2

Work and Energy Chapter 4

Introduction to Chapter 4 Machines
and
Engineering is the process of applying science to solve problems. Technology is the
word we use to describe machines and inventions that result from engineering
efforts. The development of the technology that created computers, cars, and the

Mechanical
space shuttle began with the invention of simple machines. In this chapter, you will
discover the principles upon which simple machines operate. You will study several
simple machines closely and learn how machines can multiply and alter forces.

4.1 Forces in Machines

Investigations for Chapter 4
How do simple machines work?
Systems
Machines can make us much stronger than we normally are. In this Investigation,
you will design and build several block and tackle machines from ropes and pulleys.
Your machines will produce up to six times as much force as you apply. As part of
the Investigation you will identify the input and output forces, and measure the
mechanical advantage.
4.2 The Lever How does a lever work?

Archimedes said “Give me a lever and fulcrum and I shall move the Earth.” While
the lever you study in this Investigation will not be strong enough to move a planet,
you will learn how to design and build levers than can multiply force. You will also
find the rule which predicts how much mechanical advantage a lever will have.
4.3 Gears and Design How do gears work?

Many machines require that rotating motion be transmitted from one place to
another. In this Investigation, you will learn how gears work and then use this
knowledge to design and build a gear machine that solves a specific problem.

65
Chapter 4: Machines and Mechanical Systems

Learning Goals

In this chapter, you will:

! Describe and explain a simple machine.
! Apply the concepts of input force and output force to any machine.
! Determine the mechanical advantage of a machine.
! Construct and analyze a block and tackle machine.
! Describe the difference between science and engineering.
! Understand and apply the engineering cycle to the development of an invention or product.
! Describe the purpose and construction of a prototype.
! Design and analyze a lever.
! Calculate the mechanical advantage of a lever.
! Recognize the three classes of levers.
! Build machines with gears and deduce the rule for how pairs of gears turn.
! Design and build a gear machine that solves a specific problem.

Vocabulary

engineering gear lever output arm

engineering cycle input machine output force
engineers input arm mechanical advantage output gear
force input force mechanical systems prototype
fulcrum input gear output simple machine

66
 Chapter 4

4.1 Forces in Machines

How do you move something that is too heavy to carry? How do humans move mountains? How were
the Great Pyramids built? The answer to these questions has to do with the use of simple machines. In
this section, you will learn how simple machines manipulate forces to accomplish many tasks.

Mechanical systems and machines

The world without Ten thousand years ago, people lived in a much different world. Their interactions
machines were limited by what they could pick up and carry, how fast they could run, and
what they could eat (or what could eat them!). It would be quite a problem for
someone to bring a woolly mammoth back home without today’s cars and trucks. Figure 4.1: A bicycle is a good
example of a machine. A bicycle
What technology Today’s technology allows us to do incredible things. Moving huge steel beams, efficiently converts forces from your
allows us to do digging tunnels that connect two islands, or building 1,000-foot skyscrapers are muscles into motion.
examples. What makes these accomplishments possible? Have we developed
super powers since the days of our ancestors?

What is a In a way we have developed super powers. Our powers came from our clever
machine? invention of machines and mechanical systems. A machine is a device with
moving parts that work together to accomplish a task. A bicycle is a good
example. All the parts of a bicycle work together to transform forces from your
muscles into speed and motion. In fact, a bicycle is one of the most efficient
machines ever invented (Figure 4.1).
The concepts of Machines are designed to do something useful. You can think of a machine as Figure 4.2: Applying the ideas of
input and output having an input and an output. The input includes everything you do to make the input and output to a bicycle.
machine work, like pushing on the pedals. The output is what the machine does for
you, like going fast (Figure 4.2).

4.1 Forces in Machines

67
Chapter 4

Simple machines

The beginning of The development of the technology that created computers, cars, and the space
technology shuttle begins with the invention of simple machines. A simple machine is an
unpowered mechanical device, such as a lever. A lever allows you to move a rock
that weighs 10 times as much as you do (or more). Some other important simple
machines are the wheel and axle, the block and tackle, the gear, and the ramp.

Figure 4.3: With a properly

designed lever, a person can move
many times his own weight.

Input force and Simple machines work by manipulating forces. It is useful to think in terms of an
output force input force and an output force. With a lever the input force is what you apply. The
output force is what the lever applies to what you are trying to move. Figure 4.3
shows an example of using a lever to move a heavy load.
The block and The block and tackle is another simple machine that uses ropes and pulleys to
tackle multiply forces. The input force is what you apply to the rope. The output force is
what gets applied to the load you are trying to lift. One person could easily lift an
elephant with a properly designed block and tackle! (Figure 4.4)
Machines within Most of the machines we use today are made up of combinations of different types Figure 4.4: A block and tackle
machine made with ropes and pulleys
machines of simple machines. For example, the bicycle uses wheels and axles, levers (the allows one person to lift tremendous
pedals and a kickstand), and gears. If you take apart a VCR, a clock, or a car loads.
engine you will also find simple machines adapted to fit almost everywhere.

68
 Chapter 4

Mechanical advantage

Definition of Simple machines work by changing force and motion. Remember that a force
force is an action that has the ability to change motion, like a push or a pull. Forces
do not always result in a change in motion. For example, pushing on a solid
wall does not make it move (at least not much). But, if the wall is not well
built, pushing could make it move. Many things can create force: wind,
muscles, springs, motion, gravity, and more. The action of a force is the same,
regardless of its source.
Units of force Recall from the last unit that there are two units we use to measure force: the
newton and the pound. The newton is a smaller unit than the pound. A
quantity of 4.448 newtons is equal to 1 pound. A person weighing 100 pounds
would weigh 444.8 newtons.
Simple machines As discussed, simple machines are best understood through the concepts of
and force input and output forces. The input force is the force applied to the machine.
The output force is the force the machine applies to accomplish a task.
Mechanical Mechanical advantage is the ratio of output force to input force. If the Figure 4.5: A block and tackle with a
advantage mechanical advantage is bigger than one, the output force is bigger than the mechanical advantage of two. The output
force is twice as strong as the input force.
input force (Figure 4.5). A mechanical advantage smaller than one means the
output force is smaller than the input force.
The human body
Your arms operate at a
mechanical advantage of less
than one. This means that the
input force exceeds the output
force. The advantage of your arms
working this way is that they have
a range of motion. Small
Mechanical People who design machines are called mechanical engineers. Many of the movements in tiny muscle fibers
engineers machines they design involve the multiplication of forces to lift heavy loads; near your elbow lead to throwing a
that is, the machines must have a greater output force than input force in order ball or turning a page!
to accomplish the job.

4.1 Forces in Machines

69
Chapter 4

How a block and tackle works

The forces in Ropes and strings carry tension forces along their length.
ropes and strings A tension force is a pulling force that always acts along
the direction of the rope. Ropes or strings do not carry
pushing forces. This would be obvious if you ever tried to
push something with a rope. We will be using the term
rope, but the strings used in your lab investigations behave
just like ropes used in larger machines.
Every part of a If friction is very small, then the force in a rope is the same
rope has the same everywhere. This means that if you were to cut the rope
tension and insert a force scale, the scale would measure the same
tension force at any point.
The forces in a The diagram in (Figure 4.6) shows three different
block and tackle configurations of block and tackle. Notice that the number
of ropes attached directly to the load is different in each
case. Think about pulling with an input force. This force
appears everywhere in the rope. That means in case A the
load feels two upward forces equal to your pull. In case B
the load feels three times your pulling force, and in case C
the load feels four times your pull.
Mechanical If there are four ropes directly supporting the load, each
advantage newton of force you apply produces 4 newtons of output
force. Configuration C has a mechanical advantage of 4.
The output force is four times bigger than the input force.
Multiplying force Because the mechanical advantage is 4, the input force for
with the block and machine C is 1/4 the output force. If you need an output
tackle force of 20 N, you only need an input force of 5 N! The
block and tackle is an extremely useful machine because it
multiplies force so effectively. Figure 4.6: How the block and tackle creates mechanical
advantage using forces in ropes.

70
 Chapter 4

4.2 The Lever

The lever is another example of a simple machine. In this section, you will learn about the relationships
between force and motion that explain how a lever works. You will also learn that certain parts of the
human body are levers. After reading this section and doing the Investigation, you should be able to
design a lever to move almost anything!

What is a lever?

Examples A lever can be made by balancing a board on a log (Figure 4.7). Pushing down on
of levers one end of the board lifts a load on the other end of the board. The downward
force you apply is the input force. The upward force the board exerts on the load is
the output force. Other examples of levers include: pliers, a wheelbarrow, and the
human biceps and forearm.
Your muscles and You may have heard the human body described as a machine. In fact, it is: Your Figure 4.7: A board and log make
skeleton use levers bones and muscles work as levers to perform everything from chewing to a lever.
throwing a ball (Figure 4.8).
Parts of the lever All levers includes a stiff structure (the lever) that rotates around a fixed point
called the fulcrum. The side of the lever where the input force is applied is called
the input arm. The output arm is the end of the lever that moves the rock or lifts
the heavy weight. Levers are useful because you can arrange the fulcrum and the
input and output arms to adapt to the task you need to perform. The ability of a
lever to perform a task depends on its mechanical advantage. The formula for the
mechanical advantage of a lever is below.

Figure 4.8: Many parts of the

human body are levers. Your jaw, feet,
arms, and head all work as levers.

4.2 The Lever

71
Chapter 4

The mechanical advantage of a lever

Input and output The mechanical advantage of a lever is the ratio of the lengths of the input arm
arms and the output arm. For example, if the input arm is 5 meters and the output arm is
1 meter, then the mechanical advantage is 5. The output force will be five times as
large as the input force.
Input and output The input force that is applied to a lever and the output force are related to the
forces lengths of the input and output arms. When the input and output arms are the same
length (because the fulcrum is in the middle of the lever), the input and output
forces are the same. The input and output forces are different if the fulcrum is not
in the center of the lever. The side of the lever with the longer arm has the smaller
force. For example, if the input arm is 10 times longer than the output arm, the
output force is 10 times greater than the input force.
The output force For some levers, the output arm is longer than the input arm and the output force is
can be less than less than the required input force. Levers designed this way achieve a wide range
the input force of motion on the output side as in a broom (Figure 4.9).

Figure 4.9: Since the length of the

output arm of the broom is less than
the length of the input arm, the input
force is greater than the output force.
This lever works well because the
output force is only needed to move
dust.

72
 Chapter 4

The three classes of levers

The three types of There are three types of levers, as shown in Figure 4.10. They are classified by the
levers locations of the input and output forces relative to the fulcrum. All three types are
used in many machines.
First-class levers First-class levers always have the fulcrum between the input force and the output
force. If the input arm of this lever is larger than the output arm, then it is possible
to produce a large output force relative to the input force. In this case, a first-class
lever multiplies force. Sometimes, however, the input arm of a first-class lever is
shorter than the output arm and the output force is less than the input force. The
advantage of a lever designed this way is that work done by the lever can be done
faster—a small amount of motion of the input arm translates into a huge motion
made by the output arm. The mechanical advantage of a first-class lever can be
greater than one or less than one. Examples of first-class levers include pliers and
see-saws.
Second-class Second-class levers always have the output force between the fulcrum and the
levers input force. Therefore, the input arm will always be longer than the output arm in
second-class levers. What does this mean in terms of mechanical advantage? It
means that mechanical advantage will always be greater than one. Second-class
levers always multiply force. Wheelbarrows are second-class levers.
Third-class levers Third-class levers always have the input force between the fulcrum and the output
force. This means that the output arm is always longer than the input arm and
mechanical advantage is less than one. If mechanical advantage is less than one,
then you can never multiply force by using a third-class lever. However, third-
class levers do result in a wide range of motion that is important in moving your
arms and sweeping large areas when you use a broom. Figure 4.10: Examples of three
kinds of levers.
The human body On the next page, you will learn that parts of your body work as levers. In
is a simple particular you arms and jaw work as levers. Before reading the next page, think
machine about how your body works. Can you think of a body part that works as a first-
class lever? Which parts of you body work as second-class or third-class levers?

4.2 The Lever

73
Chapter 4

Levers in the human body

What do levers A lever is a stiff structure that rotates around a fixed point. In the human body, all
do? bones act as levers and each joint can serve as a fulcrum. For an applied force,
levers can change the direction of force, the distance or speed of the motion, or
change the strength of the force. A see-saw illustrates that a downward force on
one end results in an upward force on the other end. A broom is efficient at
sweeping a room because a small range of motion provided by the arms results in
large sweeps on a floor. If the input arm is longer than the output arm, applied
force can be multiplied For example, an input force of one newton can lift a five-
newton object if the lever has a mechanical advantage of 5.
The neck Stop reading for a moment. Relax your neck so that your head drops slowly
forward. The head is a heavy object—about 4.5 kilograms. Your head drops
forward when you relax your neck because your head and neck work like a first-
class lever (Figure 4.11). The fulcrum is at the top of the neck. The muscles in the Figure 4.11: The neck is an
neck provide an input force that allows you to raise your head. When you relax example of a first-class lever.
these muscles, gravity causes your head to fall forward.
The jaw Think about how your jaw works when you bite into an apple. When biting, your
jaw works as a third-class lever. The input force (applied by your jaw muscles)
occurs between the fulcrum (the joint where your jaw bone connects to your skull)
and the output force which is applied to the apple.
The arms Your forearms work as third-class levers (see Figure 4.10 on the previous page).
As you have learned from the reading, third-class levers require more input force
than output force. However, the gain in third-class levers is range of motion. The
range of motion of your arms is very important in that it makes it possible to reach,
pick up objects, and lift them. Often, we are doing tasks that don’t require a lot of
output force. For example, when you turn a page of this book, you need range of
motion to move the page, but you don’t need a lot of force!
Feet When you stand on your toes, the feet act as second-class levers (Figure 4.12).
Your toes are the fulcrum. The input force is provided by your calf muscles. The Figure 4.12: The foot is an
output force is the weight of your foot being lifted. example of a second-class lever.

74
 Chapter 4

4.3 Gears and Design

In this section, you will learn how people design complex machines to solve real problems. You may Narciso Monturiol
have practiced designing machines with gears in your Investigation. The process of learning how gears Narciso Monturiol a
work and then using that information to solve a problem is common to the invention of almost every Spanish lawyer and
inventor, was born in
kind of machine, from the wheel and axle to the space shuttle. This process is called the engineering 1819. While visiting a
cycle, which is how ideas for inventions become something real you can actually use. seaside village,
Monturial observed
Science and engineering the dangerous work
of coral harvesters.
He wondered if he could design and
Inventions solve You are surrounded by inventions, from the toothbrush you use to clean your teeth build a submarine to transport them
problems to the computer you use to do your school projects (and play games). Where did safely to and from the reefs.
the inventions come from? Most of them came from a practical application of In 1859, Monturiol’s seven-meter
science knowledge. submarine, the Ictineo, was
launched. It had a spherical inner
What is The application of science to solve problems is called engineering or technology. hull built to withstand water pressure
and an elliptical-shaped outer hull for
technology? From the invention of the plow to the microcomputer, all technologies arise from
ease of movement. Between the two
someone’s perception of a need for things to be done better. Although technology hulls were tanks that stored and
is widely different in the details, there are some general principles that apply to all released water to control the sub’s
forms of technological design or innovation. People who design technology to depth. Oxygen tanks were also
stored in this space. The submarine
solve problems are called engineers.
was powered by four men turning the
propeller by hand. Next, Monturiol
built a larger,14-meter steam-
powered submarine that could stay
under water for up to seven hours.
Monturiol didn’t receive much credit
for this work in his lifetime, but he is
now recognized as an important
contributor to submarine
development.
Science and Scientists study the world to learn the basic principles behind how things work.
technology Engineers use scientific knowledge to create or improve inventions that solve
problems.

4.3 Gears and Design

75
Chapter 4

A sample Suppose you are given a box of toothpicks and some glue, and are assigned to
engineering build a bridge that will hold a brick without breaking. After doing research, you
problem come up with an idea for how to make the bridge. Your idea is to make the bridge
from four structures connected together. Your structure is a truss because you have
seen bridges that use trusses. Your idea is called a conceptual design.

The importance of You need to test your idea to see if it works. If you could figure out how much
a prototype force it takes to break one structure, you would know if four structures will hold
the brick. Your next step is to build a prototype and test it. Your prototype should
be close enough to the real bridge that what you learn from testing can be applied
to the final bridge. For example, if your final bridge is to be made with round
toothpicks, your prototype also has to be made with round toothpicks.
Figure 4.13: Testing the prototype
Testing the You test the prototype truss by applying more and more force until it breaks. You tells you if it is strong enough. Testing
prototype learn that your truss breaks at a force of 5 newtons. The brick weighs 25 newtons. often leads to a revised design, for
example, using more trusses.
Four trusses are not going to be enough. You have two choices now. You can make
each truss stronger, by using thread to tie the joints. Or, you could use more trusses
in your bridge (Figure 4.13). The evaluation of test results is a necessary part of
any successful design. Testing identifies potential problems in the design in time
to correct them. Adding more trusses should make the bridge strong enough to
withstand additional newtons before breaking, which gives an extra margin of
safety.
Changing the If you decide to build a stronger structure, you will need to make another
design and testing prototype and test it again. Good engineers often build many prototypes and keep
again testing them until they are successful under a wide range of conditions. The
process of design, prototype, test, and evaluate is the engineering cycle Figure 4.14: The engineering
design cycle is how we get an
(Figure 4.14). The best inventions go through the cycle many times, being
invention from concept to reality.
improved each cycle until all the problems are worked out.

76
 Chapter 4

Gears and rotating machines

Why are gears Many machines require that rotating motion be transmitted from one place to
used? another. The transmission of rotating motion is often done with shafts and
gears (Figure 4.15). When one or more shafts are connected with gears, the
shafts may turn at different speeds and in different directions.
Gears change Some machinery, such as small drills, require small forces at high speed.
force and speed Other machinery, such as mill wheels, require large forces at low speed. Since
they act like rotating levers, gears also allow the forces carried by different
shafts to be changed with the speed.
The relationship Gears are better than wheels because they have teeth and don’t slip as they
between gears and turn together. Two gears with their teeth engaged act like two touching wheels Figure 4.15: Gears are used to change
wheels with the same diameters as the pitch diameters of the gears (Figure 4.16). You the speeds of rotating shafts. By using
gears of different sizes, the shafts can be
can transmit much more force (without slipping) between two gears than you made to turn at different rates.
could with smooth wheels. Gears find application in a wide range of
machines, including everything from pocket watches to turbocharged engines.
How gears work The rule for how gears turn depends on the number of teeth in the gears.
Because the teeth don’t slip, moving 36 teeth on one gear means that 36 teeth
have to move on any connected gear. If one gear has 36 teeth it turns once to
move 36 teeth. If the connected gear has only 12 teeth, it has to turn 3 times to
move 36 teeth (3 ! 12 = 36).
What is the gear Like all machines, gears have input and output. The input gear is the one you
ratio? turn, or apply forces to. The output gear is the one that is connected to the
output of the machine. The gear ratio is the ratio of output turns to input turns.
Smaller gears turn faster, so the gear ratio is the inverse of the ratio of teeth in
two gears.

Figure 4.16: Gears act like touching

wheels, but with teeth to keep them from
slipping as they turn together.

4.3 Gears and Design

77
Chapter 4

Designing machines

How machines are Machines are designed to do specific things, such as carry passengers or
designed move earth around. To design a machine you need to know how each part
works, and how the parts work together to create a machine that does what
you want it to. You need the right parts and the right design to fit the job the
machine has to accomplish. A machine designed to do one task may not be
able to do another task effectively. A bus is a good machine for moving
passengers, but a poor machine for moving earth around. A bulldozer is
good for moving earth but poor for carrying passengers.
Simple and Simple machines can be combined to solve more complex problems. You
complex machines can use two pairs of gears with ratios of 2 to 1 to make a machine with a ratio
of 4 to 1. Figure 4.17 shows an example of a how you could make a ratio of
4 to 1 with 12-tooth and 24-tooth gears.
Figure 4.17: A machine that uses two
How to combine To design complex machines from simpler machines, you need to know how pairs of gears to make a larger ratio of turns.
simple machines each simple machine relates to the whole. For gears you need to know how
into complex the ratios from each pair of gears combine to make an overall ratio for the
machines whole machine. For the example in Figure 4.17, the two ratios of 2:1
multiply together to make the final ratio of 4:1. When combining two gear
machines, the total ratio for the machine is found by multiplying together the
ratios of turns for each pair of gears. This works because the two gears that
are stacked on the middle axle are connected so they turn together.
Design involves Combining gears to get higher speeds also affects the amount of force the
trade-offs machine creates. If you design a gear machine for higher output speed, you
will get less output force. Design often involves trading off improvements in
one area for costs in another area.
Even the best It is very rare that an invention works perfectly the first time. In fact,
designs are always machines go through a long history of building, testing, analyzing,
being improved redesigning, building, and testing again. Most practical machines such as the
automobile are never truly completed. There are always improvements that Figure 4.18: Many inventions are
can be added as technology gets better (Figure 4.18). The first cars had to be continually being redesigned and improved.
cranked by hand to start! Today’s cars start with the touch of a key.

78
 Chapter 4 Review

Chapter 4 Review

Vocabulary review
Match the following terms with the correct definition. There is one extra definition in the list that will not match any of the terms.

Set One Set Two

1. input force a. The force applied by a machine to accomplish 1. fulcrum a. The force applied to a machine to produce a
a task after an input force has been applied useful output force
2. machine b. A device that multiplies force 2. input arm b. The pivot point of a lever
3. mechanical system c. An unpowered mechanical device, such as a 3. lever c. The distance from the fulcrum to the point of
lever, that has an input and output force output force
4. output force d. The force applied to a machine 4. output arm d. The distance from the fulcrum to the point of
input force
5. simple machine e. A measurement used to describe changes in e. A simple machine that pivots around a fulcrum
events, motion, or position
f. An object with interrelated parts that work
together to accomplish a task

Set Three
1. engineering cycle a. A working model of a design
2. engineering b. A scientific field devoted to imagining what
machines will be used in the future
3. prototype c. Output force divided by input force
4. mechanical advantage d. A wheel with teeth that is used to change
direction and/or speed of rotating motion
5. gear e. The process used by engineers to develop new
technology
f. The application of science to solve problems

79
Chapter 4 Review

Concept review

1. Why is a car a good example of a mechanical system? Write a 11. The lever in the picture will:
short paragraph to explain your answer. a. stay balanced.
2. What does the phrase multiply forces mean? Include the terms b. rotate clockwise.
machine, input force, and output force in your answer.
c. rotate counterclockwise.
3. Compare and contrast the scientific method and the
engineering cycle.
12. The lever has a mass of 3
4. You are an inventor who wants to devise a new style of kilograms at 30 centimeters on
toothbrush. Describe what you would do at each phase of the the left, and a mass of 2
engineering cycle to invent this new toothbrush. kilograms at 30 centimeters on
5. Describe a problem that would have to be solved by an the right. What mass should be
engineer. Try to think of example problems you see in your hung at 10 centimeters (on the
school, home, city, or state. right) for the lever to be in
balance?
6. Describe an example of a new technology that you have seen
recently advertised or sold in stores. a. 1 kg c. 2.5 kg e. 10 kg
7. How would you set up a lever so that it has a mechanical b. 2 kg d. 3 kg
advantage greater than 1? Include the terms input arm, output
arm, and fulcrum in your answer. 13. How are force and distance related to how a lever works?
8. Draw diagrams that show a seesaw at equilibrium and at 14. Would you rather use a machine that has a mechanical
nonequilibrium. Include captions that describe each of your advantage of 1 or a machine that has a mechanical advantage
diagrams. Be sure to discuss forces and motion in your of more than 1? Explain your reasoning in your answer.
captions. 15. You have a kit of gears, which contains many gears with 12,
9. Why are levers considered to be simple machines? 24, and 36 teeth. Can you make a clock mechanism with a 12:1
gear ratio? Why or why not?
10. Which configuration is the best lever for lifting the rock?

80
 Chapter 4 Review

Problems
3. Use the input and output forces listed in the table below to
calculate the mechanical advantage.

Mechanical
Input Force Output Force
Advantage

10 newtons 100 newtons

30 N 30 N
500 N 1,350 N
625 N 200 N
1. Above is a data table with sample data for lifting (input) force
vs. the number of supporting strings in a block and tackle 4. One of the examples in the table in problem 3 has a very low
machine. Use the data to answer the following questions. mechanical advantage. Identify this example and explain why
you might or might not want to use this machine to lift
a. Describe the relationship between the lifting (input) force
something that weighs 200 newtons.
and the number of supporting strings in the pulley.
5. Does mechanical advantage have units? Explain your answer.
b. Make a graph that shows the relationship between lifting
(input) force and number of supporting strings. Which 6. If you lift a 200-newton box with a block and tackle machine
variable is dependent and which is independent? and you apply 20 newtons to lift this box, what would be the
mechanical advantage of the machine?
c. Calculate the mechanical advantage for each number of
supporting strings. 7. If a lever has an input arm that is 15 feet long and an output arm
that is 25 feet long, does the lever have mechanical advantage?
2. If you were going to use a pulley to lift a box that weighs 100
Why or why not?
newtons, how much force would you need to use if the pulley
had: 8. Betsy wants to use her own weight to lift a 350-pound box. She
weighs 120 pounds. Suggest input and output arm lengths that
a. 1 supporting string?
would allow Betsy to lift the box with a lever. Draw a lever and
b. 2 supporting strings? label the input and output arms with the lengths and forces.
c. 5 supporting strings?
d. 10 supporting strings?

81
Chapter 4 Review

! Applying your knowledge

1. Why is a ramp a simple machine? Describe how a ramp works
to multiply forces using your knowledge of simple machines.
2. You need a
wheelbarrow to
transport some soil
for your garden. The
one you have gives
you a mechanical
advantage of 3.5. If
you use 65 newtons
of force to lift the
wheelbarrow so that you can roll it, how much soil can you
carry with this wheelbarrow? Give the weight of the soil in
newtons and be sure to show your work.
3. The block and tackle
machine on a sailboat can
help a sailor raise her
mainsail. Without a machine, Your jaw works as a lever when you bite an apple. Your arm also
she needs 500 newtons of works as a lever, as do many of the bones in your body. Using the
force to raise the sail. If the diagrams above, answer the following questions by analyzing the
block and tackle gives her a changes in force and distance.
mechanical advantage of 5, 4. Using the distances shown, calculate and compare the
how much input force must mechanical advantage of the jaw and arm. Which is larger?
be applied to raise the sail?
5. Suppose the jaw and biceps muscles produce equal input forces
Be sure to show your work.
of 800N (178 lbs.). Calculate and compare the output forces in
biting (jaw) and lifting (arm). Which is larger?
6. Suppose you need an output force of 500N (112 lbs). Calculate
and compare the input forces of the jaw and biceps muscles
required to produce 500 N of output force. Explain how your
calculation relates to the relative size of the two muscles.

82
 2
Work and Energy Chapter 5
Introduction to Chapter 5 Work,
Energy
This chapter introduces the concept of work. Understanding the scientific meaning
of work leads to an understanding of energy. Once we understand energy, we can
look at both natural and human-made systems from the perspective of the flow and

and
transformation of energy from one form to another.

Investigations for Chapter 5

5.1 Work What happens when you multiply forces in a machine?
Nature gives nothing away for free. In this Investigation you will discover what you
Power
pay for making clever machines that multiply force. You will come to an interesting
conclusion about work and energy that is true for all machines.
5.2 Energy Conservation What is energy and how does it behave?

What happens to the speed of a marble as it rolls up and down hills? By making
measurements of height and speed, you will investigate one of the most important
laws in physics: the law of conservation of energy. By applying the concepts of
potential and kinetic energy, you will develop a theory for how objects move.
5.3 Energy Transformations Where did the energy go?

Our world runs on energy. Working with a group of students, you will analyze and
identify the energy transformations that occur in real-life situations. By charting the
flow of energy you will come to understand some of the interactions between
humans and their environment. This Investigation requires you not only to apply
what you have learned so far, but also to use your creativity and imagination.

83
Chapter 5: Power

Learning Goals

In this chapter, you will:

! Calculate the amount of work done by a simple machine.
! Use units of joules to measure the amount of work done.
! Analyze the effects of changing force or distance in a simple machine.
! Calculate the efficiency of a machine.
! Calculate power in machines.
! Discuss perpetual motion machines.

Vocabulary

chemical energy heat nuclear energy solar power

efficiency horsepower potential energy watt
electrical energy joule power work
energy kinetic energy radiant energy
energy transformations law of conservation of energy radiation

84
 Chapter 5

5.1 Work
When you arranged the string on the ropes and pulleys to pull with less force, you had to pull more
string to raise the weight. When you built a lever with a large advantage, you had to move the input arm
down a great distance while the output arm moved only a little. These details are clues to one of the
most powerful laws of physics. In this chapter, you will learn about work and energy and about a
fundamental rule that applies to all machines.

What is work?

The word work The word work is used in many different ways.
means many • You work on science problems.
different things • You go to work.
• Your toaster doesn’t work.
• Taking out the trash is too much work. Figure 5.1: One joule of work.
One joule = 1 newton-meter.
What work means In science, work has a very specific meaning. If you push a box with a force of
in physics one newton for a distance of one meter, you have done exactly one joule of work
(Figure 5.1). In physics, work is force times distance. When you see the word
work in a physics problem, it means force times distance.

To be exact, work is force times the distance moved in the direction of the force. A
force at an angle (Figure 5.2) is not as effective at doing work. Only the part of the Figure 5.2: Force (A) does 1 joule
force in the direction of the motion does work in the physics sense. of work if it moves the box one meter.
Only part of force (B) does work on
Machines do work When we apply force to machines we are doing work. For example, when a block the box since it is at an angle. None of
in the physics and tackle machine lifts a heavy weight, force is applied. As a result of the force, force (C) does work on the box
sense the weight moves a distance. Work has been done by the machine because force because it does not help move the box
was exerted over some distance. to the right at all.

5.1 Work
85
Chapter 5

Work done by a machine

Work is done by In physics, work is done by forces. When thinking about work you
forces on objects should always be clear about which force is doing the work. Work is
done on objects. If you push a block one meter with a force of one
newton, you have done one joule of work on the block. We need to keep Figure 5.3: You can think about any machine
careful track of where the work goes because later we will see that it may in terms of the work input and the work output.
be possible to get the work back.
Units of work The unit of measurement for work is the joule. One joule is equal to one
newton of force times one meter of distance. Joules are a combination
unit made of force (newtons) and distance (meters).
Input work and Just as we did for forces, we want to analyze machines in terms of work
output work input and work output (Figure 5.3). As an example, consider using the
block and tackle machine to lift a load weighing 10 newtons. Suppose
you lift the load a distance of 1/2 meter. Your machine has done five
joules of work on the load (Figure 5.4) so the work output is five joules.
What about the work input? You pulled on the string with a force of only
five newtons because your machine gave you an advantage of two. But
you had to pull the string twice as far as you lifted the block. The weight
moved up 1/2 meter, but you pulled one whole meter of string. The work
input is the force you apply times the distance you pulled the string. This
is five newtons times one meter, or five joules. The work input is the
same as the work output!

The work output of a simple machine can

never exceed the work input. Figure 5.4: The work input of the block and
tackle is the same as the work output. You get
mechanical advantage by trading force for
The example illustrates a rule that is true for all machines. You can never distance.
get more work out of a machine than you put into it. Nature does not
give something for nothing.When you design a machine that multiplies
force, you pay by having to apply the force over a greater distance.

86
 Chapter 5

Efficiency

What is an In a very efficient machine, all (or most) of the work input " A most efficient
efficient machine? becomes work output. In the block and tackle machine on the machine
previous page, all five joules of input work were transformed to The bicycle is the most
five joules of output work. This machine is 100 percent efficient, efficient machine ever
because all input work became output work and none was lost. invented for turning the
How friction In real machines, the work output is always less than the work work of human muscles into motion. Its
efficiency is more than 95 percent.
affects real input. Other forces, like friction, use up some of the input work
machines before it reaches the output of the machine. For example, a wheel The need for simple, efficient
turning on an axle can get very hot. When the wheel gets hot, it machines for traveling inspired
many inventions that led to
means some of the input work is being converted to heat. The
today’s bicycle. In the mid-
work output is reduced by the work that is converted to heat. 1800s, a very shaky ride could
The definition of Efficiency is the ratio of work output to work input and it is be achieved with the “bone
efficiency usually expressed as a percent. A machine that is 75 percent shaker,” which had a huge front wheel. The
efficient produces three joules of output work for every four big wheel allowed the rider to travel farther
with one push of the pedals, but it was not
joules of input work. One joule out of every four (25 percent) is
always safe!
lost to friction. Efficiency is calculated by dividing the work
output by the work input, and multiplying by 100 to get a percent. James Starley (1830-1881) of the Coventry
Sewing Machine Company in Britain is
credited with building the first modern two-
wheel bicycle in 1885. The derailleur, which
is the heart of a modern multispeed bike, was
invented by the Italian bicycle racer Tullio
Campagnolo in 1933.
The bicycle also figured into another important
invention: the airplane. Wilbur and Orville
Wright were bicycle mechanics and inventors.
They used their expertise in racing and
The ideal machine Even though friction always lowers efficiency, engineers strive to building lightweight bicycles to create the first
design machines to be ideal—as close to 100 percent as possible. successful powered airplane in 1903.
Is the human body an ideal machine? Unfortunately, at under
8 percent efficiency, the human body is not an ideal machine!

5.1 Work
87
Chapter 5

Power Example:

How fast the work It makes a difference how fast you do work. Suppose you drag a box with a force
is done of 100 newtons for 10 meters, and it takes you 10 seconds. You have done 1,000
joules of work. Suppose your friend drags a similar box but takes 60 seconds. You
both do the same amount of work because the force and distance are the same. But
something is different. You did the work in 10 seconds and your friend took six
times longer.

You can lift your own weight

(500 newtons) up a staircase that is
5 meters high in 30 seconds.
a) How much power do you use?
b) How does your power compare with
a 100-watt light bulb?

Solution:
What is power? The rate at which work is done is called power. You and your friend did the same (1) You are asked for power.
amount of work, but you used six times more power because you did the work six (2) You know force, distance, and
times faster. You can determine the power of a machine by dividing the amount of time.
work done by the time it takes in seconds. A more powerful machine does the (3) Relationships that apply:
same amount of work in less time than a less powerful machine. W = Fd P = W/t
(4) Solve for power.
P = Fd/t
(5) Plug in numbers. Remember:
1 joule = 1 N·m
1 watt = 1 N·m/sec
The units of The unit of power is called the watt, named after James Watt (1736-1819), the P = (500 N) x (5 m) / 30 sec
power Scottish engineer and inventor of the steam engine. One watt is equal to one joule Answers:
of work done in one second. Another unit of power commonly used is the (a) 2500 N-m/30 sec = 83 watts
horsepower. One horsepower is equal to 746 watts. As you might have guessed, (b) This is less power than a 100-watt
light bulb. Most human activities use
one horsepower was originally the average power output of a horse.
less power than a light bulb.

88
 Chapter 5

Efficiency in natural systems

The meaning of Energy drives all the processes

efficiency in nature, from winds in the
atmosphere to nuclear reactions
occurring in the cores of stars.
In the environment, efficiency
is interpreted as the fraction of
incoming energy that goes into
a process. For example, Earth Figure 5.5: Dust and clouds
receives energy from the sun. reflect light back into space,
decreasing the efficiency with
Earth absorbs this sunlight
which Earth absorbs energy from the
energy with an average sun.
efficiency of 78 percent. The
energy that is not absorbed is
reflected back into space.
The importance of Earth’s efficiency at absorbing solar energy is critical to living things. If the
solar efficiency efficiency decreased by a few percent, Earth’s surface would become too cold for
life. Some scientists believe that many volcanic eruptions or nuclear war could
decrease the absorption efficiency by spreading dust in the atmosphere. Dust
reflects solar energy (Figure 5.5). On the other hand, if the efficiency increased by
a few percent, it would get too hot to sustain life. Too much carbon dioxide in the
atmosphere increases absorption efficiency (Figure 5.6). Scientists are concerned
that the average annual temperature of Earth has already warmed 1°C degree since
the 1880s as a result of carbon dioxide released by human technology. Figure 5.6: Carbon dioxide and
other greenhouse gases in the
Efficiencies In any system, all of the energy goes somewhere. Another way to say this is that atmosphere absorb some energy that
always add up energy is conserved. You will learn more about energy conservation in the next otherwise would have been radiated
to 100% chapter. For example, rivers flow downhill. Most of the potential energy lost by back into space. This increases the
water moving downhill becomes kinetic energy in motion of the water. Erosion efficiency with which Earth absorbs
takes some of the energy and slowly changes the land by wearing away rocks and energy from the sun.
dirt. Friction takes some of the energy and heats up the water. If you could add up
the efficiencies for every single process in which water is involved, that total
would be 100 percent.

5.1 Work
89
Chapter 5

Energy conservation and efficiency in biological systems

Calories in food People and animals eat to obtain energy. Food energy is measured in kilocalories
(or Calories—with a capital C—on food labels). A kilocalorie equals 4,187 joules.
A pint of ice cream represents 800,000 joules of energy! One joule is the work
equivalent to lifting the pint of ice cream 21 centimeters (Figure 5.7).
Efficiency is low Human beings and all biological systems follow the law of conservation of energy.
for living things Briefly, this law means that food energy (energy input) always equals energy
output. However, in terms of output work, energy efficiency of living things is
very low. Almost all the energy in consumed food becomes heat and waste
products; very little becomes physical work. This work includes the energy is
takes to read this book and think!
Estimating the To estimate efficiency, consider a person climbing a 1,000-meter high mountain. Figure 5.7: Food contains a huge
amount of energy compared with
efficiency of For a person with a mass of 70 kilograms, the increase in potential energy is typical work output.
a human 686,000 joules. The potential energy comes from work done by muscles. A human
body doing strenuous exercise uses about 660 kilocalories per hour. It takes about
three hours to climb the mountain, during which time the body uses 1,980
kilocalories (8,300,000 J). The energy efficiency is about 8 percent (Figure 5.8).
Baseline However, the overall energy efficiency for a person is lower than 8 percent. An
metabolic rate average person uses 55-75 kilocalories per hour when sitting still. The rate at
which your body uses energy while at rest is called your baseline metabolic rate
(or BMR). During a 24-hour period, a person with a BMR of 65 kcal/hr uses 1,536
kilocalories, or 6,430,000 joules. Even if you did the equivalent work of climbing
a 1,000- meter mountain every day, your average efficiency is only 4.6 percent.
Efficiency of Photosynthesis in plants takes input energy from sunlight and creates sugar, a form
plants of chemical energy. The output of a plant is the energy stored in sugar, which can
be eaten by animals. The efficiency of photosynthesis under optimal conditions is Figure 5.8: A 70-kilogram hiker
about 26 percent, meaning 26 percent of solar energy absorbed by a leaf becomes gains 686,000 joules of potential
stored chemical energy. However, under normal growing conditions plants absorb energy climbing a 1,000-meter
sunlight poorly and are much less efficient—usually less than 1 percent. mountain.

90
 Chapter 5

5.2 Energy Conservation

In this unit you will learn about energy. Energy is one of the fundamental building blocks of our
universe. Energy appears in different forms, such as motion and heat. Energy can travel in different
ways, such as light, sound, or electricity. The workings of the universe (including all of our technology)
can be viewed from the perspective of energy flowing from one place to another and changing back and
forth from one form to another.

What is energy?

The definition of Energy is the ability to do work. That means anything with energy can produce a
energy force that is capable of acting over a distance. The force can be any force, and it
can come from many different sources, such as your hand, the wind, or a spring.

Energy is the ability to do work. Any object that

has energy has the ability to create force.
• A moving ball has energy because it can create forces on whatever tries to stop
it or slow it down.
• A sled at the top of a hill has energy because it can go down the hill and
produce forces as it goes.
• The moving wind has energy because it can create forces on any object in its
path.
Figure 5.9: Energy appears in
• Electricity has energy because it can turn a motor to make forces. many different forms.
• Gasoline has energy because it can be burned in an engine to make force to
move a car.
• You have energy because you can create forces.
Units of energy Energy is measured in joules, the same units as work. That is because energy is
really stored work. Any object with energy has the ability to use its energy to do
work, which means creating a force that acts over a distance.

5.2 Energy Conservation

91
Chapter 5

Potential energy

What is potential The first type of energy we will explore is called potential energy. Potential
energy? energy comes from the position of an object relative to Earth. Consider a marble
that is lifted off the table (Figure 5.10). Since Earth’s gravity pulls the marble
down, we must apply a force to lift it up. Applying a force over a distance requires
doing work, which gets stored as the potential energy of the marble. Potential
energy of this kind comes from the presence of gravity. Figure 5.10: The potential energy
of a marble is equal to its mass times
Where does How much energy does the marble have? The answer comes from our analysis of
gravity (9.8 m/sec2) times the height
potential energy machines from the last section. It takes work to lift the marble up. Energy is stored of the marble above the surface.
come from? work, so the amount of energy must be the same as the amount of work done to lift
the marble up.
How to calculate We can find an exact equation for the potential energy. The force required to lift
potential energy the marble is the weight of the marble. From Newton’s second law we know that
the weight (the force) is equal to mass of the marble (m, in kilograms) times the
acceleration of gravity (g, equal to 9.8 m/sec2). We also know that work is equal to
force times distance. Since force is the weight of the marble (mg) and the distance
is how far we lift the marble (h), the work done equals weight times height.
Example:
You need to put a 1-kilogram mass
that is on the floor, away on a shelf
that is 3 meters high. How much
energy does this require?
Solution:
(1) You are asked for the potential
energy.
(2) You know the mass and height.
(3) The equation for potential energy
is Ep = mgh.
(4) The equation is already in the
Why is it called Objects that have potential energy don’t use their energy until they move. That’s right form.
potential energy? why it is called potential energy. Potential means that something is capable of (5) Plug in numbers. Remember: 1 N = 1
becoming active. Any object that can move to a lower place has the potential to do kg·m/sec2, and 1 joule = 1 N·m.
work on the way down, such as a ball rolling down a hill. Ep = (1 kg) x (9.8 m/sec2) x (3 m)
= 29.4 joules

92
 Chapter 5

Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy is Objects also store energy in motion. A moving mass can certainly exert forces, as
energy of motion you would quickly observe if someone ran into you in the hall. Energy of motion
is called kinetic energy.
Kinetic energy We need to know how much kinetic energy a moving object has. Consider a
increases with shopping cart moving with a speed v. To make the cart move faster you need to
speed apply a force to it (Figure 5.11). Applying a force means you do some work, which
is stored as energy. The higher the speed of the cart, the more energy it has
because you have to do work to increase the speed.
Kinetic energy If you give the cart more mass, you have to push it with more force to reach the
increases with same speed. Again, more force means more work. Increasing the mass increases
mass the amount of work you have to do to get the cart moving, so it also increases the
energy. Kinetic energy depends on two things: mass and speed.
The formula for To get an equation for kinetic energy, we would look at work, just like we did for
kinetic energy potential energy. The energy is equal to the amount of work you have to do to get
a mass (m) from rest up to speed (v). The amount of work you need can be
calculated from the formula for kinetic energy.

Kinetic energy The kinetic energy increases as the square of the speed. This means if you go
increases as the twice as fast, your energy increases by four times (22 = 4). If your speed is three
square of the times higher, your energy is nine times bigger (32 = 9). More energy means more Figure 5.11: Kinetic energy
speed force is needed to stop, which is why driving fast is so dangerous. Going 60 mph, depends on two things: mass and
a car has four times as much kinetic energy as it does at 30 mph. At a speed of speed. The amount of kinetic energy
the cart has is equal to the amount of
90 mph you have nine times as much energy as you did at 30 mph. work you do to get the cart moving.

5.2 Energy Conservation

93
Chapter 5

Conservation of energy

The law of Nature never creates or destroys energy; energy only gets converted from one
conservation of form to another. This concept is called the law of conservation of energy. The rule
energy we found for the input and output work of a machine was an example of the law of
conservation of energy.

Energy can never be created or destroyed, just

transformed from one form into another
An example of What happens if you throw a ball straight up in the air? The ball leaves your hand
energy with kinetic energy from the speed you give it when you let go. As the ball goes
transformation higher, it gains potential energy. The potential energy gained can only come from
the kinetic energy the ball had at the start, so the ball slows down as it gets higher.
Eventually, all the kinetic energy has been converted to potential energy. At this
point the ball has reached as high as it will go and its upward speed has been
reduced to zero.
The ball falls back down again and gets faster and faster as it gets closer to the
ground. The gain in speed comes from the potential energy being converted back
to kinetic energy. If there were no friction the ball would return to your hand with
exactly the same speed it started with—except in the opposite direction
(Figure 5.12)! Figure 5.12: When you throw a
ball in the air, its energy transforms
The total energy At any moment in its flight, the ball has exactly the same energy it had at the start. from kinetic to potential and back to
never exceeds the The energy is divided between potential and kinetic, but the total is unchanged. In kinetic.
starting energy fact, we can calculate exactly how high the ball will go if we know the mass and
speed we have at the beginning.
Friction can divert The law of conservation of energy still holds true, even when there is friction.
some energy Some of the energy is converted to heat or wearing away of material. The energy
converted to heat or wear is no longer available to be potential energy or kinetic
energy, but it was not destroyed.

94
 Chapter 5

5.3 Energy Transformations

In the last section, you investigated how energy is changed from one form to another.
You discovered that kinetic and potential energy change back and forth with the total
amount of energy staying constant. In this section, you will apply what you learned
to a wide variety of real-life situations involving other kinds of energy
transformations.

Following an energy transformation

The different Kinetic energy and potential energy are only two of the forms
kinds of energy energy can take. Sometimes these two forms are called Figure 5.13: Anything you do involves transforming
energy from one kind to another. Exercise transforms
mechanical energy because they involve moving things. There chemical energy from food into kinetic and potential energy.
are many other kinds of energy, including radiant energy,
electrical energy, chemical energy and nuclear energy. Just as
you saw with kinetic and potential, any of these forms of
energy can be transformed into each other and back again.
Every day of your life, you experience multiple energy
transformations (Figure 5.13) whether you know it or not!
An example of For example, suppose you are skating and come up to a steep
energy hill. You know skating up the hill requires energy. From your
transformation mass and the height of the hill you can calculate how much
more potential energy you will have on the top (Figure 5.14).
You need at least this much energy, plus some additional energy
to overcome friction.
Chemical energy The energy you use to climb the hill comes from food. The
to potential energy chemical potential energy stored in the food you ate is
converted into simple sugars. These sugars are burned as your
muscles work against external forces to climb the hill—in this Figure 5.14: At the top of the hill you have gained
case, the external force is gravity. In climbing the hill you 58,800 joules of potential energy. This energy originally
convert some chemical energy to potential energy. started as chemical energy in food.

5.3 Energy Transformations

95
Chapter 5

Where does Upon reaching the top of the hill, you will probably feel like you
“spent” energy “spent” a lot of energy. Where did the energy you spent climbing the
go? steep hill go? Some of the energy you spent is now stored as potential
energy because your position is higher than when you began. Some of
the energy was also converted by your body into heat, chemical
changes in muscles, and the evaporation of sweat from your skin. Can
you think of any other places the energy might have gone?
How does Once you get over the top of the hill and start to coast down the other
potential energy side, your speed increases. An increase in speed implies an increase in
get used? kinetic energy. Where does all this kinetic energy come from? The
answer is that it comes from the potential energy that increased while
you were climbing up the hill. Energy was saved and used to
“purchase” greater speed as you descend down the other side of the hill.
Kinetic energy is If you are not careful, stored up potential energy can generate too much
used up in the speed! Assuming you want to make it down the hill with no injuries,
brakes some of the kinetic energy must change into some other form. Brakes Figure 5.15: On the way down, your potential
on your skates slow you down and use up the extra kinetic energy. energy is converted to kinetic energy and you pick
up speed. In real life not all the potential energy
Brakes convert kinetic energy into heat and the wearing away of the would become kinetic energy. Air friction would use
brake pads. some and you would use your brakes
As you slow to a stop at the bottom of the hill, you should notice that
your brakes are very hot, and some of the rubber is worn away. This
means that some of the energy from the food you ate for lunch ended up
heating your brake pads and wearing them away!
The flow of During the trip up and down the hill, energy flowed through many
energy forms. Starting with chemical energy, some energy appeared in the
form of potential energy, kinetic energy, heat, air friction, sound,
evaporation, and more. During all these transformations no energy was
lost because energy can never be created or destroyed. All the energy
you started with went somewhere. Figure 5.16: A few of the forms the energy goes
through during the skating trip.

96
 Chapter 5

Other forms of energy Example:

A water-powered turbine makes electricity from the
Energy: nature’s One way to understand energy is to think of it as nature’s money. It is energy of falling water. The diagram shows a turbine
money spent and saved in a number of different ways any time you want to do where 100 kg of water falls every second from a
height of 20 meters.
something. You can use energy to buy speed, height, temperature,
(a) 100 kg of water 20 meters high has how much
mass, and other things. But you have to have some energy to start with, potential energy?
and what you spend diminishes what you have left. (b) How much power in watts could you get out of
Mechanical Mechanical energy is the energy possessed by an object due to its the turbine if it was perfectly efficient?
energy motion or its stored energy of position. Mechanical energy can be
either kinetic (energy of motion) or potential (energy of position). An
object that possesses mechanical energy is able to do work. Mechanical
energy is the form involved in the operation of the simple machines
you have studied in this unit.
Radiant energy Radiant (meaning light) energy is also known as electromagnetic
energy. Light is made up of waves called electromagnetic waves (Unit
5). There are many different types of electromagnetic waves, including
the light we see, ultraviolet light, X rays, infrared radiation (also Solution: Part a
known as heat – that’s how you feel the heat from a fire), radio waves, (1) You are asked for potential energy.
microwaves, and radar. (2) You are given mass (100 kg) and height (20 m).
(3) The relationship you need is Ep = mgh.
(4) Plug in numbers:
Ep = (100 kg) x (9.8 m/sec2) x (20 m)
= 19,600 joules
Solution: Part b
(1) You are asked for power.
(2) You know energy (19,600 J) and time (1 sec).
Energy from Radiant heat from the sun is what keeps the Earth warm. The sun’s
(3) The relationship you need is P = W/t.
the sun energy falls on the Earth at a rate of about 1,400 watts for each square
(4) Plug in numbers:
meter of surface area. Not all of this energy reaches the Earth's surface
P = 19,600 J / 1 sec
though; even on a clear day, about one-fourth of the energy is absorbed = 19,600 watts
by the Earth’s atmosphere. When we use the radiant energy from the This is enough energy for nearly 200 light bulbs if
sun, it is called solar power. each bulb uses 100 watts.

5.3 Energy Transformations

97
Chapter 5

Electrical energy Electrical energy is something we take for granted whenever we plug an appliance
into an outlet. The electrical energy we use in our daily lives is actually derived
from other sources of energy. For example, in a natural gas power plant the energy
starts as chemical energy in the gas. The gas is burned, releasing heat energy. The
heat energy is used to make high-pressure steam. The steam turns a turbine which
transforms the heat energy to mechanical energy. Finally, the turbine turns an
electric generator, producing electrical energy.
Chemical energy Chemical energy is the type of energy stored in molecules. Chemical reactions can
either absorb or release chemical energy. One example of chemical energy is a
battery. The chemical energy stored in batteries changes to electrical energy when
you connect wires and a light bulb. Your body also uses chemical energy when it
converts food into energy so that you can walk or run or think. All the fossil fuels
we depend on (coal, oil, gas) are useful because they contain chemical energy we
can easily release.
Nuclear energy Nuclear energy comes from splitting an atom, or fusing two atoms together. When
an atom is split or fused, a huge amount of energy is released. Nuclear energy is
used to generate or make electricity in power plants. A new kind of
environmentally safe nuclear power (fusion) is the focus of a worldwide research
program. If we could extract the fusion energy from a single teaspoon of water, it
would be the equivalent of 55 barrels of oil. Nuclear energy is really the basic
source for all other energy forms because it is how the sun and stars make energy.
The chemical energy in fossil fuels comes from sunlight that was absorbed by
plants millions of years ago. Nuclear energy is also used in medicine to treat
cancer and other diseases.
Thermal energy Heat is a form of thermal energy. When
you design a heating system for a
house, you need to specify how much Figure 5.17: Power plants
heat energy you need. Heating convert chemical energy, mechanical
energy, and heat into electrical
contractors measure heat using the energy.
British thermal unit (Btu). One Btu is
the same amount of energy as 1,055
joules.

98
 Chapter 5

Energy and running

Speed versus endurance
Humans have high You know that you cannot run as fast a dog or many other animals, like the
The top speed of a cheetah is
endurance cheetah. Human beings get tired and have to rest after running fast. However, 30 m/sec and the top speed of
although humans are not the best sprinters on the planet, they are the best runners a human being is 10 m/sec. A
in terms of endurance. Scientists are learning that the human body is ideal for human cannot outrun a
running long distances. cheetah over a short distance.
However, a human being
Heat production Machines, including the human body, are not 100% efficient because some of the
could win a long distance
energy input is always lost as heat. Car engines and computers all produce heat race. Because the furry body
that can cause damage unless it is removed. This is why cars have radiators and of a cheetah does not
computers have fans. effectively release heat, it gets
Humans keep cool The human body works a little like a radiator by directing blood toward the skin overheated quickly and is
exhausted after a high-speed
surface. Blood flowing near the surface can lose some heat to the relatively cooler
sprint. Humans, on the other
air. A more effective way of removing heat is sweating. As sweat leaves the body, hand, constantly release heat
it evaporates from the skin and carries away heat. This one mechanism— from the skin surface by
sweating—makes is possible for human beings to run for long periods of time. sweating and have greater
Humans can continuously cool down while performing strenuous exercise like endurance as a result.
running. Animals with fur, like cheetahs, quickly get overheated and need to rest
(see sidebar at right). Scientists believe that sweating has allowed mankind to be
successful at hunting large game throughout human history.
Energy The Achilles’ tendon is a good example of energy conversion between kinetic and
conservation and potential energy (Figure 5.18). When the heel is down, the Achilles’ tendon
the Achilles’ stretches like a rubber band and potential energy is stored. Let’s say 100 units of
tendon energy are stored. As the foot moves through the running stride, the tendon
shortens and pulls up the heel using about 90 units of this stored energy. In effect,
the energy transformation by the Achilles tendon and the associated muscles in the
foot is 90 percent. Only 10 percent of the stored energy is lost as heat!
Human energy The high energy efficiency of the Achilles tendon helps make humans about 20 to
efficiency 25 percent efficient while running. The energy efficiency of top cyclists is about
25 percent. The efficiency of rowers is about 15 percent and swimmers are 3 to
Figure 5.18: The Achilles tendon
9 percent. Twenty-five percent efficiency means that for every 100 units of energy illustrates energy conversion.
eaten, 25 are used for moving forward and 75 are “lost” as heat and friction.

5.3 Energy Transformations

99
Chapter 5

Energy and swimming

Running versus The higher energy efficiency of humans while running (20 to 25 percent) versus
swimming swimming (about 3 to 9 percent) indicates that human beings are better adapted
for running than for swimming. This is illustrated by the fact that we do not have
relatively large hands and feet. Having paddle-like hands would be useful for
swimming efficiently, but the extra mass in our hands would throw off our balance
for running. Having most of our mass located in our torso keeps us balanced.
Ways to improve In spite of being inefficient swimmers, people still like to swim and improve their
swimming ability to swim. Efficiency in swimming can be improved by reducing any Figure 5.19: Scuba divers
improve their energy efficiency while
efficiency splashing that occurs while swimming. Swimming quietly without splashing swimming by using big fins to move
means that more energy is devoted to moving forward and not lost to produce more water. Having higher energy
waves. Swimmers also improve their efficiency by working on the amount of efficiency while swimming, means the
distance they cover with one stroke. For example, the most elite swimmers can diver has more energy for other
swim 50 meters in about 25 strokes, whereas an average swimmer uses about 75 activities like exploring!
strokes to cover 50 meters.
Fins make The relative smallness of the hands and feet makes it harder for humans to be
swimming more efficient and fast swimmers. In order to improve swimming efficiency while scuba
efficient diving, divers wear large fins on their feet (Figure 5.19). These fins help divers
push a greater mass of water than is possible with bare feet. Pushing more water
means that a scuba diver can travel a farther distance with less energy expended.
Conservation of Moving water away from you so that you can swim forward is an example of
momentum and Newton’s third law of motion (action and reaction). You can also think about
swimming swimming in terms of the law of conservation of momentum. For example, you Figure 5.20: According to the law
and your mass must equal the mass of the water moving backward and the speed of conservation of momentum, the
at which the water moves backward. It is actually more energy efficient to move a forward momentum of the swimmer
equals the backward momentum of
large amount of water slowly than a small amount of water fast. This is because
water pushed by the swimmer.
you want to reduce the amount of energy you give to the water. The formula for Swimming efficiency can be increased
kinetic energy is 1/2 mv2. Since the value for velocity (v) is squared, you lose more if the amount of energy lost to the
energy to the water if you try to move it very fast. If you move a large mass (m) of water is decreased. The way to do this
water slowly, you lose less energy to the water (Figure 5.20). is to move more water (more mass)
slowly.

100
 Chapter 5 Review

Chapter 5 Review

Vocabulary review
Match the following terms with the correct definition. There is one extra definition in the list that will not match any of the terms.

Set One Set Two

1. energy a. The ability to do work 1. efficiency a. Force times distance
2. joule b. The combined units of force and distance used 2. perpetual motion b. The amount of work performed over time
to quantify work machine
3. law of conservation of c. One newton-meter is equal to one of these 3. power c. One joule of work performed in 1 second
energy
4. newton-meter d. Energy is never created or destroyed 4. watt d. An imaginary machine that can be 100 percent
efficient
5. work e. The amount of work that can be done by an e. The ratio of work output to work input
object is equal to the energy available in the
object
f. Force times distance

101
Chapter 5 Review

Concept review

1. Why is it correct to say that energy is conserved in a machine? 5. The following diagram shows a cart rolling along a hilly road.
Ignore the effect of friction. Arrange the five locations in order
2. In your own words, explain the relationship between work and
of increasing potential and kinetic energy.
energy.
3. You want to prove the law of conservation of energy to a
friend. For your demonstration you show that you can use a
block and pulley machine to lift 100 newtons with only 20
newtons of input force. What would you say to your friend to
explain how this is possible?
4. You have a machine that tells you exactly how much work in
joules is put into a machine and how much work was produced.
The readings that you just received from the machine state that
the input work was 345 joules and the output work was 330
joules. The law of conservation of energy states that input
should equal output. How can you explain the “lost” 15 joules?

Problems

1. Calculate work using the following values for force and 3. For each statement, write W if work is being done and NW if
distance. Give your answers in joules. no work is being accomplished.
a. 12 newtons lifted 5 meters a. I carried my books upstairs to my bedroom.
b. 3 newtons pushed 3 meters b. The wind blew the lawn chair across the yard.
c. 400 newtons dragged 10 meters c. The wall in my classroom won’t budge no matter how
much I push on it.
d. 7.5 newtons lifted 18.4 meters
d. I blew some dust off my paper.
2. How many joules of work are done if you carry a box that
weighs 28 newtons up a ladder for a distance of 2 meters? e. I stood very still and balanced a book on my head.

102
 Chapter 5 Review

4. Which requires more work, lifting a 15-newton load a distance 10. You attach a motor to a block and tackle machine.
of 3 meters with a block and tackle, or lifting a 7-newton load a After using it, you find that you want a more powerful motor.
distance of 10 meters with the same block and tackle machine? You purchase one that has twice the power of the old motor.
Be sure to show your work and explain your answer clearly.
5. A block and tackle machine performed 30 joules of work on a
15-newton block. How high did the machine lift the block?

a. How much bigger a load can the new motor lift in the same
amount of time?
b. If the new motor lifts the same load as the old motor, how
6. At the end of the ride up a steep hill, Ken was at an elevation of much faster can it go?
1,600 meters above where he started. He figured out that he and
his bicycle had accomplished 1,000,000 joules of work. If Ken 11. A motor pushes a car with a force of 35 newtons for a distance
has a mass of 54 kg, what is the mass of his bicycle? of 350 meters in 6 seconds.
(Note: g = 9.8 m/sec2.) a. How much work has the motor accomplished?
7. If a block and tackle machine has a mechanical advantage of 2, b. How powerful is the motor in watts?
you can use 20 newtons of force to lift a 40-newton load. If you 12. How much power is required to do 55 joules of work in 55
lift the block 1 meter, what length of rope do you have to pull? seconds?
8. A machine has a work output of 45 joules. In order to 13. The manufacturer of a machine said that it is 86 percent
accomplish the work, 48 joules of work was put into the efficient. If you use 70 joules to run the machine (input work),
machine. What is the efficiency of this machine? Be sure to give how much output work will it produce?
your answer as a percentage.
14. A machine is 72 percent efficient. If it produces 150 joules of
9. One machine can perform 280 joules of work in 40 seconds. work output, how much work was put into the machine?
Another machine can produce 420 joules of work in 2 minutes.
Which machine is more powerful? Justify your answer by
calculating the amount of power in watts each machine
produces.

103
Chapter 5 Review

! Applying your knowledge

1. A car is about 15 percent efficient at converting energy from 5. Make a chart that shows the flow of energy in the situation
gas to energy of motion. The average car today gets 25 miles described below. In your chart, use some of the key concepts
for each gallon of gas. you learned, including potential energy and kinetic energy.
a. What would the gas mileage be if the car could be made
100 percent efficient?
b. Name three things that contribute to lost energy and
prevent a car from ever being 100 percent efficient.
2. Why, according to the laws of physics, is it impossible to build
a perpetual motion machine?
3. Research question: Investigate light bulb wattage and describe
what watts mean in terms of power and work.
4. Imagine we had to go back to using horses for power. One
horse makes 746 watts (1 hp). How many horses would it take Martha wakes up at 5:30 am and eats a bowl of corn flakes. It’s
to light up all the light bulbs in your school? a nice day, so she decides to ride her bicycle to work, which is
a. First, estimate how many light bulbs are in your school. uphill from her house. It is still dark outside. Martha’s bike has
a small electric generator that runs from the front wheel. She
b. Estimate the power of each light bulb, or get it from the
flips on the generator so that her headlight comes on when she
bulb itself where it is written on the top.
starts to pedal. She then rides her bike to work. Draw a diagram
c. Calculate the total power used by all the bulbs. that shows the energy transformations that occur in this
d. Calculate how many horses it would take to make this situation.
much power.

104