1

Unit 21

Biotechnology and genetic modification

Unit 21.1 Microorganisms and biotechnology

Biotechnology is the use of microorganisms such as bacteria and fungi to make

products that are useful to humans.

Why bacteria and single-celled fungi are useful in biotechnology food industry. (or)
Bacteria are useful to genetic engineering

• reproduce very quickly

• presence of plasmids
• do not take up much space
• ability to make complex molecules
• the product is very pure.
• the product can be made large quantities
• less expensive and more readily available.
• the process can be switched on and off easily as the bacteria can be
stored until needed again

Examples of enzymes that are produced by bacteria for use in the food industry are:

• amylase for breaking down starch in the production of glucose syrup.

• pectinase for extracting juice from fruit
• sucrase for breaking down sucrose in making confectionery (glucose and
fructose)
• protease for making meat more tender.
How is plasmid important in biotechnology?
• Plasmids are easy to work with because they can replicate very quickly.
• Plasmids can be cut open by enzymes and a gene from another organism
can be spliced into them.
• In nutrient media, the bacteria multiply rapidly, making many copies of the
plasmid.
2

Fermentation

Fermentation meant any anaerobic respiration process involving microorganisms,

such as the fermentation of sugars by yeast.

Making alcoholic drinks –

Making wine is made by using yeast to ferment sugars in grape juice. Commercial
wine production takes place in large containers called vats which prevent air
reaching the wine and ensure conditions remain anaerobic. The alcohol increases in
concentration until it kills the yeast cells, at which point fermentation stops.]

[Making beer – the first stage in making beer is to get barley seeds to germinate by
placing them in warm, moist conditions. When they start to germinate they produce
the enzymes amylase which breaks down starch into the sugar maltose. Later, the
maltose from the seeds is fermented by yeast in a large open vat.]

Making bread –Wheat flour and water are mixed together and yeast added,
forming the bread dough. Amylase enzymes from the wheat break down starch to
maltose, which are respired by the yeast.

In bread-making, the yeast begins by respiring aerobically, producing water and

carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide makes the dough rise. When the air runs out, the
yeast begins to respire anaerobically making ethanol (alcohol) and more carbon
dioxide.

Later, when the dough is baked in the oven, the gas bubbles expand. Baking also
kills the yeast cells and evaporates any ethanol from the fermentation.

Making fruit juice – Pectinases are enzymes that is used to extract fruit juice by
breaking down the pectin in the cell walls in fruits such as apple. Pectinases are
used for extracting fruit juice and for softening vegetables.

Making yoghurt – yoghurt is milk that has been fermented by lactic acid bacteria.

-To make yoghurt, milk is first pasteurized at 85-95°C for 15 to 30 minutes to kill any
natural bacteria.
-The milk is then cooled to 40-45°C and add the lactic acid bacteria (Lactobacillus
bulgaricus and Streptococcus thermophilis)into the fermenter.
 3

Lactobacillus bulgaricus breaks down proteins into short chains of amino acids.

Streptococcus thermophilus uses the chains of amino acids to make formic acid.

L. bulgaricus then uses lactose and formic acid to make lactic acid.

- The culture is kept at this temperature for several hours while the pH falls to about
4.4 (Optimum pH for bacteria).
- The mixture coagulates (thickens) at the drops of pH causes the milk proteins turns
into semi-solids.

Mycoprotein – is produced by fungus called Fusarium. The fungus is supplied with

oxygen, glucose, mineral salts and ammonia for the fungus to make amino acids.
The fermenter is kept at 30°C. The hyphae are processed to give a meat like
texture. Flavourings are added so it can be made into a variety of products, such as
burgers, sausages, and pies.

Q: The production of yoghurt involves the fermentation of milk by two types of

bacteria that use the protein and sugar (lactose) in milk.

Lactobacillus bulgaricus breaks down proteins into short chains of amino acids.

Streptococcus thermophilus uses the chains of amino acids to make formic acid.

L. bulgaricus then uses lactose and formic acid to make lactic acid.

The flow diagram in Fig. 3.1 shows the production process.

4

Milk at pH 7 is sterilized (85˚C-95 ˚C)

˚C

Two types of bacteria are added

The bacteria are mixed with the milk

and then incubated at 45˚C

The bacteria use proteins and lactose in the

milk producing formic acid and lactic acid

Lactic acid clots the milk proteins to

thicken the yoghurt

Production stops when

the pH reaches 4.3

(i) Explain why the milk is sterilised at the start of the process. [2]

(ii) Explain why the bacteria are incubated at 45 °C. [2]

(iii) State and explain what happen to the populations of the bacteria during
the yoghurt-making process. [5]
5

(iv) Explain why yoghurt cannot be made by using only one of the types of
bacteria. [2]

(iv) At the end of the fermentation, food additives may be added to the
yoghurt.

State three types of food additive that may be used in producing yoghurt.

1 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………

2 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….

3 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………..[3]

Microorganisms and Genetic engineering

Genetic engineering – is the transfer of a gene from the DNA of one species to
the DNA of another species.

Recombinant DNA/ plasmid – DNA from one organism is being transferred to

the DNA/plasmid of another organism to make a new combination of
DNA/plasmid is called recombinant DNA./plasmid

Enzymes that are chemical scissor and glue –

Restriction endonuclease enzyme (usually shortened to restriction enzyme)

act as chemical scissor to cut the human insulin making gene from the rest of
the DNA.

Ligase enzyme – is used to attach the sticky ends of the insulin-making gene of
the plasmid.

Industrial fermentation – Production of the antibiotic Penicillin / Insulin /

1. The fermentation vessel is filled with sugars and ammonium salts. Sugars
provide energy for respiration and ammonium salts are used by the fungus
6

to make proteins and nucleic acids. And then fungus Penicillium

chrysogenum is added into the fermenter.
2. A stirrer keeps the microorganisms suspended so they always have access
to nutrients and oxygen. Stirring also helps to maintain an even
temperature throughout the fermenter.
3. An air supply provides oxygen for aerobic respiration of the fungus.
/bacteria.
4. A water-cooled jacket removes the heat produced by fermentation to give
a constant temperature of 24 °C. (26 °C for insulin + enzymes for washing
powder)
5. Probes monitor the temperature and make sure and pH is constant at 6.5
by adding alkalis if necessary. (pH 5-6 for insulin)
After 30 hours, the fungus starts to produce penicillin. After 6 days the
fermentation is completed and mixture is drained and filtered.
(Downstream process) Stationary phase

log Death

Lag
 7

Discuss why bacteria are useful in biotechnology and genetic modification,

and make the insulin.

Industrial production of insulin

 The human gene that codes for the production of insulin is identified.
 Restriction enzymes cut the human insulin-making gene from the rest of the
DNA.
 a plasmid is removed from a bacterium.
 The same restriction enzymes are then used to cut open the plasmid.
 The two ends of the insulin-making gene are attached to the sticky ends of
the plasmid using the ligase enzyme.
 This plasmid is now known as a recombinant plasmid and is inserted back into
the bacteria.
 This bacteria with recombinant plasmids use to make the production of insu

Restriction enzyme
Restriction enzyme
Ligase

Recombinant plasmid
8

Biological washing powder

Microorganisms produce enzymes to digest complex carbohydrates, proteins

and fats. Bacteria such as Bacillus and fungus Aspergillus are grown in
fermenters to produce enzymes for biological washing powder. The
fermentation process is similar to that of penicillin production.
9

Biological washing powder may contain one or more of the following types of
enzymes.

 Proteases enzyme – break down protein stains, e.g. blood, grass and egg.
 Lipases – break down fats in grease stains, e.g. butter, lipstick and
mayonnaise.
 Amylases – break down starch, e.g. Food stains containing starch
 Cellulases – break down cellulose fibres on the outside of cotton fabrics to
remove the dirt attached to them.

During the washing cycle, proteases break down protein into amino acids, amylases
break down starch into glucose and also cellulases break down cellulose into
glucose.

Advantages of biological washing powder

1. The enzymes are broken down into harmless products after they have been used.
2. They do not harm the environment.
10

Why it is important to stir the contents of the fermenter

continuously.

• even distribution of content

• ensure more access of bacteria with, medium
• prevent clumping of content
• so, oxygen, glucose and nutrients dissolve
• so, bacteria can absorb substances more easily

Describe the advantages of genetically modifying crops.

• Disease resistance
• Larger and faster yield
• Drought resistance
• Herbicides/insecticide resistance
• Salt/frost resistance
• Health benefit
• Benefit to environment

Describe the disadvantages of genetically modifying crops.

• Reduced natural biodiversity
• Insect-resistant plants negatively affect pollinators
• Cross-pollinate into wild populations
• GM seeds are expensive
• Seeds need to be brought each season
• Ethical concerns of consumers