CHAPTER-7

LANDFORMS AND THEIR EVOLUTION

o The Geomorphic agents like running water, ground water, wind, glaciers, waves
perform erosion.

o These agents change the surface of the earth.

o Landforms-Small to medium tracts or parcels of the earth’s surface are called
landforms.
o Landscape-Several related landforms together make up landscape (large tracts of
earth’s surface).
o Landform are formed may change in their shape, size and nature slowly or fast due to
continued action of geomorphic process and agents.

RUNNING WATER

Importance of Running Water

In regions with heavy rainfall, running water is the most significant force that degrades the
land surface. It does this through two primary processes:

1. Overland Flow: Water flowing over the land surface as a sheet, causing sheet
erosion.
2. Linear Flow: Water flowing in streams and rivers within valleys, leading to more
focused erosion and landform development.

Erosional Landforms and Stream Gradients

 Youthful Rivers: In the early stages, rivers flow over steep gradients, leading to
vigorous erosion. This creates deep and narrow valleys.
 Gradual Change Over Time: Over time, continued erosion makes these steep
channels gentler. As the gradient decreases, the velocity of the water reduces, leading
to increased deposition (where sediments are laid down).
 Depositional Forms: While some deposition occurs even in steep-gradient streams,
significant depositional landforms are more associated with rivers that flow over
medium to gentle slopes. The gentler the slope, the more deposition occurs.

Erosion and Landscape Evolution

 Sheet Erosion: Overland flow causes sheet erosion. Water moving over the surface
can concentrate into paths of varying widths due to land surface irregularities.
 Formation of Rills and Gullies: The friction from flowing water removes material
from the land surface, forming small channels called rills. These rills develop into
 larger channels called gullies, which further deepen and widen, eventually creating a
network of valleys.

Stages of River and Valley Development

1. Early Stages:
o Down-Cutting: The primary process is down-cutting, where the river erodes
its bed vertically, deepening the valley. Features like waterfalls and cascades
are common but get eroded away over time.
2. Middle Stages:
o Slower Down-Cutting and Increased Lateral Erosion: The river slows its
vertical erosion and starts to erode the sides of the valley more, widening it.
This reduces the slopes of the valley sides.
3. Late Stages:
o Flattening of the Landscape: The continuous lateral erosion and reduced
vertical cutting lower the divides between drainage basins. The landscape
gradually becomes flatter, forming a lowland with faint relief and some
resistant rock remnants known as monadnocks.
o Peneplain Formation: The result of extensive erosion by streams over time,
creating an almost flat plain called a peneplain.

the characteristics of landscapes shaped by running water at different stages of river

development: youth, maturity, and old age.

Youth Stage

 Stream Characteristics: Few streams with poor integration (not well-connected).

 Flow Pattern: Streams flow over original slopes.
 Valleys: Shallow V-shaped valleys with either no floodplains or very narrow ones
along the main streams (trunk streams).
 Divides: Stream divides (the elevated areas separating different drainage basins) are
broad and flat.
 Marshes, Swamps, and Lakes: Common in broad, flat upland areas.
 Meanders: If present, these curves or bends in streams develop over the broad upland
surfaces and may entrench into the uplands.
 Waterfalls and Rapids: May exist where hard rock bodies are exposed.

Mature Stage

 Stream Characteristics: Numerous streams with good integration (well-connected).

 Valleys: V-shaped but deeper than in the youth stage.
 Floodplains: Wider floodplains along the main streams, where streams can meander
within the valley confines.
 Disappearance of Youth Features: Flat and broad interstream areas, swamps, and
marshes of the youth stage disappear.
 Stream Divides: Turn sharp as the landscape evolves.
 Waterfalls and Rapids: Disappear as the river smooths out irregularities.
Old Stage

 Stream Characteristics: Fewer small tributaries with gentle gradients (slopes).

 Flow Pattern: Streams meander freely over extensive floodplains.
 Floodplain Features: Natural levees (raised riverbanks) and oxbow lakes (U-shaped
lakes formed when a meander is cut off from the main river).
 Divides: Broad and flat, similar to those in the youth stage.
 Lakes, Swamps, and Marshes: Common across the landscape.
 Landscape Elevation: Most of the landscape is at or slightly above sea level,
indicating a very gentle gradient.

Erosional Landforms

Valleys

 Formation Process: Valleys originate from small, narrow rills. These rills develop
into gullies, which further deepen, widen, and lengthen, forming valleys.
 Types of Valleys:
o V-shaped Valleys: Characterized by steep sides that form a V-shape.
o Gorges: Deep valleys with very steep to straight sides, nearly equal in width at
the top and bottom.
o Canyons: Similar to gorges but with steep, step-like side slopes, wider at the
top than at the bottom. They commonly form in horizontally bedded
sedimentary rocks, while gorges form in hard rocks.

Potholes and Plunge Pools

 Potholes: Circular depressions on rocky beds of hill-streams, formed by stream

erosion and the abrasion of rock fragments. Pebbles and boulders collected in these
depressions rotate by the flowing water, enlarging the potholes.
 Plunge Pools: Large, deep potholes formed at the base of waterfalls due to the impact
of falling water and the rotation of boulders.

Incised or Entrenched Meanders

 Formation: Found in streams flowing rapidly over steep gradients where vertical
erosion is dominant. In contrast, streams on gentle slopes exhibit active lateral
erosion, forming meanders.
 Characteristics: Deep and wide meanders cut into hard rocks are called incised or
entrenched meanders, indicating significant vertical erosion.

River Terraces

 Definition: Surfaces marking old valley floors or floodplain levels, created by vertical
erosion by the stream into its own floodplain.
 Types:
o Bedrock Terraces: Without alluvial cover.
o Alluvial Terraces: Consist of stream deposits.
  Formation: Occur due to the stream eroding its floodplain vertically, leaving former
river bed levels at different heights.
 Paired Terraces: When terraces occur at the same elevation on either side of the
river.

Depositional Landforms

Alluvial Fans

 Formation: Alluvial fans form when streams flowing from higher elevations reach
the flatter foot slopes of plains. These streams carry coarse material that gets
deposited as they lose energy on gentler gradients.
 Shape: Broad, cone-shaped deposits.
 Stream Behavior: Streams frequently shift across the fan, creating multiple channels
called distributaries.
 Variations: In humid areas, alluvial fans have low cones with gentle slopes. In arid
and semi-arid climates, they form high cones with steeper slopes.

Deltas

 Formation: Similar to alluvial fans but occur where rivers meet a sea or ocean. The
sediment load is deposited, forming a low cone.
 Sorting: Deltas are well-sorted with clear layers; coarse materials settle first, and
finer materials (silt and clay) are carried farther out to sea.
 Growth: As the delta builds into the sea, the river distributaries lengthen and the delta
expands.

Floodplains, Natural Levees, and Point Bars

 Floodplains: Created by deposition during floods. Large materials deposit first,

followed by finer materials like sand, silt, and clay.
o Active Floodplain: The river bed where current deposits occur.
o Inactive Floodplain: The area above the banks, consisting of flood deposits
(fine materials) and channel deposits (coarse materials from abandoned
channels).
 Natural Levees: Linear ridges of coarse deposits along the river banks, often cut into
mounds.
 Point Bars: Sediments deposited in a linear fashion along the concave side of
meanders. These are uniform in profile and contain mixed-sized sediments.

Meanders

 Formation: Loop-like patterns in river channels over flood and delta plains.
 Not a Landform: Meanders are a channel pattern, not a landform.
 Causes:
o Gentle gradients lead water to erode laterally.
o Unconsolidated alluvial deposits are easily eroded.
o The Coriolis force affects the flow direction.
 Development: Water erodes the outer bank (cut-off bank) and deposits sediments on
the inner bank (point bars), deepening the meander curves.
  Oxbow Lakes: As meanders become more pronounced, they may be cut off from the
main channel, forming oxbow lakes.

GROUND WATER

Groundwater's Role in Erosion and Landform Evolution

 Focus: The interest here is not in groundwater as a resource, but in how it contributes
to the erosion of landmasses and the evolution of landforms.
 Percolation: Surface water percolates effectively in rocks that are permeable, thinly
bedded, and highly jointed or cracked.
 Movement: After descending vertically to a certain depth, groundwater flows
horizontally through bedding planes, joints, or the material itself.
 Erosion: The downward and horizontal movement of groundwater causes rocks to
erode. However, the physical or mechanical removal of material by groundwater is
minimal and not significant in developing landforms.

Chemical Processes in Groundwater Erosion

 Solution and Precipitation: The primary processes through which groundwater

affects landforms are solution (dissolving of minerals) and precipitation (depositing of
minerals).
 Affected Rocks: These processes are most effective in rocks like limestone or
dolomite, which are rich in calcium carbonate.
o Solution: Groundwater dissolves the calcium carbonate in these rocks.
o Precipitation: The dissolved minerals can be redeposited elsewhere, creating
new landforms.
 Karst Topography: Regions where these processes are prominent, especially in
limestone or dolomitic areas, develop distinctive landforms known as karst
topography.
o Origin: Named after the Karst region in the Balkans adjacent to the Adriatic
Sea, which exhibits typical karst features.
 Characteristics: Karst topography includes both erosional and depositional
landforms created by the action of groundwater.

Erosional Landforms

Pools, Sinkholes, Lapies, and Limestone Pavements

1. Swallow Holes:
o Small to medium-sized round or sub-rounded shallow depressions.
o Form on limestone surfaces through the solution process.
2. Sinkholes:
o Common in limestone/karst areas.
o Circular openings at the top, funnel-shaped at the bottom.
o Vary in size: few square meters to a hectare in area, and from less than half a
meter to over thirty meters in depth.
o Types:
  Solution Sinks: Form solely through the solution action of water
dissolving limestone.
 Collapse Sinks: Start as solution sinks, but if the bottom forms the
roof of an underground void or cave, it may collapse, creating a large
hole opening into the void below. These are sometimes referred to as
dolines.
o Shallow Water Pools: Some sinkholes are covered with soil and appear as
pools. These can act like quicksand if stepped on.
3. Swallow and Sink Holes:
o Surface runoff can enter these holes and flow as underground streams, re-
emerging downstream through cave openings.
4. Valley Sinks or Uvalas:
o Form when sinkholes and dolines merge due to slumping or roof collapse,
creating long, narrow to wide trenches.
5. Lapies:
o As sinkholes and trenches expand, the limestone surface becomes highly
irregular with points, grooves, and ridges.
o Lapies: Ridges formed due to differential solution activity along parallel to
sub-parallel joints.
o Limestone Pavements: Lapie fields can eventually become smoother
limestone surfaces.

Caves

1. Formation:
o Occur in areas with alternating beds of rocks (shales, sandstones, quartzites)
and limestone/dolomite.
o Water percolates down through cracks and joints, moving horizontally along
bedding planes.
o The limestone dissolves along these planes, forming caves.
2. Structure:
o Caves can form at different elevations, depending on the limestone beds and
intervening rocks.
o Usually have an opening through which cave streams are discharged.
o Tunnels: Caves with openings at both ends.

Depositional Landforms

Overview

In limestone caves, various depositional landforms develop due to the deposition of calcium
carbonate, which is the main chemical component of limestone. This deposition occurs when
water carrying dissolved calcium carbonate evaporates or loses its carbon dioxide.

Key Depositional Features

1. Stalactites:
o Formation:
 Formed by the deposition of calcium carbonate from dripping water.
 Hang from the ceiling of caves like icicles.
 Water carrying dissolved calcium carbonate seeps through cracks in
the cave ceiling and, as it drips, it leaves behind deposits of calcium
carbonate.
o Appearance:
 Typically broad at the base and taper towards the free end.
 Can vary in shape and size, appearing in various forms.
2. Stalagmites:
o Formation:
 Rise from the floor of the caves directly below stalactites.
 Formed by water that drips from stalactites, depositing calcium
carbonate on the cave floor.
o Appearance:
 Can take on various shapes, including columns or discs.
 Often have smooth, rounded bulging ends or miniature crater-like
depressions.
3. Columns and Pillars:
o Formation:
 When stalactites and stalagmites grow long enough, they may
eventually meet and fuse together.
 This fusion creates columns or pillars of calcium carbonate.
o Appearance:
 These columns can vary in diameter and add to the intricate
architecture of the cave.

GLACIER

Definition and Types of Glaciers

 Glaciers: Masses of ice that move over the land.

o Continental Glaciers: Large ice sheets that cover extensive land areas, like
continents.
o Piedmont Glaciers: Large ice sheets that spread over plains at the foot of
mountains.
o Mountain and Valley Glaciers: Linear ice flows down mountain slopes,
moving through broad, trough-like valleys.

Movement of Glaciers

 Glaciers move slowly compared to water flow.

 Movement rates: A few centimeters to several meters per day.
 Force of Gravity: Primary driver of glacier movement.

Erosion by Glaciers

 Tremendous Erosion: Due to the immense weight and friction of the ice.
 Processes:
o Plucking: Glaciers pick up large, angular blocks and fragments from the land.
o Abrasion: These plucked materials are dragged along, grinding against the
valley floors and sides, causing significant erosion.
  Effects:
o Glaciers can erode even unweathered rocks.
o High mountains can be worn down to low hills and plains.

Deposition by Glaciers

 Debris Removal: As glaciers move, they carry debris away.

 Lowering of Divides: High divides between drainage basins get eroded down.
 Slope Reduction: Over time, the landscape’s slope is reduced, eventually stopping
the glacier’s movement.
 Final Landforms:
o Low Hills: Formed from the eroded highlands.
o Outwash Plains: Flat areas formed from sediments deposited by melting
glaciers.
o Other Depositional Features: Various landforms created from materials
deposited by glaciers.

Erosional Landforms

Cirques

 Definition: Cirques are bowl-shaped, steep-walled mountain basins or amphitheaters

at the head of a glacial valley.
 Formation: They are formed by the accumulation and movement of glacier ice,
which erodes the mountain as it moves.
 Characteristics: They are deep, long, and wide with very steep concave walls.
 Post-glacial feature: After the glacier melts, a lake often forms within the cirque,
called a cirque lake or tarn.
 Sequential Cirques: Multiple cirques can occur in a sequence, one below the other,
creating a stepped landscape.

Horns and Serrated Ridges (Arêtes)

 Horns:
o Formation: Formed by the headward erosion of the cirque walls by glaciers.
o Characteristics: High, sharp, and steep-sided peaks.
o Example: The Matterhorn in the Swiss Alps.
 Arêtes:
o Formation: The divides between cirques are eroded by glaciers, becoming
narrow and serrated.
o Characteristics: Sharp, saw-toothed ridges with a zig-zag outline.

Glacial Valleys/Troughs

 Definition: Valleys formed by glacial erosion, typically U-shaped with broad floors
and steep sides.
 Characteristics:
o Debris: The valleys may contain debris left by the glacier, known as moraines,
and can appear swampy.
 o Lakes: Lakes can form in these valleys, either gouged out of the rock or
created by glacial debris.
o Hanging Valleys: Smaller valleys at higher elevations on the sides of the main
glacial valley. When they intersect with the main valley, their ends are
truncated, forming triangular facets.
 Fjords:
o Definition: Very deep glacial troughs filled with seawater, common in high
latitude coastal areas.
o Example: The fjords of Norway

Depositional Landforms

Glacial Till

 Definition: Mixed debris (coarse and fine) left behind by melting glaciers.
 Characteristics: The rock fragments in glacial till are usually angular to sub-angular,
indicating minimal transport and wear.

Outwash Deposits

 Formation: Created by meltwater streams from glaciers.

 Characteristics: These deposits are stratified and sorted, with rock fragments
rounded by water transport. They differ from till, which is unassorted.

Moraines

 Definition: Ridges formed by deposits of glacial till.

 Types:
o Terminal Moraines: Deposited at the end (toe) of glaciers, forming long
ridges.
o Lateral Moraines: Form along the sides of glaciers, parallel to the glacial
valleys. When these meet terminal moraines, they form a horseshoe shape.
o Medial Moraines: Found in the center of a glacial valley, formed where two
glaciers meet and their lateral moraines combine.
o Ground Moraines: Irregular sheets of till covering valley floors left by
retreating glaciers.

Eskers

 Formation: Formed by streams of meltwater flowing beneath glaciers.

 Characteristics: These streams carry and deposit coarse materials, creating sinuous
ridges of sediment once the ice melts. The banks of these streams are formed by ice
rather than ground.

Outwash Plains

 Definition: Broad, flat areas formed by glacio-fluvial deposits.

  Characteristics: These plains consist of alluvial fans that merge, creating extensive
deposits of gravel, silt, sand, and clay at the foot of glacial mountains or beyond
continental ice sheets.

Drumlins

 Definition: Smooth, oval-shaped ridge-like features made primarily of glacial till.

 Characteristics:
o Shape and Orientation: Their long axes are parallel to the direction of glacier
movement.
o Dimensions: Can be up to 1 km long and 30 m high.
o Stoss End: The blunter, steeper end facing the glacier.
o Tail: The gentler slope on the opposite end.
o Formation: Result from rock debris being deposited beneath heavily loaded
ice, with the stoss end shaped by the glacier's movement.

WAVES and CURRENTS

Coastal Processes and Dynamics

 Coastal Changes: Coastal regions are highly dynamic and can experience rapid
changes. Erosion can dominate in one season, while deposition can dominate in
another.
 Waves: The primary force driving coastal changes. When waves break, they exert
significant force on the shore and churn sediments on the sea bottom.
 Storm Waves and Tsunamis: These can cause drastic, rapid changes to the coastline
compared to normal wave action.

Factors Influencing Coastal Landforms

 Configuration of Land and Sea Floor: The shape and features of the land and sea
bottom affect how coastal processes shape the land.
 Coastal Movement: Whether the coast is advancing (emerging) or retreating
(submerging) influences the types of landforms created.

Types of Coasts

1. High, Rocky Coasts (Submerged Coasts)

o Characteristics: Irregular, highly indented coastlines with drowned river
valleys (fjords). Hillsides drop sharply into the water.
o Erosional Dominance: Initially, these coasts do not show depositional
landforms.
o Wave Action: Waves break with great force, eroding the land and forming
cliffs. Over time, this creates a wave-cut platform in front of the cliffs.
o Material Breakdown: Eroded material from cliffs breaks into smaller
fragments, rolls to roundness, and deposits offshore.
o Wave-Built Terraces: Over time, with additional material deposition, a wave-
built terrace forms in front of the wave-cut terrace.
 o
Beaches and Bars: Longshore currents and waves deposit materials as
beaches and bars (submerged ridges parallel to the coast). When bars rise
above water, they form barrier bars.
o Spits and Lagoons: Barrier bars that attach to headlands form spits. When
these form at bay mouths and block them, lagoons develop. Lagoons can
eventually fill with sediments, creating coastal plains.
2. Low, Sedimentary Coasts (Emerging Coasts)
o Characteristics: Smooth coastlines with coastal plains and deltas extending
into the sea. Occasional water incursions form lagoons and tidal creeks. Land
slopes gently into the water.
o Depositional Dominance: Marshes and swamps are common, and
depositional features dominate.
o Wave Action: Waves churn bottom sediments on gently sloping coasts,
creating bars, barrier bars, spits, and lagoons.
o Lagoons to Coastal Plains: Lagoons can turn into swamps, which eventually
become coastal plains.
o Sediment Supply: The formation and maintenance of these features depend
on a steady supply of sediments.
o Impact of Storms and Tsunamis: These can cause significant changes
regardless of sediment supply.
o River Sediments: Large rivers deposit lots of sediments, forming deltas along
low sedimentary coasts.

Erosional Landforms

Cliffs

 Formation: Formed by the constant impact of waves against the shore, eroding the
land and creating steep, vertical or near-vertical rock faces.
 Height: Can range from a few meters to over 30 meters.

Wave-Cut Terraces

 Definition: Flat or gently sloping platforms at the base of sea cliffs.

 Formation: Created by wave erosion and the accumulation of rock debris from the
cliffs.
 Elevation: Located above the average height of waves.

Sea Caves

 Formation: Waves lash against the base of cliffs, eroding the rock and creating
hollows.
 Expansion: These hollows widen and deepen over time to form caves.
 Collapse: The roofs of sea caves may collapse, causing the cliffs to retreat further
inland.
Sea Stacks

 Definition: Isolated rock remnants standing off the shore, originally part of a cliff or
hill.
 Formation: Created when parts of the cliff erode away, leaving resistant rock masses
behind.
 Temporary Nature: Like all coastal features, sea stacks are temporary and will
eventually erode away.

Coastal Evolution

 Cliff Retreat: Continuous wave erosion causes cliffs to recede inland.

 Remnants and Islands: As cliffs erode, isolated rock remnants (sea stacks) form but
are also temporary.
 Coastal Plains: Over time, the continuous erosion of coastal hills and cliffs results in
the formation of narrow coastal plains.
 Beach Formation: These plains may be covered by deposits from inland or by sand
and shingle, forming wide beaches.

Depositional Landforms

Beaches and Dunes

 Beaches:
o Formation: Formed by the deposition of sediments, typically sand, carried by
streams, rivers, and wave erosion.
o Characteristics: Most beaches consist of sand-sized materials, though some
(shingle beaches) contain small pebbles and cobbles.
o Temporary Nature: Beaches are dynamic and can change with the seasons,
sometimes appearing as a wide sandy expanse and other times as a narrow
strip of pebbles.
 Dunes:
o Formation: Sands from the beach are lifted and deposited behind the beach by
wind action.
o Characteristics: Sand dunes often form long ridges parallel to the coastline
and are common along low sedimentary coasts.

Bars, Barriers, and Spits

 Offshore Bars:
o Definition: Ridges of sand and shingle formed in the sea, lying parallel to the
coast, in the offshore zone.
o Characteristics: Located from the low tide waterline to seaward.
 Barrier Bars:
o Formation: Offshore bars that have accumulated additional sand, rising above
the water level.
o Location: Often form across the mouths of rivers or entrances to bays.
 Spits:
 o Definition: Barrier bars that extend and attach to one end of a bay or
headland.
o Formation: Formed by the deposition of sediments carried by longshore
currents.
 Lagoons:
o Formation: When barrier bars and spits extend across a bay, they can create a
lagoon by partially closing off the bay from the sea.
o Evolution: Lagoons gradually fill with sediments from the land or beach,
eventually developing into coastal plains.

WINDS

Wind as a Dominant Agent in Deserts

 Heating of Desert Floors: Desert floors heat up rapidly because they are dry and
barren. This heating warms the air directly above, causing it to rise and create
turbulence. Obstructions in the path of this rising hot air can create eddies,
whirlwinds, updrafts, and downdrafts.
 Wind Movement: Winds move quickly across desert floors. When they encounter
obstacles, they create turbulence, adding to the already dynamic wind environment.
 Storm Winds: In deserts, there can be particularly destructive storm winds.

Wind Erosion Processes

1. Deflation:
o Definition: The lifting and removal of dust and smaller particles from the
surface of rocks by the wind.
2. Abrasion:
o Definition: The process where transported sand and silt particles wear down
rock surfaces.
o Mechanism: Sand acts like a natural sandblaster, eroding rock surfaces
through impact.
3. Impact:
o Definition: The sheer force of wind-driven sand hitting rock surfaces, causing
further erosion.

Desert Features Formed by Wind

 Erosional Features: Formed through processes like deflation, abrasion, and impact.
 Depositional Features: Created when wind-transported materials settle and
accumulate.

Role of Water in Desert Erosion

 Mass Wasting and Running Water: Many desert features also owe their formation
to mass wasting (downward movement of rock and soil) and running water.
 Rain in Deserts: Although rare, rain in deserts is often torrential, occurring in short,
intense bursts.
 Weathering:
 o Mechanical and Chemical Weathering: Due to drastic daily temperature
changes, desert rocks undergo rapid mechanical and chemical weathering,
making them more susceptible to erosion.
o Vegetation: The lack of vegetation leaves rocks exposed and more prone to
weathering.
 Sheet Floods and Sheet Wash: These processes move weathered materials
efficiently across the desert floor. Sheet floods occur when rainwater flows over the
ground surface, removing loose debris.

Stream Channels in Deserts

 Characteristics: Desert stream channels are typically broad, smooth, and poorly
defined.
 Flow Duration: These channels only flow for brief periods following rains.

Erosional Landforms

Pediments and Pediplains

 Pediments:
o Definition: Gently inclined rocky floors found at the base of mountains,
sometimes covered with a thin layer of debris.
o Formation: Created by the erosion of mountain fronts through a combination
of lateral erosion by streams and sheet flooding.
 Erosion Process:
o Initiation: Begins along the steep edges of landmasses or tectonically
controlled steep features.
o Parallel Retreat: The steep wash slope and free face (cliff) of pediments
retreat backward through a process called parallel retreat of slopes, also known
as backwasting.
 Pediplains:
o Definition: Low, featureless plains formed by the extensive retreat of
pediments.
o Formation: As the pediments extend backward, the mountain front erodes
away, leaving behind isolated remnants called inselbergs. Over time, this
process reduces the high relief areas into pediplains.

Playas

 Definition: Nearly level plains formed at the center of basins in desert regions.
 Formation:
o Deposition: Sediments from the basin margins are deposited at the center,
forming a flat plain.
o Water Coverage: During periods of sufficient water, these plains are covered
by shallow lakes called playas.
o Evaporation: Water in playas evaporates quickly, leaving behind deposits of
salts, forming alkali flats.
Deflation Hollows and Caves

 Deflation Hollows:
o Formation: Persistent wind movement removes the weathered material or
bare soil, creating shallow depressions called deflation hollows.
o Features: Numerous small pits or cavities are created over rock surfaces due
to deflation.
 Caves:
o Formation: Wind-borne sand causes impact and abrasion on rock faces,
creating shallow depressions called blowouts. Some blowouts expand to
become deeper and wider, forming caves.

Mushroom, Table, and Pedestal Rocks

 Formation:
o Wind Deflation and Abrasion: Wind deflation and abrasion wear away less
resistant rock, leaving behind more resistant rock formations.
 Types:
o Mushroom Rocks: Rock formations with a slender stalk and a broad, rounded
cap resembling a mushroom.
o Table Rocks: Rock formations with a broad, flat top surface, similar to a
table.
o Pedestal Rocks: Rock remnants that stand out like pedestals.

Depositional Landforms

Wind as a Sorting Agent

 Sorting Process:
o Transportation: Wind carries different sizes of grains by rolling, saltation
(short jumps), and suspension.
o Sorting: As wind speed decreases, grains settle based on their size and weight,
resulting in well-sorted deposits.
 Universal Presence: Wind can create depositional features anywhere with a good
source of sand and consistent wind direction.

Sand Dunes

 Formation:
o Dry Hot Deserts: Ideal for sand dune formation.
o Obstacles: Essential to initiate the accumulation of sand.
 Variety of Forms:
o Barchans:
 Shape: Crescent-shaped with points (wings) directed downwind.
 Conditions: Form where wind direction is constant and moderate, and
the sand surface is uniform.
o Parabolic Dunes:
 Shape: Crescent-shaped but points directed upwind, often vegetated.
  Conditions: Form in partially vegetated sandy areas, essentially
reversed barchans with the same wind direction.
o Seif Dunes:
 Shape: Similar to barchans but with only one wing or point.
 Conditions: Form when there is a shift in wind conditions, allowing
the lone wing to grow long and high.
o Longitudinal Dunes:
 Shape: Long ridges parallel to the wind direction.
 Conditions: Form when the supply of sand is limited and wind
direction is constant.
o Transverse Dunes:
 Shape: Ridges aligned perpendicular to wind direction.
 Conditions: Form when wind direction is constant and sand supply is
abundant from an elongated source at right angles to the wind.
 Coalescence: When sand is abundant, dunes can merge, losing their individual
shapes.
 Stabilization: Some dunes may stabilize, especially near human habitations.