Department of Electrical Power Engineering

Power System Engineering 801

Assignment Report

Student Name: Khumalo M A

Student Number:22003700

Lecturer: A A Adebiyi
Introduction
With an emphasis on transformer technologies, stability, and power factor correction, this
assignment examines important ideas in contemporary power systems engineering. The
stability of the power system is thoroughly examined first, with a distinction made between
steady-state, dynamic, and transient stability, as well as an analysis of the importance of each
during and following system disruptions. Power factor correction is discussed in the next
section, with a focus on industrial settings. It assesses the necessary reactive power
compensation as well as the wider technical and financial ramifications, including harmonics
and system resonance.
Additionally, the assignment evaluates how new grid technologies, such as Wide Area
Monitoring Systems (WAMS) and Flexible AC Transmission Systems (FACTS), might
improve system stability in massive linked networks. Lastly, it compares auto-transformers
and two-winding transformers, going into their fault tolerance, operating features, efficiency,
and applicability for different power system scenarios.
When combined, these subjects offer a thorough grasp of how contemporary power systems
function and adjust to changing technological difficulties.

Section 1
Steady state stability

This is the ability to maintain or keep synchronism in machines after a disturbance[1-3], e.g
when load is added to the system or removed. This is about the system resilience to gradual
changes and how fast it returns to smooth or stable point of operation.

Time frame

It may take several seconds to come to steady state under slowly varying conditions.

For example an increase in the power demands by residential area. The must be able to keep
or maintain it frequency and the voltage within the acceptable limits while supplying the
increased load.
Dynamic Stability

Dynamic stability, this is ability of the system to maintain the synchronism under small
disturbances in a very short period, it considers the use of automatic controls[4, 5].

Dynamic stability refers to how the system reacts to minor perturbations that cause
oscillations. If these oscillations do not increase in amplitude beyond a specific point and
cease rapidly, the system is considered dynamically stable[6, 7]. The system is dynamically
unstable if the amplitude of these oscillations keeps increasing. Interconnections between
control systems are typically the cause of this kind of instability.

The time frame for dynamic stability is between 0.1 to 10 seconds.

Example: When a load is disconnected the, the system experiences oscillations or instability
and it clears them in a period of less than 10 seconds.

Transient stability

The response to significant disturbances, which could result in comparatively considerable

variations in rotor speeds, power angles, and power transfers, is known as transient stability.
Transient stability is a quick phenomenon that typically manifests itself in a few of
seconds[8-10].

The time frame is between 0 to 3 seconds.

Example is when a three-phase fault occurs in the transmission lines by lightning. The
transient response of the system will determine if it returns to stable state or not.

Swing and Power Angle equations

Power system analysis relies heavily on the swing and power angle equations, especially
when analysing rotor dynamics and stability following disturbances. The angular swing of the
rotor is described by the swing equation, which is a second-order differential equation. The
angle formed by the rotor and the magnetic field axis is known as the power angle or torque
angle, and it is a crucial component of the swing equation[11, 12].

Swing equation

δ rotor angle or power angle

ω synchronous speed
H inertia constant of the generator
Pm Mechanical power input
Pe Electrical power output

Power Angle

δ Power angle (Between Generator’s voltage and Bus voltage)

E genenator’s internal voltage
V bus voltage
X reactance between generator and the grid

Section Two
Firstly, when analysing this we should start by simply showing how the calculation will be
done to calculate the resulting reactive power. From the knowledge of power system we
know that when the power factor is not close or far less from unity power factor, then the
reactive power is big or high. So with that we know that more power is lost due to low power
factor.

Given scenario:

cosƟ=0.72 lagging
improve power factor cosƟ=0.95 lagging

For Calculating MVA power we use S=VI or S= P +jQ, therefore the resulting reactive power
will be calculated using the improved power factor.

2.1 Technical Considerations

a. When the power system's inductive and capacitive reactances cancel each other out at a
specific frequency, resonance takes place, which may magnify harmonic voltages and
currents[13, 14]. Following the installation of capacitor banks, there is an increased danger of
parallel resonance, particularly in the presence of system harmonic sources (such as variable
frequency drives and nonlinear loads).

- Mitigation: the removal of dominant harmonic frequencies (such as the fifth and seventh)
from the resonance frequency by detuned reactors or filter banks.

b. Harmonics Amplification

Harmonic distortion can be amplified by improperly tuned capacitor banks. This is especially
valid for systems with substantial harmonic content generated by non-linear loads[15].
Elevated total harmonic distortion (THD) may result in:
- Motors and transformers overheating
- Mistaken activation of safety equipment
- Failure of delicate equipment
- Active harmonic filters or hybrid filters are the solution.

c. Risk of Overcompensation
With overcompensation, a leading power factor may result, which:
- makes a voltage rise more likely.
- has the potential to disrupt voltage regulation systems and synchronous generators.
- may result in penalties or the cancellation of utility incentives.

Preventive measure: To adapt to changing load conditions, install automatic capacitor banks
with step controllers or intelligent reactive power regulation.
2. Operational implication

a. Control and Monitoring complexity

- The versatility of conventional fixed capacitors is restricted. Because modern
loads are dynamic, adaptive control is necessary.
- Power quality may be impacted by transients caused by capacitor switching that
put stress on insulation.

b. Maintenance requirement
- It is necessary to periodically check capacitor banks for contactor wear, blown
fuses, and aged capacitors.
- When reactors are used for detuning, temperature control becomes essential.

3. Economic Trade-Offs

a. Cost and Benefits analysis

- Benefits
- Apparent power is reduced.
- Capacity of the system is increased.
- Lower utility charges

- Costs
- Cost of reactors, control systems, and capacitors
- Commissioning and installation
- Continuous maintenance
- The price of possible downtime during tuning or problem

Optimization Tools: ROI evaluation using Net Present Value (NPV) and life-cycle
cost analysis

b. Utility incentives or Penalties

 A lot of utilities offer rebates for keeping PF over 0.9 or charge fines for falling below
specific levels. Precise control is therefore economically required.

4. Modern Solutions: Smart and Adaptive Compensation

a. Integration with Smart Grids

- Real-time reactive power management is essential for smart grid stability,
especially when renewable energy sources are heavily integrated.
- To manage this complexity, systems with edge computing, IoT sensors, and AI-
based controllers are starting to appear.

b. Static VAR compensators and STATCOM

Reactive power adjustment is provided in real time and with rapid action by these
power-electronic-based devices.

Benefits
- Superb dynamic reaction
- No resonance problems
- Both programmable and scalable

Application: In situations with strong harmonic distortion or quickly fluctuating load

circumstances.

Section 3
3.1 Fundamental differences between transient, dynamic and steady-state

stability
a. Transient stability
-Transient stability is the ability of the power system to maintain synchronism when
subjected to a severe disturbance, such as a short circuit, loss of a large generator, or
line outage[8].
-Its timeframe varies from milliseconds to three seconds after the disturbance
 -It deals with large, abrupt changes and evaluates whether generators can remain in
synchronism.
- The impact on the system - If transient stability is not maintained, generator tripping or
system islanding may result in cascading failures and blackouts.

b. Dynamic stability
The system's capacity to remain synchronized in the face of moderate, slow
disruptions, including gradual load fluctuations, automated control actions, or minor
failures that are promptly fixed, is known as dynamic stability.

Mechanism: It takes electromechanical oscillations and automatic controls (such as a

governor, excitation system, and PSS) into account.

The main problem is that low-frequency oscillations (0.1 to 3 Hz) from generators
spread out across a large area are dampened.

Effect on System: Prolonged oscillations, voltage swings, or even instability may

result from inadequate damping.

c. Steady-state stability
The ability of the system to remain synchronized in the face of mild, persistent
disruptions and gradually changing loads is known as steady-state stability.

Time frame: Hours to minutes.

 Mechanism: Uses linearized models to concentrate on long-term behaviour while
considering:
-Profile of voltage
-Balance of power flow
-Equipment's thermal limits

Impact on the System: Establishes the system's typical operational limit. Thermal
overload, voltage breakdown, or frequency imbalance can result from violations.

3.2 Using Modern technologies to enhance stability.

a. Power electronic-based FACTS devices are intended to improve stability margins,

manage power flow, and increase controllability.

FACTS devices, function, stability enhancement of each device

Devices Function Stability Enhancement

Static Synchronous -Quick reactive power Improve both transient and
Compensator (STATCOM) control dynamic voltage stability
-Voltage support
Static Var Compensator -Reactive power Enhances damping of
(SVC) compensation oscillations
Thyristor Controlled Series -Series compensation Controls power flow, and
Capacitor (TCSC) improve the transient
stability
Unified Power Flow -Control impedance Maximises stability control
Controller (UPFC) -control voltage and congestion relief

b. WAMS in enhancing stability.

WAMS monitors phase angles, voltage magnitudes, and frequency in real time over
wide geographic areas using Phasor Measurement Units (PMUs)[16].
 Function in Stability:
-Early angular instability detection
-allows for real-time control to stop errors from cascading.
-improves dynamic stability through the identification of oscillatory modes

Principal Advantages:
-Awareness of the situation
-Analysis of disturbances and replay of events
-Combining Automatic Generation Control (AGC) with System Protection Schemes
(SPS)

Section 4

Autotransformer vs Two-windings transformer

4.1
a. Construction
Two winding transformers.
-Structure: consists of the primary and secondary windings, which are electrically insulated
and twisted around a shared magnetic core.
-Electrical Isolation: Despite their magnetic coupling, the primary and secondary are
electrically separate.
-The ratio of turns between the two windings is the basis for achieving voltage
transformation.

Autotransformer
-A single continuous winding, with a portion of the winding shared by the input and output,
makes up the structure of an auto transformer.
-There is no electrical separation between the input and the output.
-To adjust the voltage, tap at several locations along the same coil.

Efficiency
Two windings transformer
-For the same rating, efficiency is typically lower than auto-transformers.
-Through the core, all power is transmitted magnetically.

The Auto-Transformer
-more effective since just a small portion of the power is transferred magnetically and the
majority is transferred conductively (via the common winding)[17].
-For the same power rating, copper and core losses are reduced.

Voltage regulation
A Transformer with Two Windings
-Higher impedance between the windings usually results in poorer voltage regulation.

Auto-Transformer
-improved coupling and reduced impedance, which results in better voltage regulation[17].
-output voltage that is more consistent under different loads.

Fault tolerance and safety

Two windings transformer

-Because the windings are electrically isolated from one another, a two-winding transformer
is safer in fault situations.
-increased resilience to faults, particularly those caused by insulation failures and short
circuits.

Auto-Transformer
-In critical applications, there is no chance of isolation.
-One side's faults have the potential to spread to the other.
-High-voltage or critical applications shouldn't use this.

4.2 Scenario where autotransformer are advantageous

 1.Controlling Voltage in Step-Up/Step-Down Applications with Minimal Voltage
Variation
-Stepping voltage from 132 kV to 110 kV or from 220 kV to 132 kV is one example.
-Benefit: For low voltage ratios, auto-transformers are very effective at minimizing
losses and conserving material (less iron and copper)[18].

2. Transmission Network Interconnection

-For instance, connecting substations' 400 kV and 220 kV systems.
-Benefit: An affordable method of integrating various voltage levels into regional
grids that preserves system stability while requiring less space and money.

3. Industrial Uses Needing High Power Transfer:

-Providing motors or arc furnaces with somewhat varied voltage needs, for instance.
-Benefit: Large loads may be handled with less losses thanks to its compact design
and high efficiency.

Risks and Limitations in High-Voltage Transmission systems

1. Insufficient Electrical Isolation Risk: Faults can spread throughout the system because
the primary and secondary windings are shared.

The consequence of a low-voltage short circuit is that it might spread to the high-voltage
network, causing equipment damage or extensive outages[19].

2. Over-Voltage During Load Rejection Risk: Particularly on the secondary side, the
common winding may be subjected to over-voltage stress when loads are abruptly
disconnected[20, 21].
Insulation failure or tripping of the system's protection is the result[22].
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