is inevitable at
lower than 16 °C. The maximum temperature they can tolerate is 39–40 °C (Hamackova et
al., 1992, in Adamek and Sukop, 1995) although at 35 °C the frequency of spine deformities
increases (Hogendoorn et al., 1983). More extreme size variations are visible if a population
is reared in below optimal temperatures (Britz and Hecht, 1987).
2.2 Tolerance to water quality Plate 1
The African catfish is a freshwater Accessory respiratory organ of African catfish. The organ
species. The maximum salinity that the is covered with epidermis rich in blood vessels. Gas
exchange from the air is carried out through this organ.
species can tolerate is 10 ppt. However,
Fish larger than 2.5–3.0 cm can cover their oxygen
this is beyond the range acceptable for demand entirely from the air where the oxygen content is
optimal growth (Chervinski, 1984; Clay, 30 times higher than in fully saturated water. This makes
1977). African catfish can utilize oxygen oxygen intake easy and is one of the reasons for the very
not only from the ambient water but also effective feed utilization of African catfish (Huisman and
Richter, 1987).
from the air with the help of an accessory
respiratory organ. The respiratory organ
has a cauliflower shape and is located
under the gill covers at the upper part of
gill arcs (Plate 1). The organ develops
when fish are 15–20 days old and 2.5–
3.0 cm long. Before reaching this size/age
the environmental requirements of catfish
are similar to those of other species, for
example, cyprinids. Later, as the organ
becomes active, the fish are able to
tolerate extremely poor water conditions,
including zero oxygen content or high Photograph courtesy of Csavas.
ammonia, nitrite and hydrogen sulphide
concentrations. Although the species is
able to survive in such environmental
conditions, they hinder its development. Table 1 shows adequate water quality conditions for
broodfish, fry, fingerlings and table fish.

11
Table 1
Water quality requirements of different age groups of African catfish

Advanced fry Fingerling Fingerling larger

Chemicals Units Broodfish Eggs and fry than 10 g and
smaller than 2 g smaller than 10 g table fish

Salt content g/litre <6 < 4–5 < 4–5 5–6 10

Temperature °C 25 28–30 28–30 27 25–27
Oxygen mg/litre 4–5 4–5 3–4 2–3 > 0.0
1 1
NH3-N mg/litre <1 0.05 max. 0.34 max. 0.34 max. 0.341
NH4+-N mg/litre < 10 <1 <1 <5 < 80
NO2 mg/litre < 0.2 0.2 0.2 < 0.5 <8
NO3 mg/litre < 50 < 50  < 100 
H2S mg/litre     1–22
CO2 mg/litre < 10 < 10 < 10  
1
0.34 mg/litre NH3-N equivalent to about 48 mg/litre NH4+-N at pH 7 and 28 °C
2
Survived concentration (Peteri et al., 1989).

Notes: Data complied from Britz and Hecht (1987), Coppens International bv (2006); Chervinski (1984); Clay
(1977); Fleuren and Nooijen Viskwekerij BV (undated); Janssen (1987); Schram (2010).

2.3 Feeding habits

The African catfish is an omnivorous species. In the wild it has a wide food spectrum, which
includes zooplankton, aquatic and terrestrial insects, invertebrates, plant material and fish,
which are all consumed according to their availability in the habitat. It is an opportunistic
predator, which means it prefers to consume more easily accessible food items rather than
hunting (Van der Waal, 1984; Groenewald, 1964).
The species is known to be cannibalistic, which is a stronger habit in groups of smaller fish
than in adult ones.
In tank-based systems, pelleted or extruded (floating) feeds are applied for feeding. African
catfish is considered to be both a nocturnal and daylight feeder (Appelbaum and McGeer,
1998), consuming almost two-thirds of its daily food ration during daylight. Under a
12D:12L (12 hours darkness, 12 hours light) photoperiod, fish consume more and grow faster
than those exposed to continuous light (Rueda, 2004). The crude protein requirement of fish
is high, which can be satisfied by adding artificial feed with 54–66 percent protein content for
fry, 45–50 percent for fingerling, and 40–45 percent for elder age groups. The fat content of
the feed for the three age groups should be 10–18, 15–18 and 10–13 percent, respectively
(Coppens Catfish Feed Program, 2011).
2.4 Growth
African catfish can convert a higher rate (80 percent) of the metabolizable energy for growth
than other fish that do not have an additional breathing system (Huisman and Richter, 1987).

12
The growth of fish in different periods of rearing (i.e. nursing, small fingerling production,
fingerling and table fish production) is presented in Figures 1–3.1

Figure 1
Growth of African catfish during the nursing phase

4 500

4 000

3 500

3 000
Weight (mg)

2 500

2 000

1 500

1 000

500

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Days from first feeding

Coppens CatCo Haylor 1991 a. Haylor 1991 b.

Hogendoorn 1980 Hetch & Appelbaum 1987

1
Data were collected from authors who examined the growth of fish in different conditions or described it in experiments carried out for
other purposes than growth examination, as Richter (1976), Hogendoorn (1980a, 1980b, 1983), Boon et al. (1978), Hecht and Appelbaum
(1987), Degani, Ben-Zvi and Levanon (1988), Haylor (1991), Verreth and Eding (1993), Fleuren and Nooijen (undated), Coppens
International bv (2006). Uninterrupted lines in the figures represent data on fish growth when “CatCo” feeds of Coppens International bv.
were fed in proper conditions recommended by Coppens.

13
 Figure 2
Growth of African catfish during small fingerling production

Figure 3
Growth of African catfish during the second phase of fingerling
rearing and table fish production

14
The relationship between weights and lengths is presented in Figures 4–6 using data from
Hecht and Appelbaum (1987), Clay (1979 a), and Clay and Clay (1981). The growth of a
male fish is better than that of females in mixed-sex populations (Van der Waal, 1975,
Richter 1976).
Sex-converted males and triploids do not grow better than fish in mixed-sex populations
although their flesh production (gutting rate) is better (Henken et al., 1987; Henken, Brunink
and Richter, 1987). In the opinion of some producers, hybrids of Clarias gariepinus and
Heterobranchus bidorsalis have better growth than pure Clarias gariepinus.
Weight difference within a population of the same age group can be very significant.
However, slow-growing individuals cannot achieve higher growth rates even in the absence
of better-growing fish (Martins, 2005). Size differences in stressed populations are more
visible. If 2–5-week-old young fish are overfed to accelerate their growth, ruptured intestine
symptom (RIS) may occur in the population (Schippers et al., 1992) – this is characterized by
an opening in the abdominal wall. As a consequence of this disease, losses can be as high as
12–15 percent. The frequency of RIS is lower in populations raised on a natural diet (Boon et
al. 1987).

Figure 4
Weights of African catfish at different lengths – I

6 000

5 000

4 000
Weight (mg)

3 000

2 000

1 000

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

Lenght (mm)

15
 Figure 5
Weights of African catfish at different lengths – II

300

250

200
Weight (g)

150

100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350

Length (m m )

Figure 6
Weights of African catfish at different lengths – III

5 000

4 500

4 000

3 500

3 000
Weight (g)

2 500

2 000

1 500

1 000

500

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000

Length (mm)

16
2.5 Reproduction
In the wild, the fish mature at one to two years of age, when they are 20–40 cm long (150–
500 g weight) (Richter, 1976). Fish reared in closed systems in a permanently high
temperature are able to attain maturity at a weight of 400–600 g, at an age of 6–9 months
(Huisman and Richter, 1987). Mature females can be recognized under visual examination
because the belly of broodfish ready for spawning is soft, relatively large and rounded. The
genital opening is swollen, reddish and round-ended (Plate 2).

Plate 2
Mature female with swollen belly. Rounded belly form helps to select fish for breeding. The
genital opening of a matured female is reddish, protruded and rounded. The fish in the
photograph is in the phase of ovulation. Some eggs have run out of the genital opening as a
result of manipulation (catching and wrapping) of the fish.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

The weight of the ovaries is 7–15 percent of body weight in the wild. However, in tanks with
abundant feed supply, this can reach 25 percent of body weight and may occupy 80 percent
of the abdominal cavity.

17
Male fish have long genital papilla. While females ready for breeding are easily recognizable
under visual examination, the developmental stage of testis cannot be determined before
dissecting the body (Plate 3). The most favourable temperature for gonad development is
25 °C. At higher temperatures (about 30 °C), the hatching rate decreases and the atresia of
eggs becomes more intensive (Huisman and Richter, 1987). Spawning is cyclical in the wild
(Clay, 1979). Time and frequency of spawning are determined by temperature and
precipitation. Fish kept at a constant temperature (25 °C) and fed about 0.5–0.7 percent feed
of their body weight can be bred year round (Richter et al., 1987).

Plate 3
Genital papilla and removed testis. Top: The genital papilla has an elongated form
with a sharp end. The point of the papilla is reddish in matured fish. Bottom: A pair
of removed testis. The colour is brownish white with creamy lobes. Sperm runs
from the testis after incisions.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

Gonad development is shorter and GSI (gonad weight / body weight) is higher in mixed sex
populations than in groups where female and male fish are kept separately. Fish transferred
from the wild to a stable environment (permanent temperature) will lose their cyclic sexual
behaviour within a year (Janssen, 1987). The light system (ratio of light and dark periods)
mainly affects the first phases of gametogenesis. If the dark/light period is permanent at this

18
age, no cyclic breeding habit develops. Later the effect of light is indifferent (Richter et al.,
1987).
The diameter of ripe oocytes is about 1.0–1.2 mm. At this stage, migration of the nucleus is at
the initial phase in the eggs. Oocytes can remain in this stage even for one year if
environmental conditions are favourable, but no triggering factor of spawning occurs. No
spontaneous spawning is performed in tanks. After hormonal treatment, the nucleus migrates
to the animal pole, a reddish-brown spherical cap develops, and the ripe-running eggs can be
stripped. Stripped eggs are slightly depressed at the animal pole (Plate 4). Eggs can even be
stripped from females much earlier than the optimal period, although in this case the quality
of eggs will not be optimal. The time difference between possible and optimal time of
stripping can be a few hours in cooler waters (about 20 °C), 1.0–1.5 hours at 25 °C, and less
than 1 hour at 30 °C (Hogendoorn and Vismans, 1980). The occurrence of spontaneous
spawning in a group of injected fish indicates the optimal time for stripping.

Plate 4
Ripe oocytes and ovulated eggs of African catfish. Left: Eggs from a fish ready for injection. Diameter of most
eggs is 1 mm or slightly more. A nucleus can be seen in the centre of all fully mature eggs. Some younger
oocytes in previtellogenic phases and eggs with uncompleted yolk accumulation can also be seen in the egg
mass. Right: Eggs in the phase of ovulation. From a lateral direction the form of eggs is similar to that of
lentils. A spherical cap can also be observed in the eggs.

Photograph courtesy of Sallai.

African catfish show a unique spawning behaviour. A few hours before spawning, males start
to attack females. The dorsal fin of male fish is frequently erected and he hits the belly of the
female with his head. The male sometimes lies near the female with his body trembling as
full ovulation approaches. Later the pair swims together and, for a few seconds, the fish take
a special position (Figure 7). As a last step of the process, a batch of eggs is released. Mating
is repeated many times over a period of 3–5 hours (Van der Waal, 1974).

19
 Figure 7
Spawning fish

Notes: This typical spawning behaviour shows optimal time for stripping. Only fully ripe females
perform this movement and release portions of eggs spontaneously.
Source: After Janssen (1987).

Oogonia, previtellogenic and vitellogenic eggs can be found in ovaries after spawning. In
optimal conditions (indoor rearing unit, constant water temperature and sufficient feed) the
process of gametogenesis is rapid. Therefore, the same individual can be stripped in every
two months without any negative effects on the quality and quantity of eggs (Huisman and
Richter, 1987; Hogendoorn and Vismans, 1980).

20
Using data from Hogendoorn Figure 8
(1979) and Toth (unpublished
Egg production of females of different weights
data), Figure 8 presents the
quantity of ovulated eggs from 350
different sizes of females. In 1 g 300

Number of stripped eggs

250
of dry eggs, there are 600–
200
621 eggs according to

(thousand)
150
Hogendoorn (1979), while 100
according to Radics (1990) there 50

are 730–900 eggs. 0

0 0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3 3,5

Weight of fish (kg)

Hogendoorn 1979 Hogendoorn 1979 Toth

2.6 Development stages of eggs, larvae and nursed fry

Figure 9 On the eggs of African catfish, a
Length of the incubation period at different temperatures sticky, disc-shaped layer can be
found that fixes the developing
eggs to a substrate (Greenwood,
1955). Stickiness does not occur
immediately after fertilization but
within a few minutes as the
hydration of eggs proceeds (Clay,
1979). However, after 5–8 hours
active stickiness ceases. The
duration of embryonic
development is temperature
dependent, as presented in
Figure 9 using data from
Hogendoorn and Vismans (1980).
The most characteristic phases are
described in Figure 10. Best
hatching rates (75–90 percent)
can be achieved at 25 °C, together
with the lowest rates of deformed fry (5 percent). In normal hatchery operations, about 50–
70 percent of eggs hatch. However, 10–20 percent of the hatching fry may be deformed and
die within a short period (Hogendoorn and Vismans, 1980).

21
Figure 10
Most characteristic phases of embryonic and larval development
(water temperature: 29 °C)

Phases I and II

Egg after fertilization. Egg stuck to substrate.

Phases III and IV

Blastula stage, 5 hours after fertilization. Yolk plug stage, 8 hours after fertilization. Egg mass should be
steered to prevent sticking together. Water current must be
increased at this stage. Egg survival (“fertility rate”) can be
determined.

Phases V and VI

Tail starts to move 14 hours after Newly hatched fry, 20 hours after fertilization.
fertilization.

Phase VII.

Two-day-old fry with partially absorbed yolk.

Phases I, III, IV, V and VI after Peteri et al. (1992); II. and VII after Janssen (1987).

22
Immediately after hatching, larvae are 4–5 mm long and weigh 1.3–1.8 mg. They have
relatively large heads (1.0–1.3 mm diameter) and very thin tails (3.0–3.5 mm length).
Pigmentation of newly hatched fry is faint (Hogendoorn and Vismans, 1980). Healthy larvae
tend to escape from direct light about a day after hatching. Depending on water temperature,
they start to consume external food on the third day after hatching.
Hungry fry actively search for food in the water column. Their main food is small-sized
zooplankton (Rotifers, Artemia) of about 150–300 µm. Best growth can be achieved if live
food is accessible for 24 hours (Hogendoorn, 1980).
Fry can consume dry food to satiation within a few minutes. Gastric evacuation time is
3.5 hours at 23.5 °C. No new feed is accepted before that previously consumed has been is
digested (Uys, 1984, in Uys and Hecht, 1985).
The environment/water quality requirement of the fry is the same as that of other warm-water
fish. They grow best in dark conditions (Appelbaum and Kamler, 2000). When fry are about
2–3 weeks old, their larval fin fully disappears and their accessory breathing organs develop,
so they are less vulnerable to the oxygen content of the ambient water. The protein
requirement of newly hatched fry is 55–60 percent.

2.7 Development from fingerling to table fish

The immune system of African catfish works at full capacity even at the larval stage
(Dijkema, 1992). Mortality is not more than 20 percent if cannibalism can be prevented.
These fish have relatively low activity level, high growth rate and good food utilization. The
occurrence of diseases is low if they are fed in accordance with the biological requirement of
the given age group; e.g. feed with at least 50 percent protein is applied after Artemia and
feed with 42–45 percent protein during large-size fingerling and table fish production.
The meat of African catfish is reddish in colour and there is sexual dimorphism in its quality.
The meat of males is firmer, redder and leaner than that of females (Wedekind, 1991, in
Verreth and Eding, 1994). In natural conditions the body composition and fatty acid profile of
African catfish is very favourable: 18.34–20.32 percent protein, 0.71–1.84 percent lipid,
75.64–80.17 percent moisture and 1.00–2.92 percent ash content. Polyunsaturated fatty acids
represent about two thirds of body fat content. African catfish has a poor fat storage capacity
in muscles (Osibona, Kusemijul and Akande, 2009). Much of the dietary fat is deposited as
lipid reserves (Machelisand and Henken, 1985). The fat content of fillets is only about
3 percent (Verreth, and Eding, 1993). However, the meat structure of the fish is strongly
determined by the quantity and quality of feed. Overfed fish or fish on a high-fat diet have
light-yellow meat with a higher water content (Wedekind, 1995). Sometimes, off-flavours
may have an adverse effect on the taste of meat from RASs (Verreth and Eding, 1993) and
ponds with high organic content of bottom mud. Such fish must be kept in clean water for a
few days, which significantly increases production costs (Dijkema, 1992).

23
3 REARING METHODS APPLIED IN TEMPERATE ZONES
3.1 Flow-through systems
One of the simplest methods of African catfish production is the application of a flow-
through or a partial water reuse systems (Plate 5). Production in flow-through systems does
not require a sophisticated technical background. These rearing units are usually supplied by
warm well water. This is a widely used method for African catfish production in Eastern
Europe. Fish are kept in lined ponds of different sizes or in rectangular or circular tanks made
of concrete or plastic (Plates 6 and 7). Water at 23–35 °C is used to supply ponds or tanks.
Water from artesian wells (groundwater coming from aquifers by pressure without pumping)
or other hot groundwater wells can be used for rearing catfish. In general, the water quality in
shallow wells (300–800 m) is better than that in deep ones (1 000–2 000 m or deeper). Gases
such as methane, hydrogen sulphide, carbon dioxide, mineral and organic forms of nitrogen
(ammonia and nitrite), phenols, different salts and metals can be found in large
concentrations in hot waters. Aeration towers or cascade systems are installed for degassing.
Special pumps manufactured/prepared for transferring oversaturated water are used for
pumping water from shallow wells. For running deep wells with warm water, heat-protected
submersible pumps are used. Salt frequently accumulates in water pipes attached to deep
tubewells as a consequence of decreasing pressure or cooling.

Plate 5 Plate 6
African catfish farm in Hungary operated as a flow- African catfish reared in a concrete tank with central
through system. Total tank volume of the farm is outlet. Density of fish during a routine operation is
1 300 m3. Blue plastic sheet in forefront is the roof of about 270–350 kg/m3. Fish kept in high densities feel
hatchery. Rectangular tanks in first line (10 m3) are well, they are not stressed, whereas fish kept in low
used for small fingerling production. Tanks with a densities feel unsafe (Van de Nieuwegiessen, 2009).
water volume of 18, 32 and 50 m3 are used for larger-
size fingerling production. Table fish are produced in
8 tanks with a water volume of 100 m3. Daily water
exchange is 1.2–1.3 times the total tank volume.
Annual production of the farm is 350–400 tonnes.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

24
 Plate 7 Plate 8
Circular rearing tanks made of reinforced PVC. The A double-layer greenhouse covered with polyethylene.
easily transportable and relatively cheap tanks are Deep plastic-lined ponds covered with a double layer
suitable for large-scale production of African catfish. of polyethylene sheet have good heat retention
capacity. To keep the water temperature at 22–25 °C
in winter, the system should be supplied with hot
water (one-third of the total volume/day supply of
water at 25 °C), or should be heated with 0.6 kg/m2
per day of coal from October to April (Dr Kerekes,
Interaqua-Flora Ltd, personal communication).

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

After degassing, water from shallow wells may run directly into fish tanks. Water from deep
wells is rarely suitable for direct use. Bioassays carried out on live-bearing warm-water fish
such as guppies (Poecilia sp.) or mollies (Mollienesia sp.) could be used for the qualification
of well water. If these fish are able to live and reproduce in such waters, they are usually
suitable for African catfish production as well (Smith, 1981). However, this method does not
provide information on the possible accumulation of phenols in fish, which may affect the
flavour of the meat. Long-term testing with table fish or chemical examinations of different
phenol forms (Olah, Pekar and Janurik, 1987) can indicate whether any negative effects on
the flavour of fish have occurred. If the water quality is not suitable for fish rearing, fish
production systems can be heated by heat exchangers. Heat exchangers can also be used if
hot-water wells are operated in closed systems; i.e. when water already used (and cooled) is
injected back to deep layers in order to protect warm-water aquifers from overexploitation
(World Bank, 2005).
The ratio of water exchange in Eastern European flow-through systems is about 1.3–1.5 per
day. This is enough to compensate for the majority of heat loss even in winter. On the basis
of farm data, 100 litres/minute exchange of 66 °C water is enough to maintain a high
temperature (27 °C) in 300 m2 of pond or tank area with an ambient air temperature of –3 °C
(Smith, 1981). Heat loss can be significantly decreased by covering tanks with polyethylene
or glass houses as in this way both evaporation and radiation can be decreased (Boyd and
Rafferty, 1998). In double-layer greenhouses, further heat savings can be achieved by

25
pumping warm air from the inside of the house into the space between the two layers
(Plate 8). For heat loss compensation water supply, transferring about 2 750 BTU/hour per
square metre is necessary in open systems (680 kcal/hour per square metre), and
1 100 BTU/hour per square metre (270 kcal/hour per square metre) in a greenhouse
environment (Lund, 1998).
The density of fish and production in unit volume can be the same in well managed flow-
through systems (200–300 kg/m3 standing stock during the rearing period) as in RASs used in
Western European countries (Eding and Kamstra, 2002). The number of individuals in such
stocks is very high in comparison with other species. However, it is necessary to maintain a
high density for the well-being of fish. Low numbers is a serious stress factor for all age
groups of the species. In juvenile fish groups, this can induce chronic stress (Almazan Rueda,
2004). From the results of Van de Nieuwegiessen (2009), fish of more than 100 g appeared to
feel more comfortable in overstocked tanks than in low stocking densities, and no effects of
high stocking were observed on welfare of fish of more than 1 kg.
3.2 Water recirculation systems
In the temperate zone, about 60 percent of African catfish is produced in water recirculation
systems (recirculation aquaculture systems or RASs). Such systems previously developed for
eel production were slightly simplified and have been used for catfish production in the
Netherlands since the mid-1980s. About 60 RASs were established (Dijkema, 1992), many of
which were constructed in isolated buildings on cattle farms or in buildings previously used
for other agricultural purposes such as mushroom production. However, soon many farms
closed and only large-capacity farms have remained operational.
3.2.1 Main technical characteristics of the systems
Lamella (tube) sedimentation units and ventilated trickling filters are attached to fish
production tanks in the majority of RASs. About two-thirds of the total volume of the
systems is used for fish production. Settlers represent about one-third of the total volume. The
diameter of tubes within settlers is never smaller than 5 cm in order to avoid clogging and
support cleaning. The height of trickling columns is 2–4 m. Cross- flow media with an active
volume of 150 m2/m3 is used as biofilter (Eding and Kamstra, 2002). Trickling filter-based
systems are suitable to produce only a few hundred tonnes of fish. However, there are
systems with a larger capacity based on moving-bed bioreactors. In such systems, annual
production can reach 2 000 tonnes (Remmerswaal, personal communication).
3.2.2 Operational and production figures
The specific surface area of tube settlers is about 80–100 m2/m3.Tube settlers with a daily
hydraulic loading (water running on 1 m2 sedimentation surface) of about 10–20 m3/m2
remove the majority of suspended particles larger than 70 µm (Bovendeur, Eding and
Henken, 1987).
The daily total ammonia nitrogen (TAN) removal rate of a biofilter is 0.4–0.6 g/m2 under
farm conditions (Eding et al., 2006). For the removal of TAN produced after the consumption
of 1 kg feed, a biofilter surface area of 70–80 m2 is necessary (about 0.5 m3 biofilter volume)
(Bovendeur and Eding, 1989). In a system where the average standing stock is about
20 tonnes (200 kg/m3) and the daily feed is 300 kg (food consumption ratio: 1.5 percent of
)
body weight) the operation of a large biofilter (120–150 m3 is necessary. The daily hydraulic
surface loading of trickling filters is 110–140 m3/m2. The volume of air circulated through a
trickling biofilter is 10–15 times more than the volume of circulated water. The electric
energy requirement of production is less than 1 kW/kg of produced fish (Fleuren and
Nooyen, in Eding and Kamstra, 2002).

26
The water circulates around the system about once an hour. As settlers work as effective
denitrification units and are able to remove a part of the nitrate, the daily exchange (new
water introduced to the system) is only 20–25 percent of the total volume of water. (100 litres
of water is used for 1 kg of applied feed; i.e. slightly less than 100 litres of water is necessary
for the production of 1 kg of fish). Denitrification and daily water exchange keeps the NO3-N
level at about 100 mg/litre. The operational level of NH4+-N is about 10 mg/litre. (It could
even be significantly higher without damaging fish. However, no exact data on the upper
limit of acceptable TAN are available.) With a regular application of soda in a quantity of
80 g NaHCO3/kg feed, pH is stabilized around a neutral level (Bovendeur, Eding and
Henken, 1987). Annual production in a tank of 1 m3 can exceed 1 tonne with an FCR lower
than 1.0. This high production level is achieved by a continuous harvesting (frequent
“thinning out”) of fish, which requires a continuous restocking of young age groups (Fleuren
and Nooyen, in Eding and Kamstra, 2002). Figure 11 shows the layout for a typical RAS
used for African catfish production (after Eding et al., 2006; Fleuren and Nooijen
Viskwekerij BV (undated); and Remmerswaal, personal communication).

Figure 11
Design of a typical RAS used for African catfish production

1. Fish rearing tank

2. Lamella sedimentator
3. Sump/heater
4. Pump
5. Central water supply tank
6. Trickling filter
7. Ventilator for aeration of
trickling filter
8. Supply pipe of trickling
filter
9. Supply pipe of fish tanks

Redrawn after Eding (2006 ) and Fleuren & Nooijen Viskwekerij BV (http://www.fleuren-
nooijen.nl/)
1. Fish rearing tank
2. Overflow canal of fish
rearing tanks
3. Harvesting pit
4. Drum filter
5. Moving-bed biofilter
6. Pump for water circulation
7. Supply pipe
On the basis of information from Remmerswaal. 8. Supply canal of fish tanks

Recirculation aquaculture technologies based on moving-bed biofilters were developed in a

period when experience with African catfish production in RAS already existed. Technical
solutions applied in these systems also facilitated savings in labour, such as the construction
of a central fish harvesting system, an automatic feeding system and the introduction of a
simplified fish selection method where selection is done with a screen grader pulled in a
longitudinal direction in rectangular fish tanks.

27
3.3 Combination of tank and pond rearing
In certain regions of temperate zones where the summer water temperature exceeds 21–22 °C
for at least a few months per year, outdoor rearing of African catfish is practised in ponds
supplied with surface water.
Nursed (advanced) fry of 0.5–0.7 g can be produced in earth ponds by applying the same
method for pond preparation and fish rearing as for carp nursing (Horvath, Tamas and
Seagrave, 1992). By stocking 1 million newly hatched fry per hectare in ponds with a rich
rotifer population, about 30–35 percent survival can be expected after one month of rearing
(Kondacs, HAKI, personal communication). A proper manipulation of plankton organisms;
i.e. eradication of Cyclopidae, supporting the production of rotifers, and an inoculation of
Cladocera plankton at the time of fish stocking are the main technical interventions for
achieving good survival and growth.
Intensive pond rearing of African catfish is also practised in small earth ponds. Fish of 500–
800 g stocked in June at a density of 1.0–1.5 individuals/m3 can reach 1.5–2.0 kg weight
within 3.0–3.5 months. In such ponds, harvests can be up to 30 tonnes/ha (Kondacs, personal
communication).
Table fish can also be produced in earth ponds. In order to take advantage of the species’
omnivorous nature, fish of 200–300 g individual weight are stocked in extensive carp ponds
at low stocking densities (100–300 individuals/ha). With no additional feeding, these fish can
reach 1.5–2.0 kg within 3.0–3.5 months by consuming only natural food organisms such as
zooplankton, insects, tadpoles, frogs and some wild fish. Harvest is carried out when the
water temperature is 20 °C or slightly lower, and fish must be transferred from ponds to flow-
through tanks supplied with warm well water (Plate 9).

Plate 9
Tanks made of PVC sheet reinforced by fibreglass.
Water volume in the tanks is about 3 m3. About
2 tonnes of fish can be produced in such tanks
operated in a flow-through system.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

28
3.4 Combination of extensive and intensive rearing systems
For environmentally friendly intensive production of fish, including African catfish, a special
system was established, tested and operated in HAKI, Szarvas, Hungary (Gál, 2006). The
system comprises some smaller ponds (each one with an area of a few thousand square
metres) and a larger fish pond. Small fish ponds are located near larger ones and are used for
catfish production. The large pond (20 ha) is stocked as a traditional polyculture carp pond.
Small ponds are stocked intensively with African catfish at 10–25 tonnes/ha. The ratio of
small and large ponds should be about 13.5–18.0:1. The water circulates between the two
types of ponds. Daily water exchange is about 10–25 percent in intensive ponds. The
discharged water runs back to the large pond, transferring a significant quantity of organic
materials, N and P developed in the intensive units (Plate 10). The ecosystem of the large
ponds utilizes these nutrients, i.e. it keeps the circulating water in a good condition. About
80 percent of the introduced carbon, 55 percent of N and 73 percent of P is removed (utilized)
by the system. Harvests of African catfish in small ponds can be as high as 52 tonnes/ha
within a 2.5–3.0 month rearing period (FCR 1.7–2.6), while in the large pond, production is
about 1.5–2.0 tonnes/ha.

Plate 10
Combined intensive/extensive system. The small ponds in the centre of the photograph with about
1 ha of total water surface area are used for intensive production of fish. Effluent water from these
ponds goes to the large pond (20 ha). This pond has two functions: It biologically cleans the water
coming from intensive units and is also used for production of cyprinid species in a polyculture
system. New water is introduced into the combined system only for the compensation of evaporation
and a moderate level of seepage (Gál, 2006).

Photograph courtesy of Gál.

3.5 Environmental aspects of African catfish production

According to Bovendeur, Eding and Henken (1987), 21–27 percent of dry matter and 26–
33 percent of N content of feed are utilized for fish growth. The rest of the materials are used
by other physiological processes and/or discharged to ambient water in different forms. The
majority of this waste is washed from fish rearing tanks to recipients by flow-through water.
The production of 1 tonne of catfish results in the release of 52 kg N, 9.8 kg P and 290 kg
COD (Chemical Oxygen Demand) (Gál et al., 2009). In many countries, fish producers are
obliged to pay a certain fee for environmental loading (pollution). For example, this fee is
about USD0,27 for 1 kg COD, USD0,52 for 1 kg inorganic nitrogen and USD4,49 for 1 kg
discharged total phosphorus in Hungary. There are areas where regulations are stricter and
the fee is higher (as for example in the Netherlands). The calculated fee might be as high as

29
20 percent of production costs if no RAS technology is applied. However, this fee can be
decreased significantly if suspended materials, nitrogen and phosphorus are removed from
the effluent water by the application of different technical solutions such as RASs, wetlands
or combined intensive/extensive systems (Schneider, Varadi and Eding, 2008).
3.5.1 Use of wetlands for cleaning farm effluents
Wetlands can be used for decreasing environmental loading of flow-through systems
(Kerepeczki, 2006). For cleaning 400 m3/day of discharged water from a flow-through farm
with a production of 100 tonnes per year, a wetland with a fish pond area of 1 ha and a
macrophyta-covered area of 3 300 m2 are necessary (Plate 11). The system is highly efficient.
It is able to remove about 80 percent of total discharged nitrogen, phosphorus and suspended
materials. Moreover, fish (mainly filter feeders) can be produced in ponds of the wetlands –
about 1.5–2.7 tonnes/ha. To compensate for reduced wetland activity in winter periods, the
loading of suspended materials in the effluent water must be decreased by an installation of
mechanical filters, and the active wetland area must also be increased (Kerepeczki, 2006,
2009).

Plate 11
Wetland for cleaning effluent water from an African catfish farm. A flow-through system for rearing
African catfish can be seen in the upper centre of the photograph. Two ponds as recipients of
drainage water from the farm (in the forefront, each pond has a water surface area of 2 500 m2) are
stocked with filter feeder fish. Effluent water from these ponds runs into a pond covered with reeds
and bulrushes. Only bulrushes are present in the fourth pond. Ponds covered by aquatic weed also
have a water surface area of 2 500 m2. The system with a total of 1 ha area is able to treat about
300 m3/day of farm effluent (Kerepeczki, 2006).

Photograph courtesy of Kerepeczki.

3.5.2 Other methods for cleaning effluents

Concentration and partial mineralization of organic materials and different forms of N and P
is carried out in RASs. In spite of these processes, the water content of drum filter effluents
can exceed 99 percent (Ebeling and Summerfelt, 2002, in Timmons and Ebeling, 2007).
Ecotraps, belt filters, denitrification, dephosphatation and decomposition units (Eding and
Schneider, 2005) and compostation are used for further concentration of effluents and
decreasing the quantity of discharged pollutants. The application of these methods may
significantly decrease environmental loading and, consequently, the environmental fee.

30
4 PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY2
4.1 Broodfish management
Fish older than one year can be used for breeding purposes. They should be kept in tanks at a
density of 70–100 kg/m3 (Janssen, 1987) at 25 °C. Broodfish candidates must be kept under
an artificial light in a 12-hour L/D light system in order to stop cyclic maturation (Richter et
al., 1987). Water flow or aeration should be adequate to maintain a minimum of 3 mg/litre
oxygen in the tanks. Matured fish suitable for breeding are 40 cm or longer, with a weight of
at least 1 kg. These fish do not spawn spontaneously in the tank, so the two sexes can be kept
together. Effect of pheromones in mixed populations supports the maintenance of sexual
activity (Henken et al., 1987; Richter et al., 1987).
Fish should be fed with high protein feed (45–47 percent protein and 7 percent fat content) at
a quantity of 0.5–0.7 percent of body weight. In flow-through systems, it can sometimes be
reasonable to feed broodfish with fingerlings of invaluable fish or low-value fish. A female
fish can be bred repeatedly every eighth week without the quantity and quality of stripped
eggs decreasing (Huisman and Richter, 1987; Hogendoorn and Vismans, 1980).
For easy manipulation, it is best to use broodfish that are 2–4 years old. Although the
sensitivity of Clarias to inbreeding is not known exactly, best practice is to discard one-third
of all females each year. Replacement of male fish is continuous as they are killed during the
propagation process. It is reasonable to avoid the introduction of wild fish into broodfish
stocks. Fish reared in a closed system for generations are much tamer than those from the
wild or ponds (Eding, personal communication).
4.2 Selection of broodfish for breeding
Female fish are selected based on a visual examination of their body shape and the coloration
of their genital papilla. The abdomen should be distended, swollen and soft. The genital
opening must be swollen and reddish. A mature female fish seen from above also shows signs
of maturity: ripe fish have a rounded belly form (see Plate 2). This technique is suitable for
the selection of females when a well-known broodfish population is used. If fish of an
unknown origin with only a slightly swollen abdomen are available (collected from natural
waters, ponds or any unknown sources), examination of egg sizes and the status of the
nucleus is necessary for selection of fish ready for breeding. Similarly, if small females of
indeterminate age are used, this method is suitable for a determination of their availability for
stripping.
For egg sampling, plastic cannula with an external diameter of 2.5 mm and an internal
diameter of 1.5 mm can be used. The cannula must be inserted into the urogenital opening to
a depth of 3–4 cm (Plate 12). A small quantity of eggs should be extracted and blown onto a
Petri dish or a slide. The diameter of the eggs should be measured by using a ruler or mm-
paper. If the diameter is at least 1.1 mm, the fish are suitable for artificial breeding. The
nucleus of the eggs should be in different stages of migration from the centre of the eggs to
the periphery (animal pole) (see Plate 4) (Hogendoorn and Vismans, 1980).

2
Technical data detailed in this chapter are summarized in Annex 1 to support the work of farm managers and hatchery operators.

31
 Plate 12
Method of egg sampling for selection of broodfish ready for artificial propagation. The cannula
should be inserted to about 3–4 cm depth into the ovary, and eggs should be sucked by pulling back
the piston of the syringe. When eggs can be seen in the cannula, it should be separated from the
syringe otherwise when the cannula is removed from the fish the vacuum developing in the syringe
will suck sampled eggs through the cannula into the syringe. This can deform/break the eggs so they
will not be suitable for the determination of ripeness. As a last step, the cannula should be readjusted
to the syringe to press out eggs into the water in a Petri dish for examination.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

Rectangular scoop nets are best for catching fish from broodfish tanks as fish can easily
escape from round nets (Plate 13). This species is extremely active and can easily jump out of
the net or the hand of workers while being checked. Wrapping the head and the first part of
the body in a slightly wet towel facilitates handling (Plate 14). Using tranquillizers facilitates
the selection work. Phenoxyethanol (ethylene glycol monophenyl ether) at 10 ml per 10 litres
of water, clove oil in 1–2 ml per 10 litres or any other fish tranquillizers can be used for this
purpose. However, overtranquilization should be avoided.

Plate 13
Female fish transferred to manipulation table. A deep scoop net should be used for catching and
transferring fish to the manipulation table in order to avoid jumping out of fish from the net.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

32
 Plate 14
Wrapping the head of a fish to facilitate handling. Wrapped fish
can be handled more easily. Moreover, this practice protects the
eggs from water dropping from under the gill covers.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

Male fish can also be selected based on the shape of their bellies (small and flat) and by the
length/form of the urogenital papilla (Plate 3). The testis of one healthy male is enough to
fertilize the eggs of 3–4 females of the same size. However, hybrid fish (which may occur in
populations imported from Southeast Asia) or genetically manipulated ones sometimes do not
give sperm. Consequently, in populations of unclear origin, it is better to select the same
number of males as females injected in order to increase the probability of finding active
males and avoiding a shortage of sperm.

4.3 Hormone-induced breeding

Many different hormones have been successfully tested and proved to be suitable for
inducing ovulation. For example, desoxycorticosterone acetate (DOCA) at a ratio of
50 mg/kg (Janssen, 1987), synthetic LHRH (D-Ala-6 version) + dopamine antagonist. The
dose of LHRH should be 10–50 µg/kg, applied together with 5 mg/kg pimozide (De Leeuw et
al., 1985). Human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) should be applied at 3 000–5 000 IU/kg for
female fish and 500 IU/kg for male fish (Janssen, 1987; Tonguthai et al., 1993). Ovaprim
(0.5 ml/kg) is also effective for inducing ovulation (Sharaf, 2012).

33
However, carp pituitary gland (CPG) is used most widely for catfish breeding (Hogendoorn
and Vismans, 1980; Huisman and Richter, 1987). It can be obtained from both common carp
and Chinese carps. Good-quality acetone dried glands should weigh at least 2.0–2.5 mg.
Moreover, the pituitary glands (PG) of matured fish glands collected from young immature
carps are also suitable for breeding. The minimum size of common carps used for gland
collection should be 0.8 kg and the fish should be at least two years old. The PGs of Chinese
carp of 2.5–3.0 years of age (3.5 kg and more) can also be used to induce ovulation. Properly
treated glands preserved in acetone are dry. It is best to store them in a desiccator glass jar
above silica-gel or CaCl2. It is not advisable to keep glands in a refrigerator unless the flask in
which the glands are stored is hermetically sealed. Otherwise, the humidity and fungi that
develop on the PGs can easily destroy them. Stored in proper dry and sealed conditions, PGs
will remain active for at least 3–4 years. Preferably, acetone-dried PG should be applied
during propagation. Application of wet glands preserved in alcohol is not simple, and their
weight can also be uncertain.
In order to induce ovulation, glands should be applied in a dose of 4.0–4.5 mg/kg body
weight (Hogendoorn, 1979). Males are usually more active if the two sexes are kept together
in closed systems. Injection of males is not necessary in active broodfish populations. If they
are injected, they should only receive from one-third to one-quarter of the hormone dose for
females. Even this small dose can increase the volume of semen.
The PGs should be prepared for injection as follows:
 The quantity of glands should be calculated according to the average weight of glands and
the weight of a group of broodfish. In order to avoid underdosing of the hormone, it is
reasonable to pulverize 10 percent more glands than the calculated needed quantity. (If
the average weight of glands is not known, it can be determined by measuring the weight
of at least 100 glands in a pharmacy where precision weight scales are available.)
 A calculated number of glands should be powdered in a porcelain mortar. As a first step,
glands should be broken into smaller pieces in a mortar and should then be pulverized.
This work should be done in a place where there is no wind, as the smallest movement of
air can blow some powder out from the mortar.
 The pulverized material must be suspended in water. Using different concentrations of
salt solutions, e.g. “physiological solutions” (6 g NaCl/litre water in the case of fish) is
not necessary, tap water or any drinking-water is suitable for this purpose. For easy
handling, 1 ml of suspension should be calculated for 1 kg of fish. If fish are larger than
2.5–3.0 kg, only 0.5 ml of solution should be prepared for 1 kg of body weight. As a first
step, only a small quantity of water should be added to the PG powder (from a syringe) to
make it wet in the mortar. If too much water is added, it is difficult to make a proper
suspension. Once the material is wet, more water should be added step by step to the
suspension (not all at once), while the suspension should be continuously stirred using the
same porcelain stick that was used for breaking/pulverizing the glands. When the
suspension is ready, the rest of the PG material should be washed from the stick to the
mortar using the remaining water. If pulverization is not done properly, larger tissue
pieces can remain in the suspension, which may block the needle. Filtering the suspension
through a 50–100 µm mesh-size plastic net (or through a piece of silk) can remove these
residuals.
The suspension can be used immediately after preparation or can be kept in a refrigerator for
a short period. The hormone in the PG is water soluble. Consequently, injecting the sediment

34
into the body of a fish is not necessary as active ingredients are dissolved from the pulverized
tissues.
One intramuscular injection is applied for inducing ovulation (Plate 15). The time of injection
should be carefully selected (based on the water temperature of the broodfish tank) in order to
avoid night ovulation, as usually it is much more difficult to organize experienced workers
for stripping the fish at night.

Plate 15
Hormone injection into the dorsal muscle. No strong massage for distribution of injected material
into the muscles is necessary as there is no flow-back through the hole made by the needle, as is
typical in other species.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

4.4 Ovulation, stripping and fertilization

Ovulation time (latency period; i.e. the time between injection and stripping) is temperature
dependent. Table 2 shows the length of latency periods at different temperatures (de Graaf
and Janssen, 1996).
Table 2
Optimal time for stripping after administration of carp pituitary gland (CPG)

Water temperature (°C) 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Time from injection to

stripping (hours) 21 18 15.5 13.3 12 11 10 9 8 7.5 7

The latency period is longer in cooler water, and shorter in warmer water. One should
consider that free-running eggs can easily be stripped much earlier than the optimal time of
stripping. Table 3 shows the appearance of free-running eggs, time intervals when stripping is
possible, and the optimal time of stripping within this period at different temperatures.

35
Table 3
Periods when eggs can be stripped and the optimal time of stripping related to temperature

Water Earliest time after injection when eggs Time period when stripping is Optimal time of stripping after
temperature (°C) can be stripped (hours) possible (hours) the injection (hours)

20 16.5 10 19–22

25 9.0 5 10–13

30 6.5 2.5 7–7.5

Source: After Hogendoorn and Vismans (1980).

The fertility rate of eggs stripped before the optimal time is always low and the percentage of
deformed embryos is high. The percentage of normally developing eggs can be as low as zero
if stripping is carried out too early, immediately or soon after the occurrence of free-running
eggs when pressing the belly. Although egg quality declines if stripping is carried out after
the optimal time, losses are still much smaller in this case than with early stripping
(Hogendoorn and Vismans, 1980). Consequently, early stripping should definitely be
avoided.
The consistency of stripped eggs changes during the stripping period. The mass of eggs
stripped before the optimal stripping time (early stripping) is very dense and viscous. Hard
pressure on the belly is necessary in order to obtain the eggs. Drops of stripped eggs remain
together and stick to the wall of the bowl like stalactites. If eggs are stripped at the proper
time, it is easier to press them out, and the viscosity of the egg mass is much smaller
(Plate 16). As time passes, the tendency continues – eggs stripped after the optimal time are
less hard. The ratio of deformed embryos is lowest if stripping is done at the optimal time.
This ratio also depends on temperature: it is smallest at 25°C (Hogendoorn and Vismans,
1980).

Plate 16
Process of stripping female fish and good-quality eggs. Eggs with a moderate viscosity stripped
at a proper time. Two, preferably three, people are necessary for stripping. Skin and fins should
be dried before the process in order to avoid water dropping into the batch of stripped eggs. It
takes about 0.5–1.0 minutes to strip one fish of 2.0–2.5 kg. If the skin of the fish becomes too
dry, the person doing the stripping should slightly wet his/her hand; otherwise, the fish will be
hurt/damaged.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

36
The form and structure of eggs taken from the genital opening also helps to determine the
proper time for stripping (Hogendoorn and Vismans, 1980). If the form of eggs in the sample
is not spherical but slightly flat in the water and the nuclei cannot be seen at the animal pore,
the fish is ready for stripping (see Plates 4 and 12).
The data on optimal stripping times (see Tables 2 and 3) is valid for fully mature populations.
When fish are in a slightly earlier stage of development or there are changes in temperature
during the latency period, stocking one or two males into the group of injected females helps
to determine the optimal stripping time exactly. When one of the male fish starts to display
spawning behaviour with a selected female and the first batch of eggs is released (Van der
Waal, 1974), stripping of the whole group can be started within 20–30 minutes. As males are
extremely aggressive before spawning, sewing their mouths (as shown in Figure 12) is
suggested.

Figure 12
Closing the mouth of male fish to avoid injuries

Notes: A small diameter (2–3 mm) opening should be prepared on the upper jaw of male fish with a breast or
electric drill. A strong thread should be pulled through this hole with a needle. With the help of a needle, this
thread can be pushed through the lower jaw behind the bony part of the jaw, and the two ends of the thread
should then be fixed. The mouth should not be fully closed. When fixing the knot, at least an 8–10 mm distance
should be kept between the jaws in order to make the breathing of fish possible.
Source: After Peteri, Shibabrata and Chowduri (1992).

Before stripping, the selected female should be caught and transferred to a stripping table. In
order to avoid an unintentional pressing out of eggs while the fish is writhing, the head
should first be covered with a wet towel, and then the fish should be turned on its back by the
person who will carry out the stripping. Another person should wrap the caudal part of the
fish, and the stripping can be started by a slight pressure on the belly. Eggs should be released
into a dry plastic bowl (see Plate 16). Not more than 200–250 g eggs should be stripped into

37
one bowl, as fertilization of small doses of eggs is safer. The use of tranquilizers is only
necessary for fish that weigh more than 3–4 kg.
Male fish have to be castrated; their testis must be removed in order to obtain sperm. This can
be done either before or after the stripping of females. Males should be killed before
removing the testis. Plate 17 shows the process of testis removal. The testis can be found
under the fat attached to the peritoneum. This should be separated from the peritoneal
membrane and removed without lobes, which are located at the caudal part of the testis. The
testis should be dried with cloth or paper. It can be kept in a Petri glass in a refrigerator for a
short time or can be used immediately. If the semen is diluted with 0.9 percent NaCl solution
and kept in a refrigerator, it retains its fertilizing ability for several hours (Hogendoorn and
Vismans, 1980). While working with sperm, contact between water and sperm should be
avoided. Even a small quantity of water can activate sperm, which will then perish within a
few seconds.

Plate 17
Process of testis removal.
Phase 1 Phase 2

Incision should be started from the genital papilla. The The testis can be found under a layer of fat and the
scissors or knife should not be pushed too deep in order intestines, deep in the body cavity, at the kidney.
to avoid damaging the intestines.
Phase 3 Phase 4

When the testis is found, it should be picked out from The testis should be separated from the lobes. These
the inner organs. appendices do not contain sperm.

38
 Phase 5 Phase 6

The removed testes should be dried using dry cloths Incisions should be performed on collected testes.
and reserved for fertilization. Keeping them at room Sperm will flow out of the tissue and can be used for
temperature for a short time will not affect sperm fertilization or stored in salt solution (9 g/litre NaCl) in
quality. a refrigerator (5 °C) for hours.
Photographs courtesy of Peteri.

For the fertilization of eggs stripped from 3–4 female fish, the testis of one male should be
used, provided all of the fish are of similar size. To obtain sperm, the testis should be laid on
a palm-sized sieve with a mesh size of 0.5–1.0 mm. Incisions should be made with a sharp
knife or a pair of scissors, and sperm should be squeezed through the mesh onto the eggs. For
the fertilization of 250 g eggs, about 0.5–0.7 ml sperm is necessary (Plate 18). Sperm and
eggs should be mixed with a careful shaking of the bowl for 5–10 seconds (Plate 19). When
the sperm is properly distributed in the mass of eggs, about 50 ml water should be poured on
the mixture. The gentle shaking should be continued for about 20–30 seconds for the
completion of fertilization. Later, some additional water should be added to the pot
(Plate 20). Within five minutes, fertilized eggs should be cleaned by washing (Plates 21 and
22). This process removes mucous materials excreted by the disc area of eggs, which in the
wild stick the eggs to different substrates (Clay, 1979 b). When the treatment is finished eggs
should be poured into Zoug jars (Plate 23).

39
 Plate 18
Distribution of sperm on eggs:
(i) by squeezing the testis. (ii) by adding previously collected pure sperm.

Sperm can be squeezed out from the tissue of the testis For one batch of eggs (200–250 g), about 0.5–0.7 ml of
through a piece of net. sperm should be used for fertilization.
Photographs courtesy of Peteri.

Plate 19
Gently mixing dry eggs with sperm. As stripped eggs have a loose
structure, no spoon should be used for mixing dry eggs with sperm.
Distribution of sperm in the egg mass should be done with a gentle
movement of bowls containing dry sexual products.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

40
 Plate 20
Process of fertilization. Fertilization should be done by adding
about 50 ml of water to a mixture of 200–250 g of eggs and sperm.
Gentle movement of the bowl should be continued for about 20–
30 seconds. This time is sufficient for the sperm to penetrate
healthy eggs.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

Plate 21
Washing fertilized eggs (1). Two-four minutes after fertilization,
when hydration of eggs proceeds, some water should be added to
fertilized eggs to support further swelling/hydration.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

41
 Plate 22
Washing fertilized eggs (2). Remaining sperm, ovarian fluid and
sticky materials excreted by the disc should be washed out from the
bowl.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

Plate 23
Pouring fertilized eggs into Zoug jar. The water inlet of the Zoug
jars should be closed. Some water (1–2 litres) should be removed
from the jar, and the fertilized eggs should be poured into the jar by
help of a funnel. When the eggs are already in the jars, the tap of
Zoug jars should be reopened. In the first period of incubation, only
a small quantity of water is needed to satisfy the oxygen
requirement of developing eggs.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

42
4.5 Incubation of eggs and hatching of larvae

In the jars, the clump of eggs stuck Plate 24

together needs only a small quantity of
water flow at the beginning (Plate 24). Eggs in Zoug jars at the beginning of the incubation period.
At the beginning of the incubation period, the water current
If the current is properly set (about should be very moderate as strong mechanical effects may
0.5–0.7 litres/minute water flow for a kill the eggs. The current should be adequate to keep eggs
Zoug jar of 8–10 litres in volume), an drifting only at the inlet of the jar. The upper portion of eggs
intensive movement of eggs should should not drift before the yolk-plug stage starts (see
only be seen at the inlet of the jar. Figure 10). The current should be individually determined in
each jar, as the shape of the water inlet, pressure of incoming
Above this level, eggs should stay water and quantity of eggs in the jar can all affect it. As can
still, and could stick together as a be observed in the photograph, the water current is too strong
bunch. At 26–28 °C, the water current in the first jar from left but is adjusted properly in the second
must be increased after 7–8 hours one. At the inlets of the jars, rubber balls are placed in order
(when the process of gastrulation is to distribute the incoming water properly. The strength of the
current can be seen from the position of the balls. However,
fully completed, see Figure 10). The these balls are not absolutely necessary for the proper use of
active adhesiveness of eggs disappears Zoug jars; they can also be used with an open inlet.
by this time. Eggs can be separated by
mixing/gently breaking them with a
special spoon (Plate 25). The water
current must be increased up to 1.3–
1.5 litres/minute in a Zoug jar of 8–
10 litres of water volume. The current
should be sufficient to keep the eggs in
a moving/floating condition. If the
temperature is near to optimal,
treatment of eggs against fungal
infection is not necessary during
incubation. If the temperature is low
(20–22 °C), and as a consequence the
incubation period is long, treatment
with malachite green could be Photograph courtesy of Peteri.
necessary (2–5 mg/litre malachite
green solution for a 5–10 minute bath). However, the use of malachite green is forbidden in
some countries. Hydrogen peroxide or formalin in a concentration of 250–500 ppm for
15 minutes (Mitchell et al., 2009) and 2 ml/10 litres for 20 minutes, respectively, can be used
instead of malachite green. However, these chemicals are not as effective as malachite green.

43
 Plate 25
Tool for dispersing sticky eggs. Process of dispersing egg bunches.

A small spoon (5–7 cm long, 4–5 cm wide) made The water current should be increased at this stage.
out of soft plastic or rubber and fixed to a handle can The current must be enough for a slow drifting of
be used to break up egg clutches. The spoon should egg mass even at the surface. Colour changing of
be pushed into the batch of eggs and slowly whirled. bad eggs starts in this period, they become white.
This movement will separate eggs from one another, However, as this process needs more time to finish,
as no more sticky material is produced by the disc the ratio of bad eggs can only be seen after 15–
on the egg shell in this time. 16 hours of incubation at 26–28 °C.
Photos courtesy of Peteri.

When hatching starts (Table 4), small, transparent fry will appear among the drifting eggs
(Plate 26). When hundreds of hatched fry can be seen, all the eggs and fry from the Zoug jars
must be siphoned (Plates 27 and 28) and transferred to nursing tanks. The best method is to
install a hatching table in the nursing tank (a tray covered with a net of 0.7–1.0 mm mesh,
Plate 29) and pour all the siphoned material onto the surface of this table. Tanks used for
nursing should have an enlarged filter surface fixed to the outlet (Plate 30).
Table 4
Duration of incubation period

Water temperature (°C) 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30

Time until hatching (hours) 57 46 38 33 29 27 25 23 22 21 20

Source: de Graaf and Janssen (1996).

44
 Plate 26
Start of hatching. Fully developed embryos move strongly within the egg shell, and an
enzyme is produced by the larva that weakens the egg shell. These mechanical and
biochemical effects break the egg shell and enable the embryos to hatch. As the eggs
shells are dissolved, a foam develops, which can be seen in the tray under the jars.
This is a clear sign of hatching. As can be seen in the picture bad (white) African
catfish eggs do not separate in the same way as is typical for some other species.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

Plate 27 Plate 28
Siphoning hatching eggs. After hatching has started, Siphoned mixture of hatched fry, hatching fry and
the egg mass and hatched fry should be siphoned bad eggs. The mixture of hatched fry, egg shells, bad
from the jar. At first, only a little (1–2 cm) water eggs and eggs ready to hatch should be kept together
should be siphoned out in order to avoid bumping for a few minutes in a small quantity of water. The
the fry against the bottom of the bowl. Later, the shortage of oxygen that develops within the eggs
inlet of the siphon should be pushed into the egg will force ready-to-hatch embryos to make an
mass in order to siphon all the eggs out of the jar. intensive movement within the egg shell. This
movement helps to break the shells. Moreover, the
accumulation of hatching enzymes released from
hatching eggs will make the shells weaker from the
outside.

Photographs courtesy of Peteri.

45
 Plate 29
Hatching table. Hatching fry, bad eggs, abnormal embryos and egg shells should all be siphoned out from
the Zoug jars together. This mixture should be poured on to a hatching tray, which is installed temporarily in
a nursing tank. The surface of the hatching tray is covered with a net with a mesh size smaller than 1 mm.
Healthy fry soon escape from the table while dead eggs, egg shells and deformed fry remain. Hyphae of
Saprolegnia fix this waste to the net covering the table. The net can easily be removed from the nursing tank
with the waste on it one the day after hatching.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

Plate 30
Outlet filter with an enlarged surface. In order to prevent tiny fry from drifting to the nursing tank outlet, the
surface are of the filter at outlet should be increased. The filter box that can be seen in the nursing tank has a
surface area that is four times greater than the bottom outlet of tank. The mesh size of the filter should not
exceed 350 µm at the beginning. However, as fry grow, another filter box should be installed that covered by
a net with a larger mesh size (1–3 mm). This increased mesh size will make removal of the majority of
faeces possible with the help of water currents.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

46
4.6 Rearing of non-feeding fry and the start of exogenous feeding
On the first day, hatched fry remain on the surface of the hatching tray. Later, healthy fry
gather under the tray, in the corners or other places of the tank with no strong direct light.
After the second day, only deformed fry remain on the tray between clumps of bad eggs.
Usually, fungi developing on bad eggs keep these clumps together, stuck to the net covering
the tray. Thus, it is easy to remove the trays without allowing bad eggs to drift into the tank.
If hatching fry are stocked directly into rearing tanks, their behaviour will be similar. On the
second day, healthy fry swim out of the egg shells, and the bad eggs and waste can be
removed with a siphon.
The colour of the fry becomes darker by the second day. They remain in dark corners of the
tanks. Exogenous feeding should be started once the fry start searching for feed in the water
column running mainly next to the walls of the tank (Plate 31). This usually happens on the
third day after hatching. Fry rearing tanks must be cleaned twice a day, as a bacterial layer
develops on the wall and the bottom. This must be scraped off using a plastic sponge. Kitchen
salt can be spread on the surface of sponge before rubbing in order to increase its mechanical
effect and also for disinfection of tank. Sediment (shells of Artemia, bad eggs, bacterial
flocks and deformed fry) can be concentrated by a careful steering of water in the tank. As
healthy fry will escape from the centre of the tank from the open space, the concentrated
material can be siphoned out a few minutes after steering the water.

Plate 31
Young fry searching for feed in the water column. On the second day after hatching, fry become brownish; and on
the third day, they start to search for food. As can be seen in the picture, no hatching tray was used for this group
of fish. As a consequence, flocks of bad eggs, deformed fry and egg shells are at the bottom, so healthy fry are
also mixed with waster. However, the separation of healthy fry has already started, and they can be seen at the
side of the nursing tank and in the water column. Most active fry are already searching for food.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

Nauplius larvae of Artemia salina (brine shrimp) are optimal starter feed for African catfish.
Different qualities of Artemia eggs can be purchased. The recommendation is to always buy
premium or “A” quality eggs. Although their price is higher than that of “B”, the hatching
rate of quality products is better and there is much less pollution caused by unhatched or dead
eggs and egg shells. Artemia cysts are usually supplied in airtight tin boxes. If not all the
cysts are used from an opened tin, the opening should be closed tightly in order to avoid
penetration of humidity. It is best to seal the hole with candle wax.

47
In this period live, nauplius of Artemia salina should be fed 4–5 times per day. For
100 000 newly hatched fry, about 200 g dry Artemia/day should be applied in the beginning.
However, it is best to determine the necessary quantity of feed by the behaviour of fry. When
they are hungry, they swim actively in the water column. When they are satiated, they gather
at the bottom of tank in dark places. Moreover, the orange Artemia can be seen in the belly of
small fish.
Plate 32 shows an Artemia hatchery. Artemia eggs can be hatched in very intensively aerated
jars. No “dead zones” should remain in the jars. Incubation must be carried out in a kitchen-
salt solution of 27–30 g/litre. The hatching jar must be lighted (2 000 lux at water surface).
The optimal temperature for incubation is 27–30 °C. The optimal concentration of eggs in
hatching jars is 5–7 g/litre. As the world demand for Artemia has significantly increased in
the last few years, cysts are also sometimes supplied from non-traditional sources. The
hatching time and optimal salt concentration for these cysts can be different. The incubation
time of Artemia is about 22–24 hours at 30 °C. When hatching is completed, the colour of
suspension in the jar changes to reddish. Hatching can easily be checked in a Petri glass or in
a glass tube – free-swimming nauplii can be seen without multiplication if the glass is held
against the light. (Their size is about 200–350 µm, depending on the brand of Artemia.)
When hatching is completed, aeration should be closed and only the lower part of the jar
should be illuminated. However, illumination of upper regions must be avoided by using a
plastic or cardboard sheet for shading. Suspension in the jar must be sedimented for about
10 minutes. The orange-colour layer of hatched nauplii from the bottom of the jar should be
siphoned out without disturbing upper layers where egg shells are accumulated. Collected
nauplii should be used immediately or they can also be stored in freshly prepared salty water
for a short period (Plate 33) and fed to fry within 24 hours. Nauplii can be preserved for
about 10–15 days after freezing. However, the rearing of catfish fry should not be based
entirely on frozen Artemia as the biological value of dead nauplii is lower than that of live
Artemia (Hogendoorn, 1980).

Plate 32
Artemia hatchery. Transparent jars with a water volume of 20–50 litres can be used for hatching Artemia. The jars
are illuminated at the bottom and from above, and are strongly stirred by air in order to keep the Artemia eggs
floating. A heater should be used (as can be seen in the first jar), to maintain the optimal temperature (27–30 °C)
for Artemia incubation. For supplying larger hatcheries, the installation of 2–4 incubation units is necessary.
Artemia incubation should not be started on the same day in all jars; rather, they should be used one after the
other. This makes it possible to supply fry with freshly hatched Artemia on consecutive days. As the volume of
hatched Artemia and saltwater siphoned from the incubation jar is very small compared with the water volume of
rearing tanks, washing off the salt from hatched Artemia (rinsing) is not necessary. They can be poured directly
into the nursing tank for feeding.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

48
 Plate 33
Storing hatched Artemia for feeding. If hatched Artemia are not fed
to fry immediately, the remaining quantity can be stored alive at a
high density for 24 hours. However, nauplii should be filtered from
the incubation water by a 100–150 µm mesh filter and should be
kept in a freshly prepared salt solution. If the solution is not fresh,
bacterial decomposition starts very rapidly. The temperature in the
storage pots/jars should not be as high as during incubation (it
should be about 20 °C) and illumination is not necessary.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

4.7 Nursing of fish up to 1 gram

4.7.1 Tanks for rearing and stocking density
The most comfortable and effective tanks for nursing fry are rectangular tanks made of
fibreglass or polypropylene (2 m × 2 m × 0.55 m) or round tanks of a similar size.
Rectangular tanks should have rounded corners in order to support proper circulation. The
water outlet must have an enlarged surface covered with a net with a mesh size of 0.30–
0.35 mm (see Plate 31). Later, as the fish grow, this net should be changed to a net with a
0.4–0.5 mm mesh. About 100 000–150 000 newly hatched fry can be stocked in such tanks.
The water supply requirement is about 5–7 litres/minute at the beginning of the rearing
period, and it should increase to about 10–15 litres/minute per tank by the end of nursing. The
optimal water temperature for nursing is 26–29 °C. In the first phase of rearing, before the
development of a secondary breathing organ, the oxygen level must be kept above
3.5 mg/litre, NH4+ under 1.0 mg/litre at pH 6.5–7.5, and NO2 under 0.5 mg/litre.
4.7.2 Feeding
Artemia can be a main feed for fry in the first 2–3 weeks of rearing (Hogendoorn et al.,
1979). Feeding this live food for such a long period will accelerate growth without increasing
the occurrence of raptured intestine syndrome (Boon et al., 1987). The quantity of Artemia
necessary for the production of about 100 000 fingerlings is about 3–4 kg (6–8 tins). After
about 8–10 days, a pure Artemia diet should be complemented with crumbled feed of
55 percent protein content. Optimal size of crumbled feed for 10–day-old fish is 0.3 mm. As
fish grow, the size of the crumbled feed should also increase, up to 0.5–0.8 mm (Coppens

49
 International bv, 2006). Good growth can be maintained if Tubifex worms are fed instead of
Artemia from the second week of feeding. However, this may increase the occurrence of
bacterial infections.
The daily ration in the first 10 days is about 50–250 ml of Artemia nauplii for 100 000 fry.
This quantity can be hatched from 100–300 g of dry Artemia. The daily ration should be fed
in 5–6 doses, evenly distributed between early morning and late evening hours. Feeding the
same quantity of brine shrimp should be continued in the next ten days together with an
increasing ratio of crumbled feed, decreasing the feed ration from 10 percent to 7 percent of
total body weight. At the end of this period, Artemia feeding should be stopped. Daily doses
of artificial feed must be distributed 4–5 times a day. For rearing about 80 000 nursed fry up
to 0.8–1.0 g body weight, about 10–15 kg feed of 0.3 mm and 50 kg feed of 0.5–0.8 mm is
necessary. Using an automatic belt feeder (Plate 34) will improve growth and feed conversion
as it allows both day and night feeding, which has a positive effect on growth (Hogendoorn,
1981). (Feeding with Tubifex worms can also accelerate growth.)

Plate 34
Lateral and upper view of a clock-run belt feeder.

As small-sized starter feeds may stick to the surface of

Using clock-run feeders, small quantities of feed can be the rolling feeding platform (belt) in a clock feeder, the
continuously supplied day and night for fry. This helps daily dose of feed should come into contact with the
to accustom fry to artificial feeds and enables full platform with a surface area as small as possible. This is
utilization of the growth capacity of the fish. so that feed should not be distributed widely on the
surface of a rolling sheet but should be pushed together.

Photographs courtesy of Peteri.

Although there are possibilities for the preparation and application of farm-made feed for
African catfish (Uys and Hecht, 1985), the work requirements of food preparation are high,
and locally prepared feeds are always less effective than those produced by specialized feed
factories. Moreover, the water stability of these home-made feeds is always worse than that
of feeds produced in specialized factories. Therefore, it is better to buy feed for nursing rather
than manufacture it locally.
4.7.3 Treatment of fish
During the nursing period, the most dangerous diseases are caused by one-cell parasites
(mainly Costia) and bacterial infections (mainly Flexybacter sp.). A regular scraping of the
bacterial layer from the walls and bottom of the tanks, and a frequent siphoning of the
concentrated sediment, faeces and remaining feed are the most important actions for
protecting fish against these infections. Moreover, a regular preventive treatment using
50
 25 ml/m3 of formalin is advised. Formalin treatment is recommended every 3–4 days soon
after hatching, while the frequency of treatments can be increased later on. Formalin should
be diluted in 10–12 litres of water before application. The water current should be stopped
and the formalin solution should be distributed on the surface of the tank. The water inlet
should be closed for about 1 hour at the beginning of nursing for the treatment period. Later,
when the biomass concentration of fish in the tank increases, closing the water current is not
possible owing to the danger of oxygen depletion. At this stage, a bowl equipped with a small
tap should be hung above the tank from which diluted formalin can drip into the tank for
about 1–2 hours (Plate 35). Controlling bacterial infection using formalin is extremely
important when fish start their breathing directly from air. This happens when the fish are 15–
20 days old (0.25–0.3 g weight).

Plate 35
Glass bowl fixed above a rearing tank for formalin treatment. Small doses (25 ml/m3) of formalin should regularly
be used for blocking the development of damaging bacteria during the nursing period. This concentration/quantity
of formalin can be applied in every fourth day in RASs without any damage to the biofilter. Decomposition/dilution
of formalin takes days, so this is a long-term bacteriostatic treatment. It is not possible to obtain a long-term effect
in flow-through systems. However, for extending the treatment period, a bowl should be fixed above the rearing
tank and the required quantity of formalin should drip slowly into the tank. Quantity of formalin and time of
dropping should be calculated according to the water exchange of the tank. For example, in the case of one water
exchange per hour, as a starting concentration 50 ml of formalin must be diluted in 2 m3 tank water, and another 2 ×
25 = 50 ml formalin should drip into the tank during the next hour. As a result, the formalin concentration will be
the required 25 ml/m3 during a two-hour period. This treatment can be repeated daily.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

Cannibalism occurs early in such populations. Selection of larger fish should be done during
and also at the end of the nursing period by using an adjustable bar grader (Plate 36).

51
 Plate 36
Adjustable bar grader for the selection of small fish and the process of selection.

Distance between the bars can be modified in the range As can be seen in the image, small fish can fit between
of 0.3–2.0 cm. Distance at selection should be adjusted the bars and only large fish are caught. Large fish can be
to the size of fish that should be removed from the removed from the population in order to avoid
population. cannibalism.
Photographs courtesy of Peteri.

4.8 Production of small fingerlings

4.8.1 Tanks for rearing and stocking density
Tanks with water volumes of less than 3.5–4.0 m3 are most suitable for this rearing phase
because they can easily be cleaned/treated (Plate 37). The optimal temperature for rearing
fingerlings is 25–27 °C. About 30 000–40 000 fingerlings of 1 g should be stocked in 1 m3 of
water. The water requirement per cubic metre is 15–20 litres/minute. The minimum oxygen
level required is 1.5 mg/litre, and NH4+ and NO2 must be below 2.0 mg/litre at pH 6.5–7.5.
Fish above 4–5 cm in length (0.7–1.0 g) in stressful conditions (sudden strong light and/or
noise, hits on the side of tanks, selection and other manipulations, etc.), especially in periods
of strong meteorological fronts, try to escape by jumping out of the water (Plate 38). They
can jump up to a height of 25–50 cm and many of them fall out of the tanks. Consequently,
for rearing 4 g fingerlings relatively deep tanks should be used where water is not filled up to
maximum level. A wall height of about 50 cm must be kept above the water surface in order
to avoid losses.

Plate 37
A simple/portable fingerling rearing tank. The tank is made of fibreglass
reinforced plastic (PVC) sheeting. Its total water volume is about 3.0 m3. This
tank is ideal for rearing small fingerlings as it is easy to clean and also has a
good self-cleaning ability through its bottom drain.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

52
 Plate 38
Stressed fish that have jumped out of the nursing tank. Very significant losses
may occur when fish are kept in tanks with low walls above the water level.
These losses can be avoided if the height of a rearing tank is in accordance with
the size of fish or a fence of an appropriate height is fixed to the rim of the tank.
Covering the tank with a mesh also helps to avoid losses.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

4.8.2 Feeding
Crumbled feed of 0.8–1.5 mm size, preferably from specialized fish feed factories, should be
fed. The feed ration depends on the temperature and fish size (Table 5) and should contain
52–55 percent protein. Feed utilization is usually well below 1.0. For this age group, the most
efficient technique is to use automatic belt feeders.
Table 5
Daily feed ration at different fish sizes and temperatures in the period of small-size fingerling production
Fish weight
Water temperature
1g 4g 5g
(°C)
Feed ration (% of bw)

23 5.0 3.8 3.7

25 7.0 5.0 4.7
27 7.5 5.6 5.4
29 8.0 – –
30 – 5.9 5.6
Source: After Hogendoorn et al. (1983) and Janssen (1987).

4.8.3 Treatment of fish

Water current and fish activity keep the tank free of sediment. However, preventive
application of formalin at a dose of 25–50 ml/m3 every 3–4 days is advisable to control
bacterial activity. In addition, to control development of a bacterial layer on the walls of
tanks, a regular rubbing of the walls is necessary.

53
Fish that are larger or smaller than the average size of the fish population should be removed
during the rearing period at an average weight of 2.0–2.5 g. Moreover, at the end of the
rearing period, another similar selection must be done. For selection of this size of fish, a
larger-capacity grader should be used than used in the period of nursing (Plate 39). The water
level in the tank after the selection should be kept low in order to prevent stressed fish from
jumping out.

Plate 39
Fish grader for selection of fish in a weight range of 2–30 g. This fixed-bar
grader can be used for the separation of different sizes of fingerlings. Fish
should be poured into the tank (container) of the grader (right end), from where
they will slide onto the bars. The bars have a slope and the distance between
adjacent bars from the beginning to the end increases gradually. At the
beginning, the spacing is 0.5 cm, while it is 2.5 cm at the end. Fish of different
sizes fall through the bars at different places. Small fish fall onto the plastic
slope (front side of the picture) at the beginning of the bars. Medium-sized fish
fall later onto another slope, which is on the other side of the grader (it cannot
be seen in the image as it is behind the wall of the grader). The largest fish fall
onto the slope at the end of the grader. Buckets should be placed under the
slopes, and separated fish of different sizes can be transferred into different
rearing tanks.

Photograph courtesy of Peteri.

4.9 Production of large fingerlings

4.9.1 Tanks for rearing and stocking density
Tanks with a water volume of 10–20 m3 can be used for the production of large (average
weight 100–150 g) fingerlings. Recommended stocking with fish of 4 g is about 1 800–
2 500 pc/m3. The water exchange rate in fingerling rearing tanks should be at least 2–
4 m3/hour. The optimal temperature is 26–27 °C. Water in the tank should contain at least
0.5 mg/litre oxygen. The quantity of NH4+ should not exceed 80–100 mg/litre at pH 6.0–7.0,
and the NO2 concentration should be less than 0.5–1.0 mg/litre. A moderate water exchange
and the recommended density of fish will keep the tank clean.

54
4.9.2 Feeding
Feed should contain at least 48 percent raw (44–45 percent digestible) proteins and
11.5 MJ/kg energy. Purchasing feed from large suppliers is suggested, as they can guarantee
a standard quality of feed ingredients and can apply controlled methods for manufacturing.
Continuous feeding is recommended using automatic feeders or self-feeders. The feed
particles should be 1.5–3.0 mm. Both pelleted and extruded (floating) feed can be given.
Table 6 indicates the quantity of feed (daily ration) at different temperatures and different
sizes of fish.
Table 6
Daily ration in the second phase of fingerling production at 25–27 °C

Body weight (g) 10 20 30 40 50 70 90 110 130 150

Daily feed (% of body weight) 5.7 5.2 4.8 4.5 4.3 4.1 4.0 3.9 3.8 3.7

Source: After Coppens International bv (2013).

4.9.3 Treatment of fish

One of the most important actions during this phase of rearing is the grading of fish in order
to avoid cannibalism. Selection should be done at least once during the rearing period at
about the average weight of 30–35 g by using a bar grader (see Plate 39). The walls and
bottom of the tanks from where fish are removed for selection should be scraped and the
sediment washed out. Spraying formalin on the walls of empty tanks is suggested. Formalin
treatment (50 ml/m3) should be applied in new tanks where fish are stocked after grading in
order to avoid infection through injuries caused by biting which is very frequent in stressed
fish groups. After selection, the water level must be kept 60–80 cm lower than the maximum
in order to prevent fish jumping out of the tanks.
4.10 Grow-out phase
4.10.1 Tanks for rearing and stocking density
The water volume of tanks used for table fish production can be as much as 70–100 m3 in
flow-through systems. The optimal water temperature for the grow-out period is 25–26 °C.
The stocking density (with an average weight of 150 g) is 200–300 fish/m3. The daily water
supply must be 120–130 percent of the tank volume in flow-through systems. However, to
maintain minimal oxygen levels, a current to drift out sediment or agitation of tank water is
also necessary. In order to decrease the environmental loading of a flow-through system,
discharged water should go through a drum filter. In some cases, this water can partially be
re-pumped. For a full utilization of tank volume, multicycle production should be undertaken.
This means that at least six different age groups should be kept in a farm, reared from newly
hatched fry stocked in every second month. As a consequence, there will be six fish groups
per year reaching market size. If they are marketed slowly, growing fish from a previous
group and quickly growing fish from the next group will make a continuous market supply
possible.
The multicycle production method is also used in well-managed RASs. In such systems,
seven shifts of fingerlings are stocked during a year (Verreth and Eding, 1993) and fish that
reach market size are continuously harvested. Smaller tanks (with a water volume of about
20 m3) with a more extensive water exchange (1.0–1.5 times/hour) are used in medium-
capacity recirculation systems, where a few hundred tonnes of fish are produced. This

55
method facilitates an increase in annual production of up to 1.5 tonnes/m3. As a consequence
of this management practice, a tank volume of slightly less than 100 m3 is necessary for a
system with annual production of 100 tonnes where only about 30 tonnes of standing stock is
kept constantly. In such systems, the daily applied feed quantity will be steady all year round
(250–300 kg) (Eding and Kamstra, 2002). This allows the biofilter to operate at full capacity,
as the metabolite loading of the system remains stable.
4.10.2 Feeding
The raw protein content of grow-out feed should be 44–45 percent, with 42 percent
digestibility. Feeding should be automated in the quantities presented in Table 7.
Table7
Feeding ratios at different fish sizes and water temperatures in the on-growing period
Water temperature (°C)
Fish weight (g) 20 261 30
Daily food in % of body weight

100 2.0 3.9 3.6

200 1.5 3.0 2.7
300 1.2 2.4 2.2
400 1.0 2.0 1.8
500 0.9 1.7 1.6
600 0.8 1.6 1.4
700 0.7 1.5 1.3
800 0.7 1.4 1.2
900 0.6 1.3 1.1
1 000 0.6 1.2 1.0
1 200 0.5 1.1 1.0
1 400 0.5 1.0 0.9
1 600 0.5 1.0 0.9
1 800 0.4 0.9 0.8
2 000 0.4 0.9 0.8
1
After Coppens International bv (2013).

In water recirculation or flow-through systems, high-quality pelleted or extruded feed with

high water stability should be used. It is always important to consider carefully whether
locally prepared feed should be applied or whether it should be purchased from large,
internationally recognized fish feed factories. If locally applied technologies for feed
preparation are not satisfactory or the equipment used is not specialized for the preparation of
fish feed but only for that of terrestrial animals, it is better to buy feed from specialized
factories. Low water stability or unbalanced composition may result in low feed utilization
and slow growth; thus, in the long term, cheaper, locally prepared feed may be more
expensive. Table 8 contains information on the composition of feed used for table fish
production.

56
Table 8
Recommended ratio of ingredients that can be used for the preparation of farm-made feed for table fish
production
Feed ingredients Suggested ratio in feed
%
Wheat meal < 25
Maize meal < 25
Barley meal < 10
Rice meal < 10
Soybean meal (heat treated) < 20
Lupine < 10
Pea <5
Sunflower meal (with shell) <5
Sunflower meal (no shell) < 10
Alfalfa meal <4
Rice bran < 15
Sorghum meal <5
Lentil meal <5
Raw fish < 20
Raw chicken eggs 3–5
Fishmeal 20–45
Blood meal <8
Meat meal < 40
Linen oil 3–5
Yeats <5
Biolysine 0.5–1.0
Biometine 0.5–1.0
Source: Majoros (personal communication, unpublished data).

4.10.3 Treatment of fish

No special treatment is necessary at this phase (except grading). In spite of the lower level of
cannibalism, at this phase, grading should be done twice during the period (at average
weights of 350 and 800 g). Fish already suitable for marketing can also be selected at the
second grading.

57
 5 HEALTH MANAGEMENT, DISEASES AND TREATMENTS
As with all fish species, the application of appropriate production technologies is crucial for
maintaining good health conditions of African catfish. Good-quality feed should always be
applied in reasonable quantities. Moreover, good/acceptable water quality should be
maintained in the rearing tanks. Tank cleaning and preventive treatments for younger age
groups should be carried out regularly as described above. Unnecessary stressing of fish
should be avoided.
However, as a result of technical mistakes in management, different diseases may occur in
fish populations as fungal and bacterial infections or infections caused by invasive protozoa
and vermin (Monogenea). Vermin can infect the intestines, mainly if fish are kept in pond
environments. Table 9 provides a summary of the most frequent diseases to affect African
catfish.

Table 9
Pathogens, symptoms and treatments

Pathogens Occurrence External signs Prevention Treatment

Fungi

Saprolegnia On developing eggs. Clumping eggs by Malachite green 1– Malachite green 1–

hyphae, which can 5 mg/litre for 5 mg/litre for
be seen on the 10 minutes, formalin 10 minutes or
surface of eggs. 0.25 ml/litre for 10– formalin
15 minutes or, 3– 0.25 ml/litre for 10–
5 ppm methylene 15 minutes.
blue. Hydrogen peroxide
300 ppm, few
minutes.

On bad eggs after Clumping eggs by The infection helps Removal of flocks
hatching. Only hyphae in form of to remove bad eggs from tanks in time
deformed fry remain flocks in the and deformed fry. followed by a
in the flock. hatching tray. formalin treatment
(2.5 ml/100 litres for
30 minutes).

Protozoa

Trichodina On different-sized White mucus layer Scraping tank walls Salt treatment: 3%
fry and fingerlings. on skin and gills. by hand or with a for 2–3 minutes.
Small haemorrhages plastic sponge.
Malachite green:
on skin. Secondary Regular formalin
0.5 mg/litre for 3–
bacterial infections. treatment in a
4 h for larger and
Rotting fins and concentration of
0.05–0.1 mg/litre for
gills. 2.5 ml/100 litres.
3–4 h for smaller
fish up to 4 g.
Formalin: 10–
20 ml/100 litres for
20–50 minutes.

Costia On different-sized Sporadic mortality Scraping tank walls Salt treatment: 3%

fry and fingerlings. with increasing by hand or with a for 2–3 minutes.
Very dangerous as it intensity. Greyish plastic sponge. Malachite green:

58
 Pathogens Occurrence External signs Prevention Treatment
cannot be seen skin, shreds can be Regular formalin 0.5 mg/litre for 3–
below a seen at strong treatment in a 4 h for larger and
magnification of infection. Fry concentration of 0.05–0.1 mg/litre for
300–400. hanging on the 2.5 ml/100 litres. 3–4 h for fish under
surface. 4 g. Formalin: 10–
20 ml/100 litres for
20–50 minutes.

Ichthyophthirius On different-sized White spots on skin, Intensive water Malachite green:

fry and fingerlings. moustache and gills. exchange, formalin 0.5 mg/litre for 3–
in a concentration of 4 h for larger and
2.5 ml/100 litres. 0.05–0.1 mg/litre for
High pH. 3–4 h for smaller
fish up to 4 g.
Formalin: 10–
20 ml/100 litres for
20–50 minutes.

Monogenea

Dactylogyrus, Mainly on fry and Slow movement, Regular cleaning of Salt treatment: 3%
Gyrodactylus fingerlings. Can be hanging fish, rearing systems. for 2–3 minutes.
seen at small tattered fins.
Organic phosphoric
magnification.
acid esters:
1 ml/10 litres water
for 30 minutes,
1 ml/m3 for 24 h.
Diluted ammonia:
1 ml/litre NH4OH
(concentration
25%), for 30 s.

Digenea

Worms All age groups. Worms in the No fish introduced Niclosamide: 0.1–
(Trematodae) intestine. from wild. 0.2 g/kg fish for
3 days. Repeated in
2 weeks.

Bacterial infections

Aeromonas, Mainly on fry and Dropsy, clear or Maintenance of a Short- and long-term
Pseudomonas fingerlings. yellow liquid in the clean environment. baths of different
abdomen, swollen antibiotics, for
gills, haemorrhages example
in different inner oxytetracycline,
organs, swelling at chlorocid, neomycin
the base of pectoral or bacteriostatics as
fins. nitrofuran,
florfenicol in
50 mg/litre
concentration. Or
antibiotics mixed in
the feed as, for
example,
Flumequine (100 mg
active ingredients/kg

59
 Pathogens Occurrence External signs Prevention Treatment
body weight mixed
in the daily ration of
fish for 10 days).

Flexibacter Mainly on fry and White skin areas on Maintenance of a Florfenicol:

small fingerlings. the body sometimes clean, stress-free 5 g/10 kg fish body
(Myxobacteria)
with loss of skin environment. weight mixed in the
(lesions). Shorter Regular formalin feed for 10 days.
moustache, knobs at treatment.
the end. Fish
hanging at the
surface. Slow
swimming. Abrupt,
increasing mortality.

Metabolic diseases

Non-bacterial Mainly on small fry Dropsy, clear fluid Good-quality feed in Not known.
dropsy and fingerlings. in the body cavity. accordance with
biological
requirement of fish.

Cracked head At all age groups. Inflammation of Clean environment, Vitamin C in the
(broken head) secondary breathing appropriate quality food (1 g ascorbic
disease organ. Broken head, of food. acid in 1 kg feed).
haemorrhages on the
chin.

Ruptured intestine Small fingerlings. Rupture of the Feeding with natural No treatment.
syndrome abdominal wall. food. Overfeeding
with artificial feed
should be avoided.

Sources: Compiled from data from Boon et al. (1987); Huisman and Richter (1987); Tonguathai et al. (1993);
De Graaf and Janssen (1996).

60
 6 PROCESSING OF AFRICAN CATFISH
6.1 Products and by-products
Catfish in its original form is not attractive for Western European consumers. Mainly filleted
or smoked fish can be marketed there (Dijkema, 1992). In those areas where the consumption
of European catfish is a tradition, consumers’ acceptance of whole fish is better. In spite of
this, the majority of products sold in Eastern European regions are also in processed form
(mainly filleted). Table 10 describes the main processed products.
Table 10
Products and by-products after different levels of processing African catfish in a weight range of 1–2 kg

Main product
Products By-products
(%)

1. Gutted fish 90.4–90.9 Viscera, breathing organs, blood, mucus

2. Trunk with skin 69.7–69.6 Head, viscera, breathing organs, blood, mucus

3. Skinned trunk 62.4 Head, viscera, breathing organs, skin, blood, mucus

4. Fillet with skin 55.9–56.6 Head, viscera, breathing organs, backbone with fins, blood, mucus

5. Skinned fillet 48.5–49.4 Head, viscera, breathing organs, backbone with fins, skin, blood, mucus

Source: Data from Csavas (2005).

Plate 40 The ratio of different body parts

(Plate 40) changes with growth.
Main body parts of African catfish. This image was prepared
using a fish before maturation. Viscera, fat accumulated in the
Percentage of fillet from total body
body cavity and the accessory breathing organ can be seen at the
weight in different sized fish are
bottom of the image.
presented in Figure 13 (Csavas,
2005). The most favourable ratio
(49 percent) is available from fish of
1.5–2.0 kg. Half fillet and vacuum-
packed fillets are presented in
Plate 41. By-products of processing
can also be utilized in factories
equipped with specialized machines
(e.g. meat separators). If all the
necessary processing equipment is
available, about 65 percent of the
body can be utilized for human
consumption (Toth, personal
Photograph courtesy of Csavas.
communication). Dry and smoked
sausages (salami) and tinned pastes
with long expiry time can be prepared by using meat and some of the by-products (Plate 42).

61
 Figure 13
Percentage of fillet from fish of different sizes

Source: Csavas (2005).

Plate 41
Half fillet of fish and vacuum packed fillets.

Photographs courtesy of Toth.

Plate 42
Salami made using African catfish. Salami with different spices (paprika, pepper, etc.) can be
prepared from the meat and by-products of African catfish. These products do not contain pork
meat and pork fat. These smoked salamis have very long shelf-lives.

Photograph courtesy of Toth.

62
6.2 Processing plants
Regardless of size and capacity, processing plants should contain two separate sections: (i) a
“dirty area”, where fish are received, killed, temporarily stored, washed and gutted: and (ii) a
“clean area”, where actual processing is carried out and end products are manufactured, as
described in Table 10. Both units need to have containers for the collection of offal / by-
products and a place for cleaning and disinfecting equipment. In different countries, different
regulations should be followed when constructing and running fish processing plants in order
to maintain the required standards of hygiene. Local regulations determine the construction
materials allowed, the quality of floors and walls, doors and windows, lighting, ventilation,
etc.
Moreover, the quality, quantity and temperature of supply water, technical details of
construction of the sewage system, and treatment of offal are also regulated, as are the
materials and methods used for disinfection in different units of the plants, together with
frequencies of disinfections. The personal hygiene of workers, as well as insect and rodent
control, should also comply with to the rules prevailing in a given region (Bykowski and
Dutkiewicz, 1996; European Commission, 2004).

6.2.1 Small-scale processing plants based on manual work

For fish farms with an annual production of not more than 200 tonnes, the construction of
small processing plants based only on manual work is recommended. The size of such a unit
should be about 35–50 m2 (without accessory areas such as a changing room or bath for
workers). All products described in Table 10 can be manufactured here, but the by-products
cannot be utilized for further processing. Four experienced people working in a small plant
are able to process about 0.6–1.0 tonnes of fish per working day, producing about 300–
450 kg of vacuum-packed fillets.
As in all plants the two units of the plant (i.e. “dirty” and “clean” areas) must be physically
separated, and separate rooms should be used for preparatory and processing activities.
People working in the different areas are not allowed to move between the two units or to use
the same equipment. The best solution is to open a window-sized hole in the wall between the
two rooms through which only cleaned trunks are allowed to be transported from one room
to the other for filleting. Removal of prepared products should be done in a similar way in
order to avoid a regular entrance of workers into the clean area.
A small plant should also have two accessory units. One is a storage tank where fish planned
to be processed in one shift (one working day) can be stored. This tank should be supplied
with the same water as the fish rearing tanks. Fish should be kept in storage tanks for 10–
12 hours in order to empty their intestines. The other accessory unit is used for cooling or
deep-freezing fish meat after processing.
The processing of fish in small plants is carried out at room temperature if local regulations
allow. (Otherwise, the plant environment can be cooled to 12 °C.) When the work is
implemented at natural temperature, only a small quantity of fish should be transferred in one
batch, which can be processed within a few minutes in order to avoid spoiling.

63
As a first step of processing fish are killed by electric shock, by cold shock or by hitting them
on the head. Killed fish must be cleaned using a strong jet of water, and the head, pectoral
fins, intestine and viscera must be removed. This work must be done on a special, corrosion-
free metal table with a slope, with an outlet located at the deepest part of the table (Plate 43).

Plate 43
Corrosion-free metal table for gutting fish. The table should be fixed to the sewage tank where
all the offal, blood and mucus can be collected.

Photograph courtesy of Toth.

After a second bath, the trunks are transferred to the clean area. Plate 44 summarizes the steps
in hand processing of the fish.

64
 Plate 44
Hand processing – A
(Only for demonstration of working phases. The work was carried out in non-hygienic conditions.)

Tools for killing fish. Cutting the pectoral fin.

Starting phase of skinning 1. Skinning 2.

Skinning 3. Cutting the belly to remove the viscera.

Photographs courtesy of Peteri.

65
 Plate 44
Hand processing – B.

Cutting head. Filleting 1.

Filleting 2. Cutting meat from the dorsal spine Filleting 3. Incision through the ribs into the
to the ribs. body cavity.

Removal of fillet from the ribs. The fillets and the waste.
Photographs courtesy of Peteri.

66
Skinning and filleting are performed in the clean area. Final products are also measured and
packed here, and are then immediately transferred to the cooling / deep-freezing chamber.

6.2.2 Large-scale processing factories

Special arrangements and installations at large-scale plants make it possible to process 10–
30 tonnes of fish per day. There are very strict hygiene standards and rules for such plants to
handle fish in accordance with regulations and to control the movements and actions of
workers. Special machines at large-scale processing plants make it possible to increase work
efficiency and separate by-products for further processing. Plate 45 shows machines
necessary for slaughtering and pre-treatment of fish (stunning machine, mucus-removal unit
and an ice machine). Cleaning of fish is carried out on a conveyor while being suspended
(Plate 46). Filleting is done manually (Plate 47) while the process of skinning is automated.
Skinned fillets are laid on a special table for cooling. Meat remaining on the backbone, fins
and skull is removed from the bones in a meat separator for further processing (Plate 48).
Prepared products can be packed in polyethylene bags, in a vacuum (Plate 49) or in protective
gas on a polystyrene tray (Plate 50).

Plate 45 Plate 46
Reception room in a processing plant. The stunning Conveyor for cleaning large quantities of fish. Fish
machine is on the left side of the image, with salt solution hanging on the hooks are gutted manually and washed
(5 percent) and crushed melting ice inside it. In one batch, automatically in the system. Gutted trunk, head and
about 150 kg fish can be packed into the machine. Direct viscera can be collected separately for further
current is used to slaughter fish. Voltages and Amperes processing.
must be set to obtain a quick effect. An ice machine for
the production of crushed ice can be seen in the
background. A set for washing down mucus can be seen
on the right, in the foreground.

Photographs courtesy of Toth.

67
 Plate 47
Tables for filleting, and the final step of fillet preparation.

Filleting tables. The process of meat removal from the

backbone.
Photographs courtesy of Toth.

Plate 48
Meat separator and bones discharged from the separator.

Head and backbone can be loaded into a End product of the separator can be used as
separator after grinding. The capacity of the animal feed ingredient or manure.
separator is about 300 kg/hour.
Photographs courtesy of Toth.

Plate 49
Machines of different capacities machines for the preparation of vacuum-packed products.

Products are packed in polyethylene bags. The Large-capacity machine for vacuum packing
capacity of the machine is 60–80 kg/hour. 300–400 kg of fillets per hour.
Photographs courtesy of Toth.

68
 Plate 50
Packing machine using protective gas. This machine is suitable for
packing fish meat in a gas mixture, which significantly increases the
possible storage time of products. A polystyrene tray under the meat
absorbs moisture.

Photograph courtesy of Toth.

69
7 ECONOMIC ASPECTS OF AFRICAN CATFISH PRODUCTION
Production costs of fish are more or less equal in RASs and flow-through systems, as
presented in Figure 14. There is no large difference in the contribution of price components
between RASs and flow-through systems. Lower feed contribution to production costs in
RAS is a consequence of better feed utilization (FCR of 0.9–1.0 in Western European RASs
compared with FCR of 1.2–1.4 in Hungarian flow-through systems). However, there can be
large variations in wholesale prices in different regions/countries. For example, according to
FAO data (FAO, 2011), in 2008 the wholesale price of one kg table size fish was USD3.20 in
Hungary, USD3 in Germany, and only USD1.47 in the Netherlands. Polycyclic production of
table fish, utilization of by-products, product diversification and marketing of value-added
products may increase the profitability of African catfish production. Moreover, producers
can also utilize a better market acceptance of hybrid fish (Clarias gariepinus female x
Heterobranchus male).

Figure 14
Production costs of African catfish in RAS and in flow-through systems

Note: Production cost was USD1.14/kg in the Netherlands Note: Production cost was USD0,98/kg in Hungary in
in 2005 (data from Scheerboom and van Dooren, 2005). 2008 (Toth, personal communication).
Source: After Scheerboom and van Dooren, in Martins et Source: Data from Toth.
al. (2005).

70
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9 ANNEXES

77
Annex 1
Flowcharts and summary tables of the technology of the artificial propagation, advanced fry and fingerling rearing, and table fish production of African
catfish under an optimal constant water temperature of 27 °C

Chart A1.1
Overview of the phases of table fish (1.0–1.1 kg) production of African catfish at a water temperature of 27 °C
Weeks => 1–2 3–4 5–6 7–8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52
 Brood stock management █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █
 Propagation |
 Incubation of eggs |
Feeding of high-quality dry feed – FCR is 0.6–0.9
 Fry rearing (up to 1 g) █ █ █ █ █
 Small fingerling rearing (1–10 g) █ █ █ █
 Large fingerling rearing (10–
█ █ █ █ █ █ █ █
100 g)
 Table fish rearing (100–1 000 g) █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █
 Fry rearing (up to 1 g) 2nd batch █ █ █ █ █
Feeding of medium-quality dry feed – FCR is about 0.9–1.1
 Fry rearing (up to 1 g) █ █ █ █ █
 Small fingerling rearing (1–10 g) █ █ █ █ █ █
 Large fingerling rearing (10–
█ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █
100 g)
 Table fish rearing (100–1 000 g) █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █
 Fry rearing (up to 1 g) 2nd batch █ █ █ █ █

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Table A1.1
Duration of all production phases at a water temperature of 27 °C

Phases of production discussed

Hours Days Weeks
 Propagation 0.5 + 9 + 0.5 – –
 Incubation of eggs 23 – –
minimum 30 minimum 4
 Rearing of 1 g fry –
maximum 42 maximum 6
minimum about 30 minimum 4
 Small fingerling (1–10 g) –
maximum about 42 maximum 6
minimum about 56 minimum about 8
 Large fingerling (10–100 g) –
maximum about 77 maximum about 11
minimum about 130 minimum 18
 Table fish (0.1–1.0 kg) –
maximum about 160 maximum about 23
minimum about 246 minimum about 34
 Total production length from hatching to table size (1 kg) –
maximum about 321 maximum about 46

Table A1.2
Production of eggs, and losses during the different development stages from stripping up to table fish
Losses Number
Development stages
(%) Min. Avg. Max.
 Eggs from 1 kg of BW of ♀ (10–20%) – 100 000 –
 Up to hatched larvae (including deformed larvae) 30–40 60 000 65 000 70 000
 Up to feeding larvae 5 57 000 60 000 66 000
 Up to advanced fry (1 g) if no cannibalism 20 46 000 48 000 53 000
 Up to small fingerling (10 g)
40 28 000 29 000 31 000
 Up to large fingerling (100 g)
 Up to table fish (2 kg) 5–10
25 000 27 000 30 000
 Total from hatching to table size 70–75

Table A1.3
Keeping and feeding broodfish
Aspects g/day g/week kg/month kg/year Comments

 Feeding of 1 kg BW of broodfish 5–7 35–49 1.1–1.5 13.2–17.6 The daily quantity of feed (45–47% protein, 7% fat) is 0.5–0.7% body weight.
3
1) The ♀ and ♂ are kept together at a density of about 70–100 kg/m in covered tanks where water depth is a minimum of 0.3–0.5 m and fish cannot jump out.
 Keeping broodfish
2) Water temperature should be maintained at about of 3 mg/litre oxygen.
79
Chart A1.2
Phases of the production of advanced fry (1 g) of African catfish at a water temperature of 27 °C
Weeks => 1st week 2nd week 3rd week 4th week
Days => 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
1 Propagation █ █ █ █
1.1 H treatment of
■
♀
1.2 H treatment of
■
♂
1.3 Maturation of ■ ■
♀
1.4 Stripping of
■
♀♂
2 Incubation of eggs █ █ █
2.1 Incubation ■ ■ ■
2.2 Hatching ■
3 Fry rearing (1 g) █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ ►
3.1 No feeding ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
3.2 Start of
■
feeding
3.3 Feeding
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Artemia
3.4 Feeding dry
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ►
feed
3.5 Taking air ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
3.6 Treatment of
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ►
fry
Hatching Artemia █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █

80
Table A1.4
Essential conditions, basic equipment and selected production materials
Tasks and ongoing steps in
Description and comments
production

Two small fibreglass tanks where batches of 2 ♀ and 1 ♂ are kept during the hormone treatment. These tanks should be in an undisturbed place and it must be possible to
cover them tightly with a netting material.
Thermometer, textile loupe, magnifying glass (minimum 10× and 20×), Petri dishes.
Scoop nets: Two large rectangular deep nets as wide as the tanks where broodfish are until their stripping, and two “both-ends-open” scoop nets.
Propagation
Equipment for injection such as syringes, needles, mortar, Petri dish, small containers and equipment for castration of male fish.
Electrical drill, to make a 3 mm hole in the upper lip of the males before their mouths are sutured.
Tools for stripping eggs and handling sperm: 2 stripping tables, 1 table for egg treatment , scissors, bowls, mugs, measuring containers, dry towels and fine net to
squeeze sperm.
Five Zoug jars made of transparent material.
Incubation of eggs
Egg stirring spoon, siphon, larger bowls to hatch larvae.
2 m3 fiberglass tanks with a set of sieves.
Fry rearing (1 g)
1 hatching tray of 1.0 m × 0.5 m (0.5 m2) per tank to place the mixture of bad / not hatched eggs and hatched larvae (max. capacity 350 g stripped eggs/tray).
At least four 50 litre transparent fiberglass incubation jars 1) with a surface illumination of 2 000 lux and 2) bottom illumination, 3) electrical aquarium water heaters
Hatching Artemia
with automatic switch to keep the temperature constantly at 29 °C, and 4) aerators equipped with air distribution heads/stones to ensure proper aeration.

81
Chart A1.3
Propagation of African catfish at a water temperature of 27 °C
Weeks => 1st week 2nd week 3rd week 4th week
Days => 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
4 Propagation █ █ █ █
4.1 H treatment of
■
♀
4.2 H treatment of
■
♂
4.3 Maturation of ■ ■
♀
4.4 Stripping of
■
♀♂
5 Incubation of eggs █ █ █
5.1 Incubation ■ ■ ■
5.2 Hatching ■
6 Fry rearing (1 g) █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ ►
6.1 No feeding ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
6.2 Start of
■
feeding
6.3 Feeding
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Artemia
6.4 Feeding dry
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ►
feed
6.5 Taking air ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
6.6 Treatment of
■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ►
fry
Hatching Artemia █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █

82
Table A1.5
Explanations for Chart A1.3 “Propagation of African catfish at a water temperature of 27 °C”
Duration in
Tasks and ongoing steps in production Description and comments
Minutes Hours

- Broodfish should not be fed 24 hours before their selection for propagation.
 Propagation – 9–10 - For artificial propagation of African catfish, use a form for recording data supplied separately. This will provide a guide to the step-by-
step tasks, as well as allow noting of all key data needed for the calculation of the number of eggs, larvae, fry, etc. as well as the quantity
of their live food and dry feeds.
1 or 2 batches containing 2 suitable females for each batch should be selected. The final selection depends on the size of females and the
number of incubation jars.
 Selection of ♀ 20 –
Observations: 1 male should fertilize the eggs of about 3–4 females if the size of male is equal to the size of females. Therefore, the
minimum ratio of females to be selected for injection should be 3 to 1 male.
Females are weighed while being transferred into the smaller tanks (2 females/tank) where they remain until stripping.
 Weighing of ♀ 10 – Observations: If someone is good in closely estimating the weight of females, the hormone suspension can be made in advance and the
broodfish can be injected without weighing.
Females receive 4 mg /kg BW carp pituitary suspended in 0.25–0.5 ml/kg BW clean water. The injection is given into the dorsal muscle.
 Hormone injection of ♀ 5 – Observations: 1) It is not necessary to use fish physiological solution, pure water is suitable also. 2) Rubbing of muscle after injection is not
needed as the skin of this fish is very strong and flexible enough to close the hole made by the syringe.
 Selection of ♂ 10 – One male for each batch of females is enough, if there are no significant size differences between the two sexes.
 Weighing of ♂ 10 – The males should be injected according to their weight. However, very precise dosing is not necessary.
The mouth of males should be closed with a suture. For easy work, an electrical drill with 3 mm bit should be used to puncture the upper
 Suture of the mouth ♂ 10 – bony lips of the fish.
Observations: Leave about finger-wide space to allow fish to breath, but prevent them from biting females.
Out of two selected males, only one should be injected with 1.0–1.5 mg/kg CPG suspended in 0.25–0.5 ml/kg clean water.
 Hormone injection of ♂ 5 – Observations: The other male should not be injected, because it will be only “stand by” in case there is no sperm to strip from the injected
one.
The two batches of 2 ♀ and 1 ♂ are placed in separate tanks where they reach the stage of final maturation and ovulation.
 Ovulation of ♀ – 9 Observations: Spawning movement of fish, release of eggs and the calculated expected time can help to determine the time when fish are
ready for stripping.
Before stripping, females should be dried with a cloth. Eggs should be stripped in dry plastic bowls. The quantity of stripped eggs in one
 Stripping of ♀, castration of
♂ 10 + 10 – bowl should not be more than about 250 g. After the 1st female is stripped, the injected male should be killed and castrated.
Observations: Both eggs and testicle/sperm should be kept dry until fertilization.
The sperm from the dry testes is squeezed onto the dry eggs through a small mesh size net (0.5–1 mm). About 250 g eggs need about 0.5–
1.0 ml sperm. After this, eggs should be fertilized by applying small quantity of water.
 Fertilization 5 – Observations: 1) Sperm and eggs should be mixed with gentle shaking for about 10–20 seconds. 2) When eggs and sperm are mixed, about
50 ml water should be added to the eggs and shaken gently for about 30–40 seconds. Later, more water should be added.
3) If two teams work, one can deal with the stripping of eggs, while the other can take the sperm and fertilize the eggs.

83
 Duration in
Tasks and ongoing steps in production Description and comments
Minutes Hours

The fertilized eggs should be washed with clean hatchery water for 3–4 minutes and should be placed into the Zoug jars.
 Placing eggs into jars 1 –
Observation: About 250–300 g (175 000–210 000) of dry eggs should be placed into one 7–10 litre Zoug jar.

84
Chart A1.4
Incubation of eggs of African catfish at a water temperature of 27 °C
Days => 1st day 2nd day
Hours => 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
2. Incubation of eggs █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █
2.1 Incubation ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Sticking period of eggs ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
End of stickiness ■
2.2 Hatching starts ■
2.3 Siphoning eggs
■
from Zoug jars

Table A1.6
Explanations to Chart A1.4 “Incubation of eggs of African catfish at a water temperature of 27 °C”
Works to do and ongoing steps of Duration in
Description and comments
production Minute Hours

The incubation period is short in warm water.

 Incubation of eggs – 23
Observation: The occurrence of Saprolegnia is rare at high water temperature.
In about the first 8 hours of incubation, the eggs stick together. During this period, 0.4 litres/min. water flow is enough in a Zoug jar. The
 Sticking period of eggs – 7–8 correct water flow can be checked at the inlet of the jar. Only here should an intensive movement of eggs be seen. Above this, the eggs
should remain still until the end of the gastrulation phase.
By the end of the gastrulation phase, the clumps of eggs can/should be gently separated with a spoon fixed to a long handle. At this time, the
water flow should be increased and maintained in a way that the surface of the eggs remains slowly drifting. Because eggs become heavier
 Separation of stuck eggs – – over time, the water flow should be adjusted accordingly. By the end of the incubation about 1.5 litre/min. water flow is optimal.
Observation: This is the time to determine the level of fecundity of the eggs.
When many of the larvae have already hatched, all the eggs should be carefully siphoned from the incubator into a large flat plastic bowl,
 Hatching 30–40 –
where hatching continues.
The content of the bowls should be distributed on hatching trays covered with a net of mesh size 0.7–1.0 mm. About 3 hatching trays of
0.5 m × 1.0 m are necessary for each kilogram of stripped eggs.
 Placing fry into rearing tanks 10 – The initial rearing density is 50 000–75 000 newly hatched larvae/1 m3, which is from the egg production of about 1.5–2 kg of ♀ BW.
Observation: The hatching trays must be made with legs about 10 cm high, and the sieve on them should be well spanned and fixed without
wrinkles where hatched larvae could find places to hide. They may die there because of local oxygen shortages.

85
Chart A1.5
Rearing of fry (1 g) of African catfish at a water temperature of 27 °C
Weeks => 1st week 2nd week 3rd week 4th week
Days => 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28
3. Fry rearing (1 g) █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ █ ►
3.1 No feeding ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
3.2 Start of feeding ■
3.3 Feeding Artemia ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
3.4 Feeding dry feed ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ►
3.5 Taking air ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
3.6 Treatment of fry ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ►
Table A1.7
Explanations for Chart A1.5 “Rearing of fry (1 g) of African catfish at a water temperature of 27 °C”
Duration in
Tasks and ongoing steps in production Description and comments
Days Weeks

During larvae rearing, a continuous exchange of water (5–7 litres/min.) must be ensured in order to maintain the dissolved oxygen content
above 3.5 mg/litre. The NH4+ and NO2 should be below 1 mg/litre and 0.5 mg/litre, respectively, at pH 6.5–7.5.
 Fry rearing up to 1 g 30–35 4–5
Observations: 1) Fry could be reared in 2 m3 shallow tanks or on smaller raceway-form trays. 2) At the beginning, the sieve on the outlet
should not be larger than 0.35 mm. Later, as fry grow, the mesh size should be adjusted to the size of the fish (1–3 mm).
On the first day, hatched larvae will remain on the hatching tray, then the healthy ones will swim off and hide at the bottom of the tank while
 No feeding period of larvae 3 – deformed larvae remain on the tray together with the bad eggs, on which water fungi develop. On the second day, the hatching trays should
be removed.
Developing larvae start feeding 2.5 days after hatching. Their colour becomes darker by the second day. Start of feeding can be clearly
 Start of feeding – –
observed because previously hiding larvae start to search for food in the water column swimming parallel to the wall of the tank.
 Feeding Artemia nauplii 20 3 Detailed in Annex 2.
It starts on about the 10th day after hatching (7–8th day from start of feeding) with a daily quantity of 10–7 percent of BW. The daily ration
should be given in 5–6 equal doses between early morning and late evening. In the first 15–18 days of feeding, dry feed of 0.3–0.5 mm
should be given. In the subsequent 5–10 days, the size of feed should be 1 mm, while after this period the size of feed can be 2 mm. See
 Feeding dry feed – – recommended quantities of feed in Annex 2.
Observation: To reduce cannibalism, fish much larger than the average size must be removed from the tank. Later, the stock should be
graded when significant size differences are detectable.
 Taking air (The start of air Fry start air breathing in their 3rd week (between days 18 and 21) of life at the weight of 0.25–0.3 g This can be well observed as fry
breathing) – –
regularly come up to the water surface and breath air from the atmosphere.
In tanks, fry are in a high density and, hence, susceptible to diseases. Therefore, the daily routine must be: 1) siphon off faeces twice per day;
2) clean walls and bottom of tank with salted sponge; 3) disinfect tanks with 25 ml concentrated formalin/m3 for 1 hour.
 Treatment of fry – – Observation: In the case of formalin treatment, 25 ml/ m3 should be distributed equally in the tank, and the same quantity should be equally
dosed within the period of one water exchange in the tank. For this purpose, a small (0.5–1.0 litre) plastic bottle and an adjustable infusion
bag and pipe can be used, which hang over the inlet. Using this set-up, the formalin will drip the needed quantities in the planned period
while the water exchanges in the tank.

86
Annex 2
Hatching Artemia cysts and feeding of Artemia nauplii
Chart A2.1
Daily hatching of Artemia cysts at a water temperature of 29 °C
Days => 1st day 2nd day 3rd day
Hours => 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 2 4 6 8 10 12
60 g in 20 litres ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
60 g in 20 litres ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
60 g in 20 litres ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
60 g in 20 litres ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
Total of day = 240 g
60 g in 20 litres ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
60 g in 20 litres ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■
60 g in 20 litres ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ►
60 g in 20 litres ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ■ ►
Total of day = 240 g

Table A2.1
Hatching and feeding of Artemia nauplii with the developing fry of African catfish
Duration in
Tasks and ongoing steps in production Description and comments
Days Weeks

- The cysts should be incubated in 20 litres of hatchery water, in which 600 g iodide-free salt is solved. The pH should be 7.5–8.5 (unless
otherwise advised on the packing of the Artemia). The water temperature should be kept at 29 °C (unless otherwise advised on the
packing of the Artemia). Air supply through stone diffusers should be intensive from the very bottom of the incubation jar.
- The quantity of Artemia cyst to be hatched in 20 litres may vary between 50 and 80 g per 20 litres (2.5–4 g/litre), unless otherwise
 Hatching Artemia nauplii 20 3 advised on the packing of the Artemia. In the case of 100 000 hatched larvae, a minimum of 50–240 g should be hatched each day.
- In order to avoid floating of dry cysts, they should be soaked for about 5 minutes in a cup before they are placed into the incubation jar.
- Hatching of Artemia should start when fish larvae are one day old. Although this time is early for feeding, in the case of failure of
Artemia hatching the incubation can be repeated. The nauplii hatched out too early should be deep frozen as a reserve for later feeding.
- The first food of the fry should be live food; therefore, Artemia nauplii should be continuously hatched and given to the fish.
- Best practice is to give Artemia for 20 days. For the first 10 days of the rearing of 100 000 hatched larvae, a minimum of 2 kg and an
optimum of 3 kg of good-quality Artemia cyst needs to be incubated and hatched (see the next flowchart). For the second 10 days, the
 Feeding fry with Artemia same figures should be calculated because the increasing demand by fry for food will be completed with dry feed.
20 3
nauplii - When an African catfish is sated, it stops feeding until its digestive track is not empty again. In young fry, gastric evacuation is 3.5 hours
at 23.5 °C. This figure will be much less if the temperature is higher.
- The freshly hatched nauplii are equally distributed in the tank, and will swim near the bottom. It is advantageous if there is always live
food in front of the fry, at least in the first ten days. The consumption of nauplii can be seen by the full/round belly of the small fish.

87
 Annex 3
Feeding of dry feeds of different feed conversion ratios (FCRs)

Table A3.1
Guidelines for the estimation of the necessary quantity of starter and fry feeds to be ordered for the first period of rearing 10 000 advanced fry and small fingerlings
Feeding 6% of BW/day of Coppens dry feed Feeding 8% of BW/day of dry feed with a FCR of about 0.9
Time
Weight of fry Feed (kg) Weight of fry Feed (kg)
Days Weeks 1 fry (g) 10 000 fry (kg) per day cumulative total 1 fry (g) 10 000 fry (kg) per day cumulative total

1 1 0.025 0.25 – – 0.025 0.25 – –

2 1 0.028 0.28 – – 0.028 0.28 – –
3 1 0.031 0.31 – – 0.031 0.31 – –
4 1 0.035 0.35 – – 0.035 0.35 – –
5 1 0.039 0.39 – – 0.039 0.39 – –
6 1 0.044 0.44 – – 0.044 0.44 – –
7 1 0.049 0.49 – – 0.049 0.49 – –
8 2 0.055 0.55 – – 0.055 0.55 – –
9 2 0.062 0.62 – – 0.062 0.62 – –
10 2 0.069 0.69 – – 0.069 0.69 – –
11 2 0.078 0.78 0.05 0.05 0.075 0.75 0.06 0.06
12 2 0.087 0.87 0.05 0.10 0.082 0.82 0.07 0.13
13 2 0.097 0.97 0.06 0.16 0.090 0.90 0.07 0.20
14 2 0.109 1.09 0.07 0.22 0.097 0.97 0.08 0.28
15 3 0.122 1.22 0.07 0.30 0.106 1.06 0.08 0.36
16 3 0.137 1.37 0.08 0.38 0.116 1.16 0.09 0.45
17 3 0.153 1.53 0.09 0.47 0.126 1.26 0.10 0.55
18 3 0.172 1.72 0.10 0.57 0.137 1.37 0.11 0.66
19 3 0.192 1.92 0.12 0.69 0.149 1.49 0.12 0.78
20 3 0.215 2.15 0.13 0.82 0.162 1.62 0.13 0.91
21 3 0.241 2.41 0.14 0.96 0.177 1.77 0.14 1.05
22 4 0.270 2.70 0.16 1.12 0.193 1.93 0.15 1.21
23 4 0.303 3.03 0.18 1.31 0.210 2.10 0.17 1.38
24 4 0.339 3.39 0.20 1.51 0.228 2.28 0.18 1.56
25 4 0.379 3.79 0.23 1.74 0.249 2.49 0.20 1.76

88
 Feeding 6% of BW/day of Coppens dry feed Feeding 8% of BW/day of dry feed with a FCR of about 0.9
Time
Weight of fry Feed (kg) Weight of fry Feed (kg)
Days Weeks 1 fry (g) 10 000 fry (kg) per day cumulative total 1 fry (g) 10 000 fry (kg) per day cumulative total

26 4 0.425 4.25 0.26 1.99 0.271 2.71 0.22 1.97

27 4 0.476 4.76 0.29 2.28 0.295 2.95 0.24 2.21
28 4 0.533 5.33 0.32 2.60 0.321 3.21 0.26 2.47
29 5 0.597 5.97 0.36 2.96 0.350 3.50 0.28 2.75
30 5 0.669 6.69 0.40 3.36 0.381 3.81 0.30 3.05
31 5 0.749 7.49 0.45 3.81 0.415 4.15 0.33 3.38
32 5 0.839 8.39 0.50 4.31 0.451 4.51 0.36 3.74
33 5 0.940 9.40 0.56 4.87 0.492 4.92 0.39 4.14
34 5 1.052 10.52 0.63 5.50 0.535 5.35 0.43 4.57
35 5 1.179 11.79 0.71 6.21 0.583 5.83 0.47 5.03
36 6 1.320 13.20 0.79 7.00 0.635 6.35 0.51 5.54
37 6 1.478 14.78 0.89 7.89 0.691 6.91 0.55 6.09
38 6 1.656 16.56 0.99 8.88 0.752 7.52 0.60 6.69
39 6 1.854 18.54 1.11 10.00 0.819 8.19 0.66 7.35
40 6 2.077 20.77 1.25 11.24 0.892 8.92 0.71 8.06
41 6 2.326 23.26 1.40 12.64 0.971 9.71 0.78 8.84
42 6 2.605 26.05 1.56 14.20 1.058 10.58 0.85 9.69
43 7 2.918 29.18 1.75 15.95 1.152 11.52 0.92 10.61
44 7 3.268 32.68 1.96 17.91 1.254 12.54 1.00 11.61
45 7 3.660 36.60 2.20 20.11 1.366 13.66 1.09 12.70
46 7 4.100 41.00 2.46 22.57 1.487 14.87 1.19 13.89
47 7 4.592 45.92 2.75 25.33 1.619 16.19 1.30 15.19
48 7 5.143 51.43 3.09 28.41 1.763 17.63 1.41 16.60
49 7 5.760 57.60 3.46 31.87 1.920 19.20 1.54 18.13
50 8 6.451 64.51 3.87 35.74 2.090 20.90 1.67 19.81
51 8 7.225 72.25 4.34 40.07 2.276 22.76 1.82 21.63
52 8 8.092 80.92 4.86 44.93 2.479 24.79 1.98 23.61
53 8 9.063 90.63 5.44 50.37 2.699 26.99 2.16 25.77
54 8 10.151 101.51 6.09 56.46 2.939 29.39 2.35 28.12
55 8 3.200 32.00 2.56 30.68
89
 Feeding 6% of BW/day of Coppens dry feed Feeding 8% of BW/day of dry feed with a FCR of about 0.9
Time
Weight of fry Feed (kg) Weight of fry Feed (kg)
Days Weeks 1 fry (g) 10 000 fry (kg) per day cumulative total 1 fry (g) 10 000 fry (kg) per day cumulative total

56 8 3.485 34.85 2.79 33.47

57 9 3.794 37.94 3.04 36.50
58 9 4.132 41.32 3.31 39.81
59 9 4.499 44.99 3.60 43.41
60 9 4.899 48.99 3.92 47.33
61 9 5.334 53.34 4.27 51.60
62 9 5.808 58.08 4.65 56.24
63 9 6.325 63.25 5.06 61.30
64 10 6.887 68.87 5.51 66.81
65 10 7.499 74.99 6.00 72.81
66 10 8.165 81.65 6.53 79.34
67 10 8.891 88.91 7.11 86.46
68 10 9.682 96.82 7.75 94.20
69 10 10.542 105.42 8.43 102.63
70 10 11.479 114.79 9.18 111.82

Table A3.2
Guidelines for planning feeding of 1 000 advanced fry and growing table fish with dry feeds
Feeding of Coppens dry feed with an average FCR of about 0.8 Feed of dry feed with an average FCR of about 1
Age in weeks
Weight of fish (g) Feed ration (kg/1 000 fish/day) Weight of fish (g) Feed ration (kg/1 000 fish/day)
Feeding days Daily feed ratio Daily feed ratio
at the start of at the start of (% of BW) at the start of at the start of (% of BW) at the start of at the start of
Absolute Relative daily cumulative total
week week week week week week

0 9 1 10 19 5.50 0.6 0.6 10 17 5.90 0.6 0.6

7 10 2 19 35 4.99 1.0 6.2 17 27 5.39 0.9 6.2
14 11 3 35 58 4.48 1.6 15.6 27 41 4.88 1.3 14.5
21 12 4 58 90 4.04 2.4 30.2 41 60 4.44 1.8 26.2
28 13 5 90 132 3.61 3.3 51.2 60 82 4.01 2.4 41.9
35 14 6 132 184 3.16 4.2 79.1 82 110 3.56 2.9 61.8
42 15 7 184 242 2.74 5.0 113.7 110 141 3.14 3.5 85.6
49 16 8 242 305 2.37 5.7 154.2 141 173 2.77 3.9 113.0
56 17 9 305 372 2.08 6.3 199.3 173 209 2.48 4.3 143.2
90
 Feeding of Coppens dry feed with an average FCR of about 0.8 Feed of dry feed with an average FCR of about 1
Age in weeks
Weight of fish (g) Feed ration (kg/1 000 fish/day) Weight of fish (g) Feed ration (kg/1 000 fish/day)
Feeding days Daily feed ratio Daily feed ratio
at the start of at the start of (% of BW) at the start of at the start of (% of BW) at the start of at the start of
Absolute Relative daily cumulative total
week week week week week week

63 18 10 372 441 1.87 7.0 248.4 209 246 2.27 4.7 176.3
70 19 11 441 514 1.70 7.5 301.4 246 286 2.10 5.2 212.4
77 20 12 514 589 1.57 8.1 358.1 286 327 1.97 5.6 251.4
84 21 13 589 669 1.50 8.8 418.8 327 373 1.90 6.2 293.8
91 22 14 669 754 1.43 9.6 484.9 373 422 1.83 6.8 340.5
98 23 15 754 845 1.36 10.3 556.2 422 475 1.76 7.4 391.4
105 24 16 845 940 1.30 11.0 632.3 475 531 1.70 8.1 446.8
112 25 17 940 1 040 1.24 11.7 713.5 531 592 1.64 8.7 506.7
119 26 18 1 040 1 144 1.18 12.3 799.3 592 657 1.58 9.4 571.3
126 27 19 1 144 1 251 1.12 12.8 889.4 657 725 1.52 10.0 640.4
133 28 20 1 251 1 361 1.06 13.3 983.1 725 797 1.46 10.6 714.0
140 29 21 1 361 1 473 1.02 13.9 1 080.0 797 871 1.42 11.3 791.8
147 30 22 1 473 1 588 0.97 14.3 1 181.0 871 950 1.37 11.9 874.8
154 31 23 1 588 1 705 0.92 14.6 1 284.6 950 1 033 1.32 12.5 962.1
161 32 24 1 705 1 826 0.89 15.2 1 390.6 1 033 1 121 1.29 13.3 1 053.9
168 33 25 1 826 1 945 0.86 15.7 1 500.5 1 121 1 210 1.26 14.1 1 151.4
175 34 26 1 945 2 069 0.84 16.3 1 614.1 1 210 1 304 1.24 15.0 1 254.4
182 35 27 2 069 1 304 1 406 1.24 16.2 1 364.0
189 36 28 1 406 1 505 1.18 16.6 1 481.4
196 37 29 1 505 1 606 1.12 16.9 1 601.2
203 38 30 1 606 1 708 1.06 17.0 1 722.8
210 39 31 1 708 1 813 1.02 17.4 1 845.6
217 40 32 1 813 1 918 0.97 17.6 1 970.9
223 41 33 1 902 2 008 0.97 18.5 2 079.4
230 42 34 2 008

91
Annex 4
Useful registers

♀ from tank No.: ♂ from tank No.: ♀ into tank No.: ♂ into tank No.:
PROPAGATION SHEET
Broodfish Hormone treatment Stripping/stripped eggs Fertilization Hatching/hatched eggs
Batch Identifying marks kg mg ml g Number % Number % Number
Females ♀

Total
Total + 10%
Time (day, hour, minute) ▬

Observations:
Males ♂

Total
Total + 10%
Water temperature: Expected time of stripping:

92
 From: To:
FEEDING SHEET OF DRY FEEDS
Tank No.: Tank No.: Tank No.: Tank No.: Tank No.:

Days Feed No.: Feed No.: Feed No.: Feed No.: Feed No.:

Planned Given Planned Given Planned Given Planned Given Planned Given
Date Portion
(kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg) (kg)

Total
1

Total
1

Total
1

Total

93
 This Guide was prepared to provide basic technical information for African catfish
production, mainly for countries of Central and Eastern Europe, the Caucasus and Central
Asia. It provides an overview on the guiding principles, aspects and tasks, and presents the
most applicable production techniques and processing technologies of African catfish. The
aim is to guide the reader through the necessary technical information, related practical
solutions and day-to-day operation of an African catfish farm. For further reading and more
in-depth information on the suggested techniques and technologies, it also includes a list of
relevant publications, together with annexes and illustrations for easy understanding.