COMMENTARY

growth patterns reflect market demands,

The Precursors of dismissing the decades of government in-
fluence in urban planning and the substan-
Transit-oriented Development tial government funding directed towards
highways and cars. Residential density
plays an important role in promoting and
Shashikant Nishant Sharma, Arvind Kumar, Kavita Dehalwar adopting the TOD-based development in
many cities (Cervero and Kockelman 1997).

I
Transit-oriented development has n the face of rapid urbanisation, esca- Moreover, smart growth advocates tend
emerged as a promising urban lating congestion, and the pressing to exaggerate the effectiveness of plan-
need for sustainable urban develop- ning interventions and disregard the
planning approach to address
ment, the concept of transit-oriented de- persistent appeal of detached single-family
the challenges of urbanisation, velopment (TOD) has emerged as a pivotal residences in suburban areas with quality
congestion, and sustainability. paradigm for shaping modern cities (Ibrae- educational institutions. Additionally, they
The importance of transportation va et al 2020). The inherent potential of might overlook the considerable challenge
TOD to foster efficient transportation sys- of altering deeply entrenched lifestyles
infrastructure, land-use policies,
tems, encourage compact urban growth, and habits. Amid these debates, the con-
economic incentives, community and promote environmentally conscious cept of TOD has emerged as a potential
engagement, and regulatory living has spurred its widespread adoption panacea (Dittmar and Ohland 2012). Some
frameworks are essential by planners, policymakers, and urban de- proponents contend that urban expansion
signers (Litman 2002). However, while can be effectively accommodated through
precursors to fostering TOD.
the benefits of TOD are well-documented, denser infill development along transit
The interplay between these its successful implementation remains corridors. While this is physically plau-
precursors is explored in various contingent on an array of precursors that sible, it might encounter limitations within
urban contexts, revealing the collectively determines its viability and ef- a democratic society with varying interests
ficacy within a given urban context. and perspectives. These debates under-
complex and context-sensitive
Discussions revolving around urban score the complexity of harmonising
nature of TOD implementation. transportation frequently generate more transportation and urban planning. They
passionate opinions than constructive in- highlight the need for a nuanced under-
sights. To begin with, an ongoing debate standing that acknowledges both the
revolves around the interplay between benefits and limitations of transit, high-
highways and public transit systems. Pub- ways, land-use policies, and entrenched
lic transit advocates have often been societal preferences.
criticised for making exaggerated claims Constructing a well-rounded approach
about the myriad environmental and so- necessitates a recognition of the multifac-
cietal benefits stemming from investing eted nature of urban development and
in transit infrastructure. What often goes the intricate interplay between transpor-
unnoticed in this discourse is the fact that tation strategies and the social fabric of
transit serves as a specialised tool, and the communities (Sallis et al 2015). The es-
transition towards more compact, transit- sence of TOD lies in its emphasis on strate-
centric urban planning is inherently grad- gically integrating land use and transpor-
ual, given the overwhelming prevalence of tation infrastructure, thereby facilitating a
automobiles and highways in modern soci- shift towards less car-dependent urban life-
ety. Conversely, proponents of highways styles (Pojani and Stead 2014). By fostering
and automobiles tend to criticise public mixed-use developments around transit
transit based on national statistics and nodes and corridors, TOD creates vibrant,
regional averages without acknowledg- pedestrian-friendly urban spaces that
Shashikant Nishant Sharma (urp2025@gmail. ing that public transit primarily caters to reduce congestion and pollution and en-
com) teaches at the Department of Planning urban environments. Public transit thrives hance residents’ quality of life. Yet, the
and Architecture, Maulana Azad National as a component of a comprehensive strate- realisation of these goals is fundamentally
Institute of Technology, Bhopal. Arvind Kumar
gy that intertwines transit, urban develop- intertwined with the presence and inter-
([email protected]) teaches at the National
Institute of Technology, Tiruchirappalli. ment, and complementary policies (Badoe action of several precursors, encompass-
Kavita Dehalwar ([email protected]) and Miller 2000). Another prominent de- ing a spectrum of factors that shape the
teaches at the Department of Planning and bate pits libertarians against proponents feasibility and outcome of TOD initiatives.
Architecture, Maulana Azad National Institute of smart growth in the context of land This article delves into the intricate web
of Technology, Bhopal.
use. Libertarians argue that existing urban of precursors that underpins the successful
16 april 6, 2024 vol lIX no 14 EPW Economic & Political Weekly
 COMMENTARY

implementation of TOD. Through an explo- office, and recreational spaces. Zoning housing units, within TOD projects pro-
ration of existing literature and empirical regulations and land-use policies that motes social inclusivity and enables a di-
evidence, this study sheds light on the mul- encourage mixed-use developments and verse range of residents to benefit from
tifaceted nature of these precursors and higher densities around transit corridors improved transit connectivity (Thomas
the intricate interplay between them. By are crucial for fostering vibrant and and Bertolini 2020).
dissecting the key elements that pave the walkable neighbourhoods.
way for effective TOD projects, this article Public spaces and amenities: Designing
seeks to provide a comprehensive frame- Compact urban design: The physical public spaces, parks, and recreational
work that assists urban planners, policy- layout of the development, characterised facilities within the TOD area enhances
makers, and stakeholders in navigating the by higher densities and compact building the overall quality of life for residents,
complexities of TOD implementation. As arrangements, encourages efficient land making the neighbourhood more attrac-
cities worldwide strive to grapple with the use. This design approach minimises tive and liveable (Safaee et al 2016).
urbanisation’s challenges, this investigation sprawl and promotes pedestrian-friendly
into the precursors of TOD contributes to environments (Furlan et al 2019). Methodology
the broader dialogue on sustainable urban A systematic literature review (SLR) is a
development and offers insights that are Walkability and pedestrian infrastruc- methodical and comprehensive approach
poised to shape the future urban landscape. ture: The presence of safe and well- for analysing existing literature on a
The precursors are the foundational designed pedestrian infrastructure such specific topic, aiming to synthesise and
elements and factors that contribute to as sidewalks, crosswalks, and pedestrian evaluate relevant studies to provide a
the successful planning, design, and plazas, supports the walkability aspect comprehensive understanding of the
implementation of TOD projects. These of TOD. Walkable neighbourhoods are subject (Dehalwar and Sharma 2023).
precursors are essential in shaping TOD conducive to reducing car dependency The research methodology employed for
initiatives’ feasibility, effectiveness, and and promoting active transportation the SLR on the topic of “Precursor of TOD”
sustainability. While the specific precur- (Rafiemanzelat et al 2017). involved a multistep approach to refine
sors can vary based on local contexts, and select relevant scholarly papers.
some common factors are listed below. Bicycle infrastructure: Including bike Initially, a broad search using the term
lanes, bike-sharing programmes, and se- “Precursor of TOD” yielded 29,627 results,
Proximity to transit infrastructure: The cure bike storage encourages cycling as which were subsequently narrowed down
availability and accessibility of existing an alternative mode of transportation, by filtering papers published between
or planned transit infrastructure, such further reducing reliance on cars. 2019 and 2023, resulting in 16,940 papers.
as bus stops, train stations, and light rail Further refinement involved filtering based
systems are fundamental to TOD. The Transit integration: Beyond physical on research papers, which reduced the
proximity of development to these trans- proximity, effective integration of tran- selection to 11,824 papers. Subsequently,
portation nodes allows for seamless con- sit systems with the surrounding devel- screening based on open access availa-
nectivity and encourages transit rider- opment is vital. This includes factors like bility was conducted, leading to 2,885
ship (Nyunt and Wongchavalidkul 2020). convenient access points, clear way find- accessible papers. The process continued
ing, and synchronised schedules. with a meticulous examination of ab-
Mixed-use zoning and land-use policies: stracts, resulting in the selection of 174
TOD thrives on the integration of various Affordable housing: Ensuring a mix of papers deemed relevant to the research
land uses, including residential, commercial, housing options, including affordable topic. Finally, 51 papers were chosen for
Figure 1: Systematic Literature Review of TOD detailed study based on their perceived
Search Results Filtered versus Screening Criteria relevance and potential contribution to
Search term used,
the research objectives (Figure 1). This
29,627
“Precursor of TOO” systematic methodology ensures that the
Filtered by years final selection of papers is rigorous and
“2019 to 2023” aligned with the scope of the study on
Screening criteria

Filled based on
11,824
TOD precursors.
research papers
This article employs a qualitative re-
Screened based on search approach, utilising historical docu-
open access 2,885
ments, scholarly articles, government re-
Sorted based on ports, and urban planning literature to
174
abstract reading
analyse the precursors for TOD in the se-
Finalised for
detailed study 51 lected megaprojects. By applying a com-
based on relevance
parative analysis, the study identifies
0 10,000 20,000 30,000
Search results filtered
commonalities and unique factors that
Source: Authors’ compilation. influenced the adoption of TOD principles.
Economic & Political Weekly EPW april 6, 2024 vol lIX no 14 17
COMMENTARY

Findings and Discussion Figure 2: TOD Effects and Their Interactions urban environments that promote active
Community
The study on the precursors of TOD re- Real
life
mobility. By adhering to these density
estate
veals several important findings. prices
principles, TOD can potentially balance
living spaces and workplaces, supporting
TOD effects: A considerable volume of diverse activities, and encouraging sus-
research endeavours has been dedicated tainable transportation options. However,
to examining TOD impacts (Xia and it is important to note that the successful
Travel
Zhang 2022). Through an analysis of the behaviour implementation of such density require-
existing body of literature, we have cat- ments necessitates careful urban plan-
egorised this research into five distinct ning, zoning regulations, and the creation
domains based on the nature of the ef- of mixed-use environments that cater to
fects investigated. Each of these do- the needs and preferences of the local
mains is presented in separate subcate- Residential Urban population (Renne 2009).
location form
gories below. The realm of the study that
has received the most attention pertains Holistic approach: TOD success is con-
to the alterations in travel behaviour Source: Ibraeva et al (2020). tingent on a combination of factors rather
(particularly the selection of transporta- than any one isolated precursor. The
tion modes, as anticipated, along with is imperative for developing an urban synergy between factors like transit ac-
trip generation and parking considera- landscape that effectively mitigates au- cess, zoning policies, and community
tions). Subsequently, there has been a tomobile reliance (Newman and Ken- engagement creates a robust foundation
significant focus on comprehending the worthy 1999). Below this threshold, the for sustainable urban growth.
repercussions on real estate values with- resulting urban configuration lacks the
in and around TOD locales. Additional requisite density to fully harness the ad- Interdependence: The precursors of
impacts, although less extensively scru- vantages of an urban layout oriented to- TOD are interconnected. For instance, ef-
tinised, encompass those relating to res- wards pedestrian mobility, cycling, and fective zoning regulations enable mixed-
idential location (exhibiting a bidirec- public transit. Consequently, it becomes use development, which in turn supports
tional relationship—evaluating the in- evident that, within a radius of approxi- higher population density and a diverse
fluence of travel behaviour on individu- mately a 10-minute walk from a transit range of housing options. This interde-
als’ residential choices and vice versa), station, the vicinity should be designed pendence underscores the need for com-
urban morphology (pertaining to effects to accommodate no fewer than 10,000 prehensive urban planning.
on land utilisation, spatial arrangement, residents and employment opportunities
and accessibility of activities), and com- (Newman and Kenworthy 1999). Economic and environmental benefits:
munity dynamics (Ibraeva et al 2020). This recommendation underscores the TOD should incorporate the identified
In Figure 2, the dimensions of the significance of compact and concentrated precursors, which can yield economic
squares correspond proportionally to the development around transit nodes to benefits through increased property val-
number of scholarly articles that tackle foster sustainable transportation practices. ues, reduced traffic congestion, and im-
various forms of effects. It is worth noting It signifies the need to congregate popu- proved air quality. Additionally, these de-
that certain articles address more than lations and activities in close proximity velopments contribute to reduced green-
one effect simultaneously (for instance, to public transit, allowing for a seamless house gas emissions by promoting public
both travel behaviour and residential integration of various transportation transportation and active mobility.
location). This multifaceted approach is modes. This approach not only diminishes
depicted in Figure 2 by arrows with their the necessity for private vehicle usage Challenges: Implementing TOD precur-
widths denoting the number of articles but also fosters vibrant and accessible sors requires overcoming challenges such
that delve into at least two distinct types Figure 3: Transit Adjacent Development (TAD) to Transit-oriented Development (TOD)
of effects concurrently. TAD =====================TOD
● Suburban street pattern ● Grid street pattern
Transition from TAD to TOD: One of ● Low densities ● High densities
the pivotal attributes of TOD lies in its ● Dominance of surface parking ● Mostly underground or structured parking
propensity to serve as an acceptable set- ● Limited or no pedestrian access ● Pedestrian-focused design, bicycle access/
ting for elevated-density development parking
● Single family homes/single- or double-storey ● Multifamily homes/multistorey buildings
within suburban locales (Figure 3). A sem-
buildings
inal work by Newman and Kenworthy
● Industrial land uses ● Office and retail land uses
(1999) underscores this aspect, propos- ● ●
Segregated land uses Vertically and horizontally mixed land uses
ing a critical guideline. They advocate ● ●
Gas stations, car dealerships, drive-through Predominance of service-based industries
that achieving a density of at least 35 indi- stores and other auto-focused land uses and corporate offices
viduals and job opportunities per hectare Source: Renne (2009).

18 april 6, 2024 vol lIX no 14 EPW Economic & Political Weekly

 COMMENTARY

as resistance to change, inadequate in- Figure 4: Conceptual Plan for Developing TOD-based High-rise DDA Flats in New Delhi
frastructure, and potential gentrification.
Addressing these challenges necessitates
careful planning, continuous community
engagement, and adaptive policies.

Adaptability to context: While certain

precursors like transit accessibility and
mixed land use are universal, the specif-
ic implementation of TOD precursors can
vary based on the local context, culture,
and existing urban fabric.
TOD is a planning strategy that aims
to create compact, mixed-use, and walk-
able communities centred around public
transportation hubs. The success of TOD
depends on a multitude of factors, and
Source: Roy (2014).
understanding its precursors is crucial
for effective urban development. This population. Integrating affordable hous- urban planning solutions has become
discussion delves into the key precursors ing options near transit nodes can help urgent. TOD presents itself as a potential
of TOD and their significance in shaping mitigate the displacement of lower-in- remedy, aligning with New Delhi’s aspi-
sustainable urban environments. come residents due to rising property rations for improved mobility, reduced
values in these areas. environmental impact, and enhanced
Proximity to public transit infrastruc- quality of life for its residents.
ture: One of the fundamental precursors Community engagement: Successful TOD
of TOD is the availability and accessibility initiatives require community involve- Expansion of the Delhi Metro: The Delhi
of well-developed public transportation ment in the planning process. Engaging Metro serves as a cornerstone of the
systems, such as subways, buses, and light residents and stakeholders fosters a city’s transit infrastructure. Its rapid ex-
rail (Cervero and Murakami 2009). A sense of ownership and ensures that the pansion, spanning various phases, has
TOD’s success hinges on the convenience development aligns with local needs, pref- significantly improved connectivity and
of transit services for residents, encour- erences, and cultural characteristics. accessibility. The metro system has be-
aging them to rely less on personal vehi- come a catalyst for TOD, influencing land-
cles and reducing traffic congestion. Pedestrian and cyclist infrastructure: use patterns and development around
Safe and well-designed pedestrian and its stations (Phani Kumar et al 2020).
Zoning and land-use policies: Supportive cyclist infrastructure is critical for en- TOD requires seamless integration be-
zoning regulations that permit mixed-use couraging active transportation modes. tween different modes of transportation.
development (residential, commercial, Sidewalks, bike lanes, and pedestrian cros- In New Delhi, efforts have been made
and recreational) around transit nodes are sings make walking and cycling viable op- to link the metro with other transport
essential. These policies encourage high- tions for short trips within the TOD area. options like buses, cycle-sharing, and
density, diverse, and pedestrian-friendly pedestrian pathways. This multimodal
neighbourhoods, fostering a vibrant ur- New Delhi—A TOD-based approach enhances the viability of TOD
ban fabric (Hughen and Read 2017). Development by providing commuters with various
TOD is a promising urban planning ap- choices for their daily travels.
Density and building design: High popu- proach that creates vibrant, sustainable,
lation density around transit hubs is a hall- and livable communities centred around Zonal plans and land use: The city’s
mark of TOD. Increased density ensures ef- efficient public transportation systems. Master Plan and Zonal Development Plans
ficient land use and maximises the number One notable case study that exemplifies play a pivotal role in shaping urban
of people within walking distance of transit the challenges and opportunities associat- growth. Introducing TOD-oriented land-
options. Proper building design, such as ed with implementing TOD principles is the use policies in these plans encourages
creating pedestrian pathways and open capital city of India, New Delhi (Figure 4). higher density development near transit
spaces and reducing parking space, further nodes, fostering mixed-use neighbour-
enhances the attractiveness of using public The context: New Delhi has for long grap- hoods that reduce the need for long
transportation (Knowles et al 2020). pled with issues like traffic congestion, air commutes (Raman and Roy 2019).
pollution, and inadequate public trans-
Affordability and housing options: TODs portation. As the city’s population con- Affordable housing initiatives: TOD seeks
should cater to a diverse socio-economic tinues to grow, the need for innovative to provide accessible housing options
Economic & Political Weekly EPW april 6, 2024 vol lIX no 14 19
COMMENTARY

close to transit hubs. In New Delhi, pro- reduce congestion, and enhance overall Dittmar, H and G Ohland (2012): The New Transit
Town: Best Practices in Transit-oriented Devel-
jects like the Delhi Development Author- quality of life. opment, Washington, DC: Island Press.
ity’s Land Pooling Policy aim to create In sum, it stands to reason that, as a Furlan, R, A Petruccioli and M Jamaleddin (2019):
affordable housing within TOD zones, broad trend, being in close proximity to “The Authenticity of Place-making: Space and
Character of the Regenerated Historic District
catering to diverse income groups and a station that embodies TOD attributes— in Msheireb, Downtown Doha (State of Qa-
reducing urban sprawl. such as high population density, mixed tar),” International Journal of Architectural Re-
search, Vol 13, No 1, pp 151–68.
land usage, and pedestrian-friendly in- Hughen, W K and D C Read (2017): “Analyzing
Policy and regulatory support: New frastructure—contributes to an increase Form-based Zoning’s Potential to Stimulate
Mixed-use Development in Different Economic
Delhi’s policies have been increasingly in the utilisation of public transportation. Environments,” Land Use Policy, No 61, pp 1–11.
geared towards TOD implementation. Simultaneously, this proximity also leads Ibraeva, A, G H Correia, C Silva and A P Antunes
(2020): “Transit-oriented Development: A Re-
This includes floor area ratio bonuses for to a rise in property values within the view of Research Achievements and Challenges,”
developers near transit nodes, incentivis- surrounding regions. Consequently, this Transportation Research, Vol 132, pp 110–30.
Knowles, R D, F Ferbrache and A Nikitas (2020):
ing them to create denser, more walkable surge in property prices has the potential “Transport’s Historical, Contemporary, and
neighbourhoods (Rangwala et al 2014). to set in motion a spate of events, possi- Future Role in Shaping Urban Development:
Re-evaluating Transit Oriented Development,”
bly resulting in the gradual intensifica- Cities, Vol 99, No 102607.
Public engagement: The success of TOD tion of development and, in some cases, Litman, Todd (2002): “Evaluating Transportation
depends on the involvement of local com- the transformation of the station areas Equity,” World Transport Policy and Practice,
Vol 8, No 2, pp 50–65.
munities. New Delhi has witnessed public through processes like gentrification. Newman, P and J R Kenworthy (1999): Sustainabil-
engagement efforts in planning processes, However, there arises a question regard- ity and Cities: Overcoming Automobile Depend-
ence, Washington, DC: Island Press.
allowing citizens to voice their preferences ing the sustainability of elevated public Nyunt, K T K and N Wongchavalidkul (2020):
and needs, ultimately shaping the devel- transport ridership levels once more afflu- “Evaluation of Relationships Between Rider-
ship Demand and Transit-Oriented Develop-
opment of transit-oriented neighbour- ent segments of the population establish ment (TOD) Indicators Focused on Land Use
hoods that resonate with their aspirations. residence within TOD zones. This is subject Density, Diversity, and Accessibility: A Case
Study of Existing Metro Stations in Bangkok,”
to debate as the influx of higher-income Urban Rail Transit, Vol 6, No 1, pp 56–70.
Challenges and Future Directions groups might alter the socio-economic Phani Kumar, P, C H Ravi Sekhar and M Parida
(2020): “Identification of Neighbourhood Typo-
While New Delhi has made big strides in composition of these areas and potentially logy for Potential Transit-oriented Development,”
adopting TOD principles, challenges re- impact travel behaviour patterns. It is im- Transportation Research, Vol 78, No 102186.
main. Coordinating the efforts of various portant to note that these changes typical- Pojani, D and D Stead (2014): “Dutch Planning Policy:
The Resurgence of TOD,” Land Use Policy,
stakeholders, managing population densi- ly unfold gradually over time, suggesting Vol 41, pp 357–67.
ty, ensuring equitable access, and address- that certain effects associated with TOD Rafiemanzelat, R, M I Emadi and A J Kamali (2017):
“City Sustainability: The Influence of Walkabi-
ing resistance to change are ongoing tasks. might require a certain period to become lity on Built Environments,” Transportation
As New Delhi continues to evolve, the inte- fully evident. The evolution of transit utili- Research Procedia, Vol 24, pp 97–104.
Raman, R and U K Roy (2019): “Taxonomy of Urban
gration of sustainable transport with land- sation, property values, and urban trans- Mixed Land Use Planning,” Land Use Policy,
use planning remains a challenge. formation in TOD regions is not an imme- Vol 88, No 104102.
The case study of New Delhi highlights diate occurrence but a progressive devel- Rangwala, L, R Mathews and S Sridhar (2014):
“Shifting Discourse about Transit-oriented
the complex interplay between transpor- opment. This investigation highlights the Development in Mumbai, India: From Intensi-
tation, urban planning, and community intricate interplay between TOD, transpor- fying Built-up Area to Managing Population
Density,” Transportation Research Record:
engagement in the pursuit of TOD. By tation behaviour, and urban dynamics. Journal of the Transportation Research Board,
leveraging existing transit assets, align- The findings underscore the potential ben- Vol 2451, No 1, pp 60–67.
Renne, J L (2009): “From Transit-adjacent to Tran-
ing policies, and engaging citizens, Delhi’s efits of TOD in promoting sustainable sit-oriented Development,” Local Environment,
journey towards TOD serves as a valua- transportation and urban development, Vol 14, No 1, pp 1–15.
Roy, Sidhartha (2014): “Delhi Dreams Big, to Stand
ble lesson for cities worldwide striving to while also acknowledging the complex Tall with DDA’s 120-floor High-rise,” Hindustan
create a more sustainable, inclusive, and and multifaceted nature of the changes Times, https://www.hindustantimes.com/del-
hi/delhi-dreams-big-to-stand-tall-with-dda-s-
connected urban environment. that unfold in these areas over time. 120-floor-high-rise/story-SqohXcvrCpXpk3Ob-
zek19N.html.
R eferences Safaee, M M, N S Kafi and A Torkaman (2016): “A
Conclusions
Badoe, D A and E J Miller (2000): “Transportation– Focus on the Contribution of Promoting TOD to
The precursors for TOD lay the ground- Land-use Interaction: Empirical Findings in Increasing Tehran’s Public Spaces,” Procedia
North America, and Their Implications for Engineering, Vol 165, pp 126–33.
work for creating sustainable, livable, and
Modeling,” Transportation Research, Vol 4, Sallis, J F, Chad Spoon et al (2015): “Co-benefits of
inclusive urban communities. A holistic No 5, pp 235–63. Designing Communities for Active Living: An
approach that considers factors ranging Cervero, R and K Kockelman (1997): “Travel Demand Exploration of Literature,” International Journal
and the 3Ds: Density, Diversity, and Design,” of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity,
from transportation infrastructure to com- Transportation Research, Vol 2, No 3, pp 199–219. Vol 12, No 1, p 30.
munity engagement is crucial for success- Cervero, R and J Murakami (2009): “Rail and Thomas, R and L Bertolini (2020): Transit-oriented
Property Development in Hong Kong: Experi- Development, Berlin: Springer International
ful TOD implementation. Understanding ences and Extensions,” Urban Studies, Vol 10, Publishing.
these precursors aids urban planners, pol- No 46, pp 2019–43. Xia, J and Y Zhang (2022): “Where Are Potential
Dehalwar, K and S N Sharma (2023): Fundamentals Areas for Transit-oriented Development (TOD)—
icymakers, and stakeholders in designing of Research Writing and Uses of Research Metho- Exploring the Demands for Built Environment
cities that prioritise public transportation, dologies, New Delhi: Edupedia. for TOD Planning,” Sustainability, Vol 14, No 14.

20 april 6, 2024 vol lIX no 14 EPW Economic & Political Weekly