Syllabus:

Introduction To Data Science:

Data Science Steps, Skills Needed, Steps to do Data Science, Uses of Data
science and Big data, facets of Data, Data Science Process.

Introduction to Data Science

What is Data Science?
Data Science is the field of study that combines mathematics, statistics, programming,
and domain expertise to extract meaningful insights from data. It helps in making
informed decisions using data-driven strategies.
Example:
Netflix uses Data Science to recommend shows and movies based on users’ watch history
and preferences. The recommendation system analyzes millions of user interactions to
suggest content accurately.

Steps in Data Science

A typical Data Science workflow follows these steps:
1. Problem Definition
Understand the problem you want to solve.
Example: A bank wants to predict if a customer will default on a loan.
2. Data Collection
Gathering data from various sources like databases, APIs, or web scraping.
Example: A retail store collects customer transaction history, demographics, and
browsing data.
3. Data Cleaning
Removing missing values, correcting errors, and handling duplicates.
Example: A hospital ensures patient records are clean by filling missing blood pressure
readings using statistical methods.
4. Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA)
Analyzing patterns, distributions, and relationships in data.
Example: A marketing company explores customer data to understand which age group
buys more products.
5. Feature Engineering
Selecting and transforming relevant data for model building.
Example: A fraud detection system may create a new feature "transactions per
minute" to detect unusual spending behavior.
6. Model Building
Applying Machine Learning algorithms to train predictive models.
Example: A self-driving car uses an image recognition model to detect traffic signs.
7. Model Evaluation
Measuring model performance using accuracy, precision, recall, etc.
Example: An e-commerce website evaluates its recommendation model by checking if
users actually click on suggested products.
8. Deployment
Implementing the model in real-world applications.
Example: Google deploys a real-time spam detection model in Gmail to filter unwanted
emails.
 9. Monitoring & Optimization
Ensuring the model performs well over time and improving it as needed.
Example: An airline company continuously updates its flight price prediction model
based on new ticket sales data.

Skills Needed for Data Science

Technical Skills
1. Programming – Python (Pandas, NumPy), R, SQL
2. Statistics & Probability – Hypothesis testing, probability distributions
3. Machine Learning – Supervised (Regression, Classification), Unsupervised
(Clustering)
4. Big Data Tools – Hadoop, Spark
5. Data Visualization – Tableau, Power BI
Example:
A weather forecasting system uses Python and machine learning to analyze past weather
patterns and predict future conditions.
Non-Technical Skills
1. Critical Thinking – Understanding how data can solve business problems
2. Communication Skills – Explaining findings to stakeholders
3. Problem-Solving – Addressing complex challenges using data
Example:
A retail manager uses data-driven insights to improve sales by optimizing store layouts
based on foot traffic data.

Steps to Perform Data Science (with Examples)

Step Example
Understanding Business A food delivery app wants to predict order delays based on
Problem traffic conditions.
Collecting past delivery times, traffic data, and restaurant
Collecting and Preparing Data
preparation times.
Exploring Data with EDA Checking which time of the day has the highest delays.
Choosing the Right Model Using a regression model to predict delivery times.
Training and Optimizing the
Tuning hyper-parameters to improve model accuracy.
Model
Deploying the Model Implementing real-time delivery time predictions in the app.
Monitoring for Improvements Adjusting the model based on new traffic data.
Benefits & Uses of Data Science & Big Data (with Examples):
Data science and big data are used almost everywhere in both commercial and
noncommercial settings. Commercial companies in almost every industry use data
science and big data to gain insights into their customers, processes, staff, completion,
and products. Many companies use data science to offer customers a better user
experience, as well as to cross-sell, up-sell, and personalize their offerings.
A good example of this is Google AdSense, which collects data from internet users so
relevant commercial messages can be matched to the person browsing the internet.
Human resource professionals use people analytics and text mining to screen candidates,
monitor the mood of employees, and study informal networks among coworkers.
1. Healthcare – Predicting Diseases
Example: IBM Watson analyzes patient symptoms and medical history to suggest possible
diseases and treatments.
2. Finance – Fraud Detection
Financial institutions use data science to predict stock markets, determine the risk of
lending money, and learn how to attract new clients for their services. Almost all of the
trades worldwide are performed automatically by machines based on algorithms
developed by quants, as data scientists who work on trading algorithms are often called,
with the help of big data and data science techniques.
Example: PayPal detects fraudulent transactions using a machine learning model that
flags unusual spending behavior.
3. E-commerce – Recommendation Systems
Example: Amazon suggests products based on previous purchases and browsing history.
4. Manufacturing – Predictive Maintenance
Example: An electric-bike manufacturer predicts when machines need maintenance to avoid
breakdowns.
5. Cyber-security – Threat Detection
Example: Google detects phishing emails and warns users before they open them.
6. Governmental Organization & NGO:
Governmental organizations are also aware of data’s value. Many governmental
organizations not only rely on internal data scientists to discover valuable information,
but also share their data with the public. We can use this data to gain insights or build
data-driven applications. Data.gov is but one example; it’s the home of the US
Government’s open data while https://www.data.gov.in/ is similar for India.
Nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) are also no strangers to using data.
They use it to raise money and defend their causes. The World Wildlife Fund
(WWF), for instance, employs data scientists to increase the effectiveness of
their fundraising efforts.
7. Education:
Universities use data science in their research but also to enhance the study
experience of their students. The rise of massive open online courses (MOOC)
produces a lot of data, which allows universities to study how this type of
learning can complement traditional classes. MOOCs/NPTEL SWAYAM
Portal are an invaluable asset if you want to become a data scientist and big
 data professional, so definitely look at a few of the better-known ones:
Coursera, Udacity, and edX.

Facets of Data (with Examples)

1. Structured Data – Organized in tables.
Structured data is data that depends on a data model and resides in a fixed field
within a record. As such, it’s often easy to store structured data in tables within
databases or Excel files.
Example: A bank’s customer database with fields like Name, Age, Account Balance.

2. Unstructured Data – No fixed format

Unstructured data is data that isn’t easy to fit into a data model because the content is
context-specific or varying. One example of unstructured data is your regular email.
Although email contains structured elements such as the sender, title, and body text, it’s a
challenge to find the number of people who have written an email complaint about a
specific employee because so many ways exist to refer to a person, for example. The
thousands of different languages and dialects out there further complicate this.
Example: A company analyzing social media comments to detect customer sentiment.
3. Semi-structured Data – Some organization but not tabular
Example: JSON data from a weather API containing temperature, humidity, and wind
speed.
4. Metadata – Data about data
Example: The timestamp of when a file was last modified.
5. Natural language: Natural language is a special type of unstructured data; it’s
challenging to process because it requires knowledge of specific data science techniques
and linguistics. The natural language processing community has had success in entity
recognition, topic recognition, summarization, text completion, and sentiment analysis,
but models trained in one domain don’t generalize well to other domains. Even state-of-
the-art techniques aren’t able to decipher the meaning of every piece of text. This
shouldn’t be a surprise though: humans struggle with natural language as well. It’s
ambiguous by nature. The concept of meaning itself is questionable here. Have two
people listen to the same conversation. Will they get the same meaning? The meaning of
the same words can vary when coming from someone upset or joyous.
Example: A human-written email is also a perfect example of natural language data.
6. Machine-generated: Machine-generated data is information that’s automatically created
by a computer, process, application, or other machine without human intervention.
Machine-generated data is becoming a major data resource and will continue to do so.
The analysis of machine data relies on highly scalable tools, due to its high volume and
speed. Examples of machine data are web server logs, call detail records, network event
logs, and telemetry.
7. Graph-based:
8. Audio, video, and images:
9. Streaming:
Data Science Process:
1. Business Understanding
Understanding the problem.
Example: A telecom company wants to reduce customer churn (customers leaving
their service).
2. Data Understanding
Analyzing customer usage data.
Example: Checking which customers have called support multiple times before leaving.
3. Data Preparation
Cleaning and processing the data.
Example: Removing duplicate customer records and handling missing data.
4. Modeling
Choosing a machine learning model.
Example: Using a decision tree classifier to predict churn.
5. Evaluation
Checking model performance.
Example: Using accuracy and recall to measure churn predictions.
6. Deployment
Implementing the model in production.
Example: Sending personalized offers to customers likely to leave.
Conclusion
Data Science is revolutionizing industries by enabling data-driven decision-making. Whether
it's Netflix recommending your favorite show or a bank detecting fraud, Data Science plays a
crucial role in modern technology.

1. What are the key steps in the Data Science process, and why is Data Cleaning
considered a crucial step?
2. What are the different sources for Data Collection considered given scenario based
example.
3. How does Amazon use Data Science in its recommendation system to suggest products
to customers?
4. Explain the difference between Structured, Unstructured, and Semi-Structured Data
with real-world examples.
5. A bank wants to detect fraudulent transactions in real-time. What steps should they
follow in a Data Science workflow to achieve this goal?
6. How can Predictive Maintenance in the manufacturing industry reduce costs and
improve efficiency?
7. How does Data Science help companies make better decisions? Explain with an example
of how a telecom company can use Data Science to reduce customer churn.
Hint: Discuss how a telecom company can use customer call records, billing history, and
complaint data to predict when a customer is likely to leave. Explain how predictive
analytics and machine learning can help retain customers by offering personalized
plans or discounts.
8. How can Data Science be used to predict diseases and improve healthcare outcomes?
Provide a real-world example.
Hint: Explain how hospitals use patient data (symptoms, medical history, test
reports) to build machine learning models that predict diseases like diabetes or heart
conditions. Mention how AI-based systems like IBM Watson assist doctors in
diagnosing diseases faster.
9. Banks use Data Science for fraud detection. Describe the step-by-step approach a bank
should follow to develop a fraud detection system.
Hint: Break it down into:
1. Understanding the problem – Define what fraudulent transactions look like.
2. Collecting Data – Gather customer transaction history.
3. Cleaning Data – Handle missing values and remove duplicates.
4. Exploratory Data Analysis (EDA) – Identify unusual transaction patterns.
5. Feature Engineering – Create features like transaction frequency or location changes.
6. Model Selection – Use classification algorithms (Logistic Regression, Decision Trees).
7. Evaluation & Deployment – Monitor and improve fraud detection accuracy.
10. How does Netflix or Amazon use Data Science to enhance customer experience through
personalized recommendations?
Hint: Explain the role of Collaborative Filtering and Content-Based Filtering in
recommendation engines. Discuss how Netflix uses watch history, user ratings, and
viewing time to suggest personalized movie recommendations. Similarly, Amazon
suggests products based on past purchases and browsing history.
11. What are some of the biggest challenges companies face when implementing Data
Science solutions, and how can they overcome them?
Hint: Discuss challenges such as:
 Data Quality Issues – Missing or incorrect data
 Lack of Skilled Professionals – Shortage of data scientists
 Data Privacy Concerns – Ensuring compliance with regulations (GDPR, HIPAA)
 Model Interpretability – Making AI models transparent and understandable
 Deployment & Maintenance – Keeping models updated with new data
12. Explain how companies can address these challenges by investing in data governance,
hiring skilled professionals, and using explainable AI techniques.
13. How is Data Science different from traditional data analysis, and why is it considered an
interdisciplinary field?
Hint: Explain how Data Science goes beyond basic data analysis by incorporating
machine learning, automation, and predictive modeling. Discuss its reliance on statistics,
programming, and domain knowledge to extract insights from structured and
unstructured data.
14. Why is data-driven decision-making important in modern businesses, and how does Data
Science contribute to it?
Hint: Discuss how businesses use data-driven insights instead of intuition for better
decision-making. Provide examples such as Netflix’s recommendation system or fraud
detection in banks, where data helps in making real-time, accurate, and automated
decisions.
15. What is the difference between Data Science, Machine Learning, and Artificial
Intelligence?
Hint: Explain:
  Data Science – A broad field involving data collection, analysis, and insights
extraction.
 Machine Learning – A subset of Data Science focused on algorithms that learn
from data.
 Artificial Intelligence – A broader concept that includes Machine Learning, deep
learning, and decision-making systems.
Use examples like AI in self-driving cars, ML in recommendation systems, and Data
Science in business analytics.
16. Why is data cleaning considered the most important step in the Data Science process?
Hint: Explain how dirty or incomplete data can lead to inaccurate models and poor
decision-making. Discuss techniques like handling missing values, removing
duplicates, and correcting inconsistencies, with an example of customer transaction
data in banking.
17. What are some ethical challenges in Data Science, and how can they be addressed?
Hint: Discuss ethical issues such as data privacy, bias in AI models, and responsible
AI usage. Provide examples like biased hiring algorithms or data breaches in
companies, and mention strategies like transparent AI models, compliance with
GDPR, and ethical AI practices.
Getting Started With R:
Introduction to R, Features, History, Installation of R and R studio,
Introduction to packages, Libraries, Data Types, Variables, Operators,
Decision making, Loops

Introduction to R
R is a powerful, open-source programming language used primarily for statistical
computing, data analysis, and graphical visualization. It is widely used in data
science, machine learning, bioinformatics, and research due to its vast collection of
packages and libraries.
Originally developed for statistical computing, R has gained popularity among data
scientists, analysts, and researchers due to its ability to handle large datasets, perform
advanced statistical modeling, and generate high-quality visualizations.
Why Use R?
 It is an open-source language, meaning it is free to use and modify.
 Supports a vast number of statistical and graphical techniques.
 Has a large community of users and contributors.
 Can integrate with other programming languages like Python, C++, and Java.
 Supports data visualization tools such as ggplot2 and shiny for interactive applications.

Features of R
R offers a variety of features that make it a preferred choice for data analysis and statistical
computing:
1. Open-Source and Free
 R is freely available under the GNU General Public License.
 Users can modify and distribute it without any licensing costs.
2. Statistical Computing
 Provides built-in support for statistical tests, regression models, classification, clustering, and
machine learning.
3. Data Visualization
 R supports advanced data visualization through packages like ggplot2, lattice, and plotly.
 Users can create interactive dashboards and web applications using the shiny package.
4. Extensive Package Ecosystem
 Over 18,000 packages are available on CRAN (Comprehensive R Archive Network).
 Users can extend R’s functionality by installing additional packages for machine learning, data
wrangling, finance, biology, and more.
5. Data Handling and Manipulation
 R supports structured and unstructured data handling.
 Packages like dplyr, tidyr, and data.table allow for efficient data manipulation.
6. Cross-Platform Compatibility
 Works on Windows, macOS, and Linux.
 Can be used on cloud computing platforms like AWS and Google Cloud.
7. Integration with Other Languages
 R can interface with Python, SQL, C++, and Java, allowing users to leverage multiple
programming languages in one environment.
8. Reproducible Research
 Supports document generation using R Markdown, allowing users to create reports,
presentations, and interactive documents.
History of R
 Origin: R was developed in 1991 by Ross Ihaka and Robert Gentleman at the University of
Auckland, New Zealand.
 Inspired by S: It was influenced by the S programming language developed at Bell
Laboratories.
 First Release: R became publicly available in 1995.
 Growth and Popularity: Over the years, R has evolved into a powerful tool for data science,
business analytics, and academic research.
 Community-Driven: R is maintained by the R Core Team and supported by an active global
community.

Installation of R and RStudio

Installing R
To install R, follow these steps:
1. Visit the official R website: https://cran.r-project.org/
2. Choose your operating system (Windows, macOS, or Linux).
3. Download the appropriate version and follow the installation instructions.
Installing RStudio
RStudio is an Integrated Development Environment (IDE) that makes R programming
easier.
1. Visit the RStudio website: https://posit.co/download/rstudio-desktop/
2. Download the free RStudio Desktop version.
3. Install RStudio after installing R.
Why Use RStudio?
 Provides a user-friendly interface with a code editor, console, and visualization tools.
 Supports code debugging, data visualization, and package management.
 Enables easy integration with GitHub, SQL databases, and Python.

Introduction to Packages and Libraries

What are Packages in R?
A package in R is a collection of functions, datasets, and documentation that extends R's
capabilities.
Popular R Packages:

Package Purpose
ggplot2 Data visualization
dplyr Data manipulation
tidyr Data cleaning and tidying
caret Machine learning
shiny Web applications
lubridate Working with dates and times
stringr String manipulation
data.table High-performance data processing
 What is a Library in R?
A library is a collection of installed packages that you can load into your R session.
Installing a Package in R
To install a package, use:
install.packages("ggplot2")
Loading a Package
To load an installed package:
library(ggplot2)
Checking Installed Packages
To see all installed packages:
installed.packages()
Updating Installed Packages
To update all installed packages:
update.packages()
Removing a Package
To remove an installed package:
remove.packages("ggplot2")

Conclusion
R is a versatile programming language widely used in data science, machine
learning, and statistical analysis. With its vast collection of packages and libraries, it
enables users to perform data manipulation, visualization, and advanced analytics.
By installing R and RStudio, users can enhance their productivity and work efficiently
with large datasets, interactive visualizations, and machine learning models.
Data Types, Variables, Operators, Decision Making, and Loops in R Programming

1. Data Types in R
R provides various data types to store and manipulate different kinds of data. The major data
types in R are:
1.1 Numeric (Integer and Double)
 Represents numbers (both whole and decimal).
 Example:
r
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num1 <- 10 # Integer
num2 <- 10.5 # Double
print(class(num1)) # "numeric"
print(class(num2)) # "numeric"
1.2 Character (String)
 Represents text or character values.
 Example:
r
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name <- "R Programming"
print(class(name)) # "character"
1.3 Logical (Boolean)
 Represents TRUE or FALSE values.
 Example:
r
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x <- TRUE
y <- FALSE
print(class(x)) # "logical"
1.4 Complex
 Represents complex numbers (real + imaginary part).
 Example:
r
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comp <- 2 + 3i
print(class(comp)) # "complex"
1.5 Raw
 Stores raw bytes.
 Example:
r
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raw_data <- charToRaw("Hello")
print(raw_data) # "48 65 6c 6c 6f"
2. Variables in R
 Variables store values and can be assigned using <-, =, or ->.
 Variable names should start with a letter and cannot contain special characters
(except _).
Examples
x <- 10 # Assigning value using "<-"
y = 20 # Assigning value using "="
30 -> z # Assigning value using "->"
print(x) # 10
print(y) # 20
print(z) # 30

3. Operators in R
Operators in R are used to perform computations on variables and values.
3.1 Arithmetic Operators
Operator Description Example
+ Addition 10 + 5 → 15
- Subtraction 10 - 5 → 5
* Multiplication 10 * 5 → 50
/ Division 10 / 5 → 2
%% Modulus (Remainder) 10 %% 3 → 1
%/% Integer Division 10 %/% 3 → 3
^ or ** Exponentiation 2^3 or 2**3 → 8
Example
a <- 15
b <- 4
print(a + b) # 19
print(a %% b) # 3

3.2 Relational (Comparison) Operators

Operator Description Example
== Equal to 10 == 5 → FALSE
!= Not equal to 10 != 5 → TRUE
> Greater than 10 > 5 → TRUE
< Less than 10 < 5 → FALSE
>= Greater than or equal to 10 >= 5 → TRUE
<= Less than or equal to 10 <= 5 → FALSE
Example
x <- 10
y <- 20
print(x > y) # FALSE
print(x == y) # FALSE

3.3 Logical Operators

Operator Description Example
& AND TRUE & FALSE → FALSE
` ` OR
! NOT !TRUE → FALSE
Example
r
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a <- TRUE
b <- FALSE
print(a & b) # FALSE
print(a | b) # TRUE
print(!a) # FALSE

Comments
Comments are like helping text in your R program and they are ignored by the interpreter
while executing your actual program. Single comment is written using # in the beginning
of the statement as follows −
# My first program in R Programming
R does not support multi-line comments

4. Decision Making in R
Decision-making structures allow the program to execute different blocks of code based on
conditions.
4.1 if Statement
Executes a block of code if the condition is TRUE.
Syntax
if (condition) {
# Code to execute
}
Example
x <- 10
if (x > 5) {
print("x is greater than 5")
}

4.2 if-else Statement

Executes one block of code if the condition is TRUE, otherwise executes another block.
Example
x <- 10
if (x < 5) {
print("x is less than 5")
} else {
print("x is greater than or equal to 5") }

4.3 if-else if-else Statement

Checks multiple conditions.
Example
x <- 20
if (x < 10) {
print("x is less than 10")
} else if (x == 20) {
print("x is equal to 20")
} else {
print("x is greater than 10 but not 20")
}

4.4 switch Statement

Used for multiple choices.
Example
option <- "two"
result <- switch(option,
"one" = "You chose One",
"two" = "You chose Two",
"three" = "You chose Three",
"Invalid choice"
)
print(result)

5. Loops in R
Loops are used to execute a block of code multiple times.
5.1 for Loop
Iterates over a sequence of values.
Example
for (i in 1:5) {
print(i)
}
Output:
csharp
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[1] 1
[1] 2
[1] 3
[1] 4
[1] 5

5.2 while Loop

Repeats a block of code while a condition is TRUE.
Example
x <- 1
while (x <= 5) {
print(x)
x <- x + 1
}

5.3 repeat Loop

Runs indefinitely unless a break statement is encountered.
Example
x <- 1
repeat {
print(x)
x <- x + 1
if (x > 5) {
break
}
}

5.4 break and next Statements

 break exits the loop.
 next skips the current iteration.
Example (break)
for (i in 1:10) {
if (i == 6) {
break
}
print(i)
}
Output: 1 2 3 4 5
Example (next)
for (i in 1:10) {
if (i %% 2 == 0) {
next
}
print(i)
}
Output: 1 3 5 7 9

Conclusion
 Data types define the nature of stored values.
 Variables store and manipulate data.
 Operators perform arithmetic, logical, and comparison operations.
 Decision making allows conditional execution of code.
 Loops enable repetitive execution.