Introduction

In the real world, we are surrounded by humans who can learn everything from their
experiences with their learning capability, and we have computers or machines which work
on our instructions. But can a machine also learn from experiences or past data like a human
does? So here comes the role of Machine Learning.

Machine Learning is said as a subset of artificial intelligence that is mainly concerned with
the development of algorithms which allow a computer to learn from the data and past
experiences on their own.
Classification of Machine Learning

At a broad level, machine learning can be classified into three types:

1. Supervised learning
2. Unsupervised learning
3. Reinforcement learning

1) Supervised Learning

Supervised learning is a type of machine learning method in which we provide sample

labeled data to the machine learning system in order to train it, and on that basis, it predicts
the output.
The system creates a model using labeled data to understand the datasets and learn about each
data, once the training and processing are done then we test the model by providing a sample
data to check whether it is predicting the exact output or not.

The goal of supervised learning is to map input data with the output data. The supervised
learning is based on supervision, and it is the same as when a student learns things in the
supervision of the teacher. The example of supervised learning is spam filtering.

Supervised learning can be grouped further in two categories of algorithms:

o Classification

o Regression

2) Unsupervised Learning

Unsupervised learning is a learning method in which a machine learns without any

supervision.

The training is provided to the machine with the set of data that has not been labeled,
classified, or categorized, and the algorithm needs to act on that data without any supervision.
The goal of unsupervised learning is to restructure the input data into new features or a group
of objects with similar patterns.

In unsupervised learning, we don't have a predetermined result. The machine tries to find
useful insights from the huge amount of data. It can be further classifieds into two categories
of algorithms:

o Clustering

o Association

3) Reinforcement Learning

Reinforcement learning is a feedback-based learning method, in which a learning agent gets a

reward for each right action and gets a penalty for each wrong action. The agent learns
automatically with these feedbacks and improves its performance. In reinforcement learning,
the agent interacts with the environment and explores it. The goal of an agent is to get the
most reward points, and hence, it improves its performance.

The robotic dog, which automatically learns the movement of his arms, is an example of
Reinforcement learning.

Goals of Machine Learning

The goal of ML, in simples words, is to understand the nature of (human and other forms of)
learning, and to build learning capability in computers. To be more specific, there are three
aspects of the goals of ML.

(1) To make the computers smarter, more intelligent. The more direct objective in this aspect
is to develop systems (programs) for specific practical learning tasks in application domains.

(2) To develop computational models of human learning process and perform computer
simulations. The study in this aspect is also called cognitive modeling.

(3) To explore new learning methods and develop general learning algorithms independent of
applications.

Applications of Machine Learning

Machine learning is a buzzword for today's technology, and it is growing very rapidly day by
day. We are using machine learning in our daily life even without knowing it such as Google
Maps, Google assistant, Alexa, etc. Below are some most trending real-world applications of
Machine Learning:
1. Image Recognition:

Image recognition is one of the most common applications of machine learning. It is used to
identify objects, persons, places, digital images, etc. The popular use case of image
recognition and face detection is, Automatic friend tagging suggestion:

Facebook provides us a feature of auto friend tagging suggestion. Whenever we upload a

photo with our Facebook friends, then we automatically get a tagging suggestion with name,
and the technology behind this is machine learning's face detection and recognition
algorithm.

It is based on the Facebook project named "Deep Face," which is responsible for face
recognition and person identification in the picture.

2. Speech Recognition

While using Google, we get an option of "Search by voice," it comes under speech
recognition, and it's a popular application of machine learning.

Speech recognition is a process of converting voice instructions into text, and it is also known
as "Speech to text", or "Computer speech recognition." At present, machine learning
algorithms are widely used by various applications of speech recognition. Google
assistant, Siri, Cortana, and Alexa are using speech recognition technology to follow the
voice instructions.
3. Traffic prediction:

If we want to visit a new place, we take help of Google Maps, which shows us the correct
path with the shortest route and predicts the traffic conditions.

It predicts the traffic conditions such as whether traffic is cleared, slow-moving, or heavily
congested with the help of two ways:

o Real Time location of the vehicle form Google Map app and sensors

o Average time has taken on past days at the same time.

Everyone who is using Google Map is helping this app to make it better. It takes information
from the user and sends back to its database to improve the performance.

4. Product recommendations:

Machine learning is widely used by various e-commerce and entertainment companies such
as Amazon, Netflix, etc., for product recommendation to the user. Whenever we search for
some product on Amazon, then we started getting an advertisement for the same product
while internet surfing on the same browser and this is because of machine learning.

Google understands the user interest using various machine learning algorithms and suggests
the product as per customer interest.

As similar, when we use Netflix, we find some recommendations for entertainment series,
movies, etc., and this is also done with the help of machine learning.

5. Self-driving cars:

One of the most exciting applications of machine learning is self-driving cars. Machine
learning plays a significant role in self-driving cars. Tesla, the most popular car
manufacturing company is working on self-driving car. It is using unsupervised learning
method to train the car models to detect people and objects while driving.

6. Email Spam and Malware Filtering:

Whenever we receive a new email, it is filtered automatically as important, normal, and
spam. We always receive an important mail in our inbox with the important symbol and spam
emails in our spam box, and the technology behind this is Machine learning. Below are some
spam filters used by Gmail:

o Content Filter

o Header filter

o General blacklists filter

o Rules-based filters

o Permission filters

Some machine learning algorithms such as Multi-Layer Perceptron, Decision tree,

and Naïve Bayes classifier are used for email spam filtering and malware detection.

7. Virtual Personal Assistant:

We have various virtual personal assistants such as Google assistant, Alexa, Cortana, Siri.
As the name suggests, they help us in finding the information using our voice instruction.
These assistants can help us in various ways just by our voice instructions such as Play
music, call someone, Open an email, Scheduling an appointment, etc.

These virtual assistants use machine learning algorithms as an important part.

8. Online Fraud Detection:

Machine learning is making our online transaction safe and secure by detecting fraud
transaction. Whenever we perform some online transaction, there may be various ways that a
fraudulent transaction can take place such as fake accounts, fake ids, and steal money in the
middle of a transaction. So to detect this, Feed Forward Neural network helps us by
checking whether it is a genuine transaction or a fraud transaction.

For each genuine transaction, the output is converted into some hash values, and these values
become the input for the next round. For each genuine transaction, there is a specific pattern
which gets change for the fraud transaction hence, it detects it and makes our online
transactions more secure.
9. Stock Market trading:

Machine learning is widely used in stock market trading. In the stock market, there is always
a risk of up and downs in shares, so for this machine learning's long short term memory
neural network is used for the prediction of stock market trends.

10. Medical Diagnosis:

In medical science, machine learning is used for diseases diagnoses. With this, medical
technology is growing very fast and able to build 3D models that can predict the exact
position of lesions in the brain.

It helps in finding brain tumors and other brain-related diseases easily.

11. Automatic Language Translation:

Nowadays, if we visit a new place and we are not aware of the language then it is not a
problem at all, as for this also machine learning helps us by converting the text into our
known languages. Google's GNMT (Google Neural Machine Translation) provide this
feature, which is a Neural Machine Learning that translates the text into our familiar
language, and it called as automatic translation.

The technology behind the automatic translation is a sequence to sequence learning

algorithm, which is used with image recognition and translates the text from one language to
another language.

Design a Learning System in Machine Learning

According to Arthur Samuel “Machine Learning enables a Machine to automatically

learn from Data, Improve performance from an Experience and predict things without
explicitly programmed.”

In Simple Words, When we fed the Training Data to Machine Learning Algorithm, this
algorithm will produce a mathematical model and with the help of the mathematical model,
the machine will make a prediction and take a decision without being explicitly
programmed. Also, during training data, the more machine will work with it the more it
will get experience and the more efficient result is produced.

Example : In Driverless Car, the training data is fed to Algorithm like how to Drive Car in
Highway, Busy and Narrow Street with factors like speed limit, parking, stop at signal etc.
After that, a Logical and Mathematical model is created on the basis of that and after that,
the car will work according to the logical model. Also, the more data the data is fed the
more efficient output is produced.

Designing a Learning System in Machine Learning:

According to Tom Mitchell, “A computer program is said to be learning from experience

(E), with respect to some task (T). Thus, the performance measure (P) is the performance at
task T, which is measured by P, and it improves with experience E.”

Example: In Spam E-Mail detection,

 Task, T: To classify mails into Spam or Not Spam.
 Performance measure, P: Total percent of mails being correctly classified as being
“Spam” or “Not Spam”.
 Experience, E: Set of Mails with label “Spam”
Steps for Designing Learning System are:
Step 1) Choosing the Training Experience: The very important and first task is to choose
the training data or training experience which will be fed to the Machine Learning
Algorithm. It is important to note that the data or experience that we fed to the algorithm
must have a significant impact on the Success or Failure of the Model. So Training data or
experience should be chosen wisely.
Below are the attributes which will impact on Success and Failure of Data:

 The training experience will be able to provide direct or indirect feedback regarding
choices. For example: While Playing chess the training data will provide feedback to
itself like instead of this move if this is chosen the chances of success increases.
 Second important attribute is the degree to which the learner will control the sequences
of training examples. For example: when training data is fed to the machine then at that
time accuracy is very less but when it gains experience while playing again and again
with itself or opponent the machine algorithm will get feedback and control the chess
game accordingly.
 Third important attribute is how it will represent the distribution of examples over
which performance will be measured. For example, a Machine learning algorithm will
get experience while going through a number of different cases and different examples.
Thus, Machine Learning Algorithm will get more and more experience by passing
through more and more examples and hence its performance will increase.

Step 2- Choosing target function: The next important step is choosing the target function.
It means according to the knowledge fed to the algorithm the machine learning will choose
NextMove function which will describe what type of legal moves should be taken. For
example : While playing chess with the opponent, when opponent will play then the
machine learning algorithm will decide what be the number of possible legal moves
taken in order to get success.

Step 3- Choosing Representation for Target function: When the machine algorithm will
know all the possible legal moves the next step is to choose the optimized move using any
representation i.e. using linear Equations, Hierarchical Graph Representation, Tabular form
etc. The NextMove function will move the Target move like out of these move which will
provide more success rate. For Example : while playing chess machine have 4 possible
moves, so the machine will choose that optimized move which will provide success to
it.

Step 4- Choosing Function Approximation Algorithm: An optimized move cannot be

chosen just with the training data. The training data had to go through with set of example
and through these examples the training data will approximates which steps are chosen and
after that machine will provide feedback on it. For Example : When a training data of
Playing chess is fed to algorithm so at that time it is not machine algorithm will fail or
get success and again from that failure or success it will measure while next move
what step should be chosen and what is its success rate.

Step 5- Final Design: The final design is created at last when system goes from number of
examples , failures and success , correct and incorrect decision and what will be the next
step etc. Example: DeepBlue is an intelligent computer which is ML-based won chess
game against the chess expert Garry Kasparov, and it became the first computer
which had beaten a human chess expert.

A Concept Learning Task

Definition: “A task of acquiring potential hypothesis (solution) that best fits the given
training examples.”

Consider the example task of learning the target concept “days on which my friend tom
enjoys his favourite water sport.”

Below Table describes a set of example days, each represented by a set of attributes. The
attribute EnjoySport indicates whether or not tom enjoys his favourite water sport on this
day. The task is to learn to predict the value of EnjoySport for an arbitrary day, based on the
values of its other attributes.
In particular, let each hypothesis be a vector of six constraints, specifying the values of the
six attributes Sky, AirTemp, Humidity, Wind, Water, and Forecast.
For each attribute, the hypothesis will either

 indicate by a “?’ that any value is acceptable for this attribute,

 specify a single required value (e.g., Warm) for the attribute, or
 Indicate by a “ø” that no value is acceptable.
If some instance x satisfies all the constraints of hypothesis h, then h classifies x as a positive
example (h(x) = 1).

To illustrate, the hypothesis that Tom enjoys his favourite sport only on cold days with high
humidity (independent of the values of the other attributes) is represented by the expression

(?, Cold, High, ?, ?, ?)

Most General and Specific Hypothesis

The most general hypothesis-that every day is a positive example-is represented by

(?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?)
and the most specific possible hypothesis-that no day is a positive example-is represented by

(ø, ø, ø, ø, ø, ø)

A CONCEPT LEARNING TASK – Search

Concept learning can be viewed as the task of searching through a large space of hypotheses
implicitly defined by the hypothesis representation.

The goal of this search is to find the hypothesis that best fits the training examples.

It is important to note that by selecting a hypothesis representation, the designer of the

learning algorithm implicitly defines the space of all hypotheses that the program can ever
represent and therefore can ever learn.

Instance Space

Consider, for example, the instances X and hypotheses H in the EnjoySport learning task.
Given that the attribute Sky has three possible values, and that AirTemp, Humidity, Wind,
Water, and Forecast each have two possible values, the instance space X contains exactly 3 .
2 . 2 . 2 . 2 . 2 = 96 distinct instances.

Example:

Let’s assume there are two features F1 and F2 with F1 has A and B as possibilities and F2 as
X and Y as possibilities.

F1 – > A, B

F2 – > X, Y

Instance Space: (A, X), (A, Y), (B, X), (B, Y) – 4 Examples
Hypothesis Space: (A, X), (A, Y), (A, ø), (A, ?), (B, X), (B, Y), (B, ø), (B, ?), (ø, X), (ø, Y),
(ø, ø), (ø, ?), (?, X), (?, Y), (?, ø), (?, ?) – 16
Hypothesis Space: (A, X), (A, Y), (A, ?), (B, X), (B, Y), (B, ?), (?, X), (?, Y (?, ?) – 10
Instance Space

Hypothesis Space

Similarly there are 5 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 . 4 = 5120 syntactically distinct hypotheses within H.

Notice, however, that every hypothesis containing one or more “ø” symbols represents the
empty set of instances; that is, it classifies every instance as negative.
Therefore, the number of semantically distinct hypotheses is only 1 + (4 . 3 . 3 . 3 . 3 . 3) =
973.
Our EnjoySport example is a very simple learning task, with a relatively small, finite
hypothesis space.
General-to-Specific Ordering of Hypotheses

To illustrate the general-to-specific ordering, consider the two hypotheses

h1 = (Sunny, ?, ?, Strong, ?, ?)

h2 = (Sunny, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?)

Now consider the sets of instances that are classified positive by hl and by h2. Because h2
imposes fewer constraints on the instance, it classifies more instances as positive.

In fact, any instance classified positive by h1 will also be classified positive by h2. Therefore,
we say that h2 is more general than h1.

For any instance x in X and hypothesis h in H, we say that x satisjies h if and only if h(x) = 1.

We define the more_general_than_or_equale_to relation in terms of the sets of instances

that satisfy the two hypotheses.
More General Than Hypothesis

Find S Algorithm
Introduction :
The find-S algorithm is a basic concept learning algorithm in machine learning. The find-S
algorithm finds the most specific hypothesis that fits all the positive examples. We have to
note here that the algorithm considers only those positive training example. The find-S
algorithm starts with the most specific hypothesis and generalizes this hypothesis each time
it fails to classify an observed positive training data. Hence, the Find-S algorithm moves
from the most specific hypothesis to the most general hypothesis.
Important Representation :

1. ? indicates that any value is acceptable for the attribute.

2. specify a single required value ( e.g., Cold ) for the attribute.
3. ϕindicates that no value is acceptable.
4. The most general hypothesis is represented by: {?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?}
5. The most specific hypothesis is represented by: {ϕ, ϕ, ϕ, ϕ, ϕ, ϕ}
Steps Involved In Find-S :
1. Start with the most specific hypothesis.
h = {ϕ, ϕ, ϕ, ϕ, ϕ, ϕ}
2. Take the next example and if it is negative, then no changes occur to the hypothesis.
3. If the example is positive and we find that our initial hypothesis is too specific then we
update our current hypothesis to a general condition.
4. Keep repeating the above steps till all the training examples are complete.
5. After we have completed all the training examples we will have the final hypothesis
when can use to classify the new examples.
Example :
Consider the following data set having the data about which particular seeds are poisonous.

First, we consider the hypothesis to be a more specific hypothesis. Hence, our hypothesis
would be :
h = {ϕ, ϕ, ϕ, ϕ, ϕ, ϕ}

Consider example 1 :
The data in example 1 is { GREEN, HARD, NO, WRINKLED }. We see that our initial
hypothesis is more specific and we have to generalize it for this example. Hence, the
hypothesis becomes :
h = { GREEN, HARD, NO, WRINKLED }
Consider example 2 :
Here we see that this example has a negative outcome. Hence we neglect this example and
our hypothesis remains the same.
h = { GREEN, HARD, NO, WRINKLED }
Consider example 3 :
Here we see that this example has a negative outcome. Hence we neglect this example and
our hypothesis remains the same.
h = { GREEN, HARD, NO, WRINKLED }
Consider example 4 :
The data present in example 4 is { ORANGE, HARD, NO, WRINKLED }. We compare
every single attribute with the initial data and if any mismatch is found we replace that
particular attribute with a general case ( ” ? ” ). After doing the process the hypothesis
becomes :
h = { ?, HARD, NO, WRINKLED }
Consider example 5 :
The data present in example 5 is { GREEN, SOFT, YES, SMOOTH }. We compare every
single attribute with the initial data and if any mismatch is found we replace that particular
attribute with a general case ( ” ? ” ). After doing the process the hypothesis becomes :
h = { ?, ?, ?, ? }
Since we have reached a point where all the attributes in our hypothesis have the general
condition, example 6 and example 7 would result in the same hypothesizes with all general
attributes.
h = { ?, ?, ?, ? }
Hence, for the given data the final hypothesis would be :
Final Hyposthesis: h = { ?, ?, ?, ? }

Algorithm :

1. Initialize h to the most specific hypothesis in H

2. For each positive training instance x

For each attribute constraint a, in h

 If the constraint a, is satisfied by x

Then do nothing

Else replace a, in h by the next more general constraint that is satisfied by x

3. Output hypothesis h

Version Spaces

Candidate Elimination Algorithm

The candidate elimination algorithm incrementally builds the version space given a
hypothesis space H and a set E of examples. The examples are added one by one; each
example possibly shrinks the version space by removing the hypotheses that are
inconsistent with the example. The candidate elimination algorithm does this by updating
the general and specific boundary for each new example.

 You can consider this as an extended form of Find-S algorithm.

 Consider both positive and negative examples.
 Actually, positive examples are used here as Find-S algorithm (Basically they are
generalizing from the specification).
 While the negative example is specified from generalize form.
Terms Used:
 Concept learning: Concept learning is basically learning task of the machine (Learn by
Train data)
 General Hypothesis: Not Specifying features to learn the machine.
 G = {‘?’, ‘?’,’?’,’?’…}: Number of attributes
 Specific Hypothesis: Specifying features to learn machine (Specific feature)
 S= {‘pi’,’pi’,’pi’…}: Number of pi depends on number of attributes.
 Version Space: It is intermediate of general hypothesis and Specific hypothesis. It not
only just written one hypothesis but a set of all possible hypothesis based on training
data-set.

Algorithm:

Step1: Load Data set

Step2: Initialize General Hypothesis and Specific Hypothesis.
Step3: For each training example
Step4: If example is positive example
if attribute_value == hypothesis_value:
Do nothing
else:
replace attribute value with '?' (Basically generalizing it)
Step5: If example is Negative example
Make generalize hypothesis more specific.
Example:

Consider the dataset given below:

 Algorithmic steps:

Initially : G = [[?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?],

[?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?]]
S = [Null, Null, Null, Null, Null, Null]

For instance 1 : <'sunny','warm','normal','strong','warm ','same'> and positive output.

G1 = G
S1 = ['sunny','warm','normal','strong','warm ','same']

For instance 2 : <'sunny','warm','high','strong','warm ','same'> and positive output.

G2 = G
S2 = ['sunny','warm',?,'strong','warm ','same']

For instance 3 : <'rainy','cold','high','strong','warm ','change'> and negative output.

G3 = [['sunny', ?, ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, 'warm', ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?],
[?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, ?], [?, ?, ?, ?, ?, 'same']]
S3 = S2

For instance 4 : <'sunny','warm','high','strong','cool','change'> and positive output.

G4 = G3
S4 = ['sunny','warm',?,'strong', ?, ?]

At last, by synchronizing the G4 and S4 algorithm produce the output.

********** Leaning Conjunctive Concepts