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Matrices and Determinant

Concepts of a matrix
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
Definition of Matrix: A rectangular array of numbers of the form 𝐴 = [ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ]
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛
where each 𝑎𝑖𝑗 ∈ ℝ is called a Matrix and the notation abbreviated as 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 .

The horizontal arrangement of the array is called a row while the vertical arrangement of the array
is called column. Here, we say that 𝐴 has size or order 𝑚 by 𝑛 written as 𝑚 × 𝑛. That means it
has 𝑚 rows and 𝑛 columns. In general, a rectangular array of numbers arranged in rows and
columns is called a matrix.
● The numbers in a matrix are called the entries or the elements of the matrix.

● Matrices are denoted by single capital letters such as 𝐴, 𝐵, 𝐶 and so on.

● The word matrix is singular and matrices is its plural form.
𝑎 𝑏 𝑐 1 2
𝑎 𝑏
Example: 𝐴 = [ ] is a 2 × 2 matrix, 𝐵 = [𝑑 𝑒 𝑓] is a 3 × 3 matrix, 𝐶 = [2 3] is a
𝑐 𝑑
𝑔 ℎ 𝑘 4 5
4
3 × 2 matrix, 𝐷 = [3] is a 4 × 1 matrix.
2
1
Operations on matrices
● Operation on matrices refers to sum, the difference and the product of two given matrices.
Assuming 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 and B= (𝑏𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 , let’s define this operation.

● Addition of Matrices: The sum of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the matrix 𝐴 + 𝐵 obtained by adding

corresponding entries as 𝐴 + 𝐵 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 + 𝑏𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 .

● Subtraction of Matrices: The difference of 𝐴 and 𝐵 is the matrix 𝐴 − 𝐵 obtained by

subtracting corresponding entries as 𝐴 − 𝐵 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 − 𝑏𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 .

● Scalar multiple: The scalar multiple k𝐴 of 𝐴 is a matrix obtained by multiplying each

entry of 𝐴 by the scalar 𝑘 as k𝐴 = (𝑘𝑎𝑖𝑗 )𝑚×𝑛 .

● Compatibility condition: Two matrices can be added or subtracted if they have the same
size. This means that we cannot add or subtract matrices of different size.
3 4 1 2
Example: Let 𝐴 = ( ), 𝐵 = ( ). Then, we can find 𝐴+B, A-B and 3𝐴 as follows:
5 6 3 4

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3 4 1 2 3+1 4+2 4 6
𝐴+𝐵 =( )+( )=( )=( )
5 6 3 4 5 + 3 6 + 4 8 10
3 4 1 2 3−1 4−2 2 2
𝐴−𝐵 =( )−( )=( )=( )
5 6 3 4 5−3 6−4 2 2
3 4 3×3 3×4 9 12
3𝐴 = 3 ( )=( )=( )
5 6 3×5 3×6 15 18
Matrix Multiplication: is the operation that we can use to find the product 𝐴𝐵.

● The product 𝐴𝐵 is defined if and only if the number of columns in matrix 𝐴 equals the
number of rows in matrix 𝐵.

● If 𝐴 is 𝑚 × 𝑝 matrix and 𝐵 is p × 𝑛 matrix, then the product 𝐴𝐵 will be an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix.

1 2 −2 3
Example: Let 𝐴 = ( ), 𝐵 = ( ). Then, find the product 𝐴𝐵.
0 −3 1 −1
1 2 −2 3 0 1
Solution: 𝐴𝐵 = ( )( )=( ).
0 −3 1 −1 −3 3
Equality of Matrices

Two matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are said to be equal (write 𝐴 = 𝐵) if and only if 𝐴 and 𝐵 have the same
size and all their corresponding entries are equal. That is, 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 , 𝐵 = [𝑏𝑖𝑗 ]𝑚×𝑛 with 𝑎𝑖𝑗 =
𝑏𝑖𝑗 , 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑎𝑙𝑙 1≤ 𝑖 ≤ 𝑚, 1 ≤ 𝑗 ≤ 𝑛.

Example: Find the values of 𝛼 and 𝛽 for which the given matrices 𝐴 and 𝐵 are equal.
1 2 𝛼−𝛽 2
𝐴=[ ], 𝐵 = [ ].
3 −1 𝛼 −1
Solution: Similarly, we have 𝑎11 = 𝑏11 implies 𝛼 − 𝛽 = 1, 𝑎21 = 𝑏21 implies 𝛼 = 3, and hence
𝛽 = 2.

Types of matrices
Zero Matrix or Null Matrix: If all entries of a matrix are zero, then the matrix is called zero
matrix or null matrix. That is, an 𝑚 × 𝑛 matrix 𝐴 = [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] is said to be zero matrix if 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0 for
all 𝑖𝑗.
0 0
0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
0] , [0
Example: The following are zero matrices. [ ], [ ] , [0 0 0]
0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0
Row Matrix: A matrix having exactly one row is called row matrix and denoted by 𝐴 = (𝑎1𝑗 )1×𝑛 .

Example: The matrices 𝐴 = (4 − 5) and 𝐵 = (−2 3 7) are row matrices.

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Column Matrix: A matrix having exactly one column is called column matrix and denoted by
𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖1 )𝑚×1.
−2
4
Example: The matrices 𝐶 = ( ) and 𝐷 = ( 3 ) are Column matrices.
−5
7
Square Matrix: A matrix that has equal number of rows and columns is called square matrix. If
𝐴 has 𝑛-rows and 𝑛-columns, we call it a square matrix of size 𝑛.

𝑎11 𝑎12 2 −3 4
Example: 𝐴 = (𝑎 𝑎22 ) (Square matrix of size 2), 𝐵 = ( 3 2 5 ) (Square matrix of size
21
0 8 −2
𝑐11 𝑐12 ⋯ 𝑐1𝑛
𝑐21 𝑐22 ⋯ 𝑐2𝑛
3), 𝐶 = ( ⋮ ) (Square matrix of size 𝑛)
⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑐𝑛1 𝑐𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑐𝑛𝑛

● In square matrix, the entries 𝑐11 , 𝑐22 , … , 𝑐𝑛𝑛 are called diagonal entries.

● The diagonal containing the entries 𝑐11 , 𝑐22 , … , 𝑐𝑛𝑛 is called main diagonal or principal
diagonal of 𝐶.

● The entries that are not in the main diagonal are called non-diagonal entries.
2 3 5
Example: The matrix C = (5 3 2) the entries 𝑐11 = 2, 𝑐22 = 3 and 𝑐33 = 7 constitute the
4 0 7
main diagonal.

Trace of Matrix: The sum of the entries on the main diagonal of a square matrix 𝐴 =
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛
𝑎 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛
( 21 ) of order 𝑛 is called the trace of 𝐴. It is given by
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑛
𝑛

𝑡𝑟(𝐴) = ∑ 𝑎𝑖𝑖 = 𝑎11 + 𝑎22 + … + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 .

𝑖=1

2 3 5
Example: Consider a matrix 𝐴 = (5 3 2), then trace of 𝐴, 𝑡𝑟(𝐴) = 2 + 3 + 7 = 12.
4 0 7
Diagonal Matrix is a square matrix where all non-diagonal elements are zero.

A square matrix 𝐷 = [𝑑𝑖𝑗 ]𝑛×𝑛 is said to be diagonal matrix if 𝑑𝑖𝑗 = 0 whenever 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗. That is, a
square matrix whose every element other than diagonal elements 𝑑𝑖𝑗 are zero, is called diagonal
matrix.

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𝑑11 0 ⋯ 0
0 𝑑22 ⋯ 0 )
𝐷=(
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
0 0 ⋯ 𝑑𝑛𝑛
Example: The following are diagonal matrices.
1 0
𝐷=( ) (Diagonal matrix of size 2)
0 1
1 0 0
𝐷 = (0 2 0) (Diagonal matrix of size 3)
0 0 3
0 0 0
𝐷 = (0 −2 0) (Diagonal matrix of size 3)
0 0 1
0 0 0
𝐷 = (0 0 0) (Diagonal matrix of size 3)
0 0 0
Scalar Matrix: is a special type of diagonal matrix where all the diagonal elements are equal.
𝛼 0 ⋯ 0
𝑆 = (0 𝛼 ⋯ 0)
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
0 0 ⋯ 𝛼
4 0 0 0 0 0
1 0
Example: (0 4 0) , (0 0 0) and ( ) are examples of scalar matrix.
0 1
0 0 4 0 0 0
A diagonal matrix whose all main diagonal elements are equal to 1 is called an identity or unit
matrix. An identity matrix of order n is denoted by 𝐼𝑛 or more simply by I.
1 0 ⋯ 0
𝐼𝑛 = (0 1 ⋯ 0)
⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
0 0 ⋯ 1
1 0
Example: The following are identity matrices. 𝐼2 = ( ) (Identity matrix of size 2), 𝐼3 =
0 1
1 0 0
(0 1 0) (Identity matrix of size 3)
0 0 1
Note: Let 𝐴 = (𝑎𝑖𝑗 ) be a square matrix. 𝐴 is an identity matrix if and only if

1, 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 = 𝑗
𝑎𝑖𝑗 = {
0, 𝑖𝑓 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗

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Triangular Matrix:
● A square matrix is said to be an upper triangular matrix if all entries below the main
diagonal are zeros.
● A square matrix is said to be a lower triangular matrix if all entries above the main diagonal
are zeros.

● A square matrix [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] whose element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, whenever 𝑖 < 𝑗 is called a lower triangular
matrix. Similarly, a square matrix [𝑎𝑖𝑗 ] whose element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 = 0, whenever 𝑖 > 𝑗 is called a
upper triangular matrix.
● Thus, a triangular matrix is a matrix which is either lower or upper triangular.
2 3 3
Example: The matrix 𝐴 = [0 7 5 ] is a particular example of upper triangular matrix.
0 0 −1
7 0 0
● Matrix 𝐵 = [8 0 0 ] is a particular example of lower triangular matrix.
9 5 −3
● Hence, 𝐴 and 𝐵 are triangular matrices.
−2 −2 6
● Given the matrix 𝑌 = [ 0 2 −10]. Find 𝑋 such that 2𝑋 + 3𝑌 is scalar matrix whose
8 −6 4
trace is 𝑡 = 6.

● If a matrix 𝐴 has 𝑚 rows & 𝑚 + 5 columns and 𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑥 𝐵 has 𝑛 rows & 11 − 𝑛 columns,
find 𝑚 & 𝑛 so that both products 𝐴𝐵 and 𝐵𝐴 exist.
2 4
● Let 𝐴 = [ ] and 𝐼 + 𝑎𝐴 + 𝑏𝐴2 = 0, where 𝐼 is identity matrix of order 2, then find 𝑎
4 2
and 𝑏.

Transpose of a matrix

The transpose of a matrix 𝐴 is obtained by interchanging the rows and columns of 𝐴. It is denoted
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎1𝑛 𝑎11 𝑎21 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚1
𝑎 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑎12 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚2
by 𝐴𝑡 . That is, 𝐴 = [ ⋮21 ] , then 𝐴𝑡
= [ ]
⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮
𝑎𝑚1 𝑎𝑚2 ⋯ 𝑎𝑚𝑛 𝑎1𝑛 𝑎2𝑛 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛𝑚

● Note that the 𝑘 − 𝑡ℎ row of matrix 𝐴 becomes 𝑘 − 𝑡ℎ column of 𝐴𝑡 , and the 𝑘 − 𝑡ℎ column
of 𝐴 becomes 𝑘 − 𝑡ℎ row of 𝐴𝑡 .

Example: Compute the transpose of the following matrices.

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2 1 3
1 −1 −1
𝐴=[ ] , 𝐵 = [1 5 −3]
1 2 3
3 −3 7
Solution: First let us consider matrix 𝐴. Now, row 1 of matrix 𝐴 becomes column 1 of 𝐴𝑡 , and row
2 of 𝐴 becomes column 2 of 𝐴𝑡 . Thus, we have
1 1
𝐴𝑡 = [−1 2]
−1 3
Similarly,
2 1 3
𝑡
𝐵 = [1 5 −3]
3 −3 7
Theorem (Properties of Matrix Transpose). When the relevant sums, differences and products
are defined, and 𝛼 is a scalar. Then,

✓ (𝐴𝑡 )𝑡 = 𝐴

✓ (𝐴 + 𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 + 𝐵 𝑡

✓ (𝐴 − 𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐴𝑡 − 𝐵 𝑡

✓ (𝛼𝐴)𝑡 = 𝛼(𝐴𝑡 )

✓ (𝐴𝐵)𝑡 = 𝐵 𝑡 𝐴𝑡
Symmetric and Skew-symmetric

● A square matrix A is said to be symmetric if 𝐴𝑡 = 𝐴 and skew-symmetric if 𝐴𝑡 = −𝐴.

Example: Distinguish whether the given matrix is symmetric or not.

1 1 3 0 1 3
a) 𝐴 = [1 2 2] (b) 𝐵 = [−1 0 2]
3 2 3 −3 −2 0
Solution:
1 1 3 1 1 3
𝑡
● For the matrix 𝐴 = [1 2 2] , 𝐴 = [1 2 2]. Thus, we have 𝐴 = 𝐴𝑡 , and hence 𝐴 is
3 2 3 3 2 3
symmetric.
0 1 3 0 −1 −3
𝑡
● For the matrix 𝐵 = [−1 0 2] , 𝐵 = [1 0 2 ]. Thus, we have B ≠ 𝐵 𝑡 , and
−3 −2 0 3 2 0
hence 𝐵 is not symmetric.

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0 1 3
Example: [−1 0 4] is a particular example of skew-symmetric matrix since
−3 −4 0
0 −1 −3 0 1 3
𝐴𝑡 = [1 0 −4] = − [ −1 0 4] = −𝐴
3 4 0 −3 −4 0
● Note: For any square matrix 𝐴, 𝐴 + 𝐴𝑡 is symmetric and 𝐴 − 𝐴𝑡 is skew- symmetric.

Any square matrix 𝐴 can be expressed uniquely as a sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric
matrices. That is 𝐴 = 𝑆 + 𝐾, where 𝑆 is symmetric and 𝐾 is skew-symmetric.
1 1
● For any square matrix 𝐴, 𝑆 = 2 (𝐴 + 𝐴𝑡 ) and K = 2 (𝐴 − 𝐴𝑡 ).

3 2 1
Exercise: Express the matrix 𝐴 = (4 5 6) as a sum of symmetric and skew-symmetric
7 8 9
matrices.

Elementary Row Operations

Elementary row operations are used to transform a matrix into a simpler form. They include:

1. Row Switching: Swap two rows. 𝑅𝑖 ↔ 𝑅𝑗

2. Row Multiplication: Multiply a row by a non-zero scalar. 𝑅𝑖 → 𝛼𝑅𝑖 .

3. Row Addition: Add a multiple of one row to another row. 𝑅𝑖 → 𝑅𝑖 + 𝛼𝑅𝑗

3 12 6
Example: Use elementary row operations to transform the matrix 𝐴 = ⌈1 1 −1⌉ into an
1 2 3
upper triangular matrix.

Row Echelon Form (REF) and Reduced Row Echelon Form (RREF)
a. Row Echelon Form (REF)
A matrix is in REF if:
• All non-zero rows are above rows of all zeros.
• The leading coefficient (pivot) of a non-zero row is always to the right of the leading
coefficient of the row above it.
b. Reduced Row Echelon Form (RREF)
A matrix is in RREF if:
• It is in REF.

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• The leading coefficient in each non-zero row is 1.

• All elements in the column above and below each leading 1 are zero.
Exercise:

Determinant of a matrix
The determinant is a scalar value that can be computed from a square matrix and denoted by
det(𝐴) or |𝐴|. It provides important information about the matrix, such as whether it is invertible.
𝑎 𝑐
Determinant of 𝟐 × 𝟐 Matrices: The determinant of a 2 × 2 matrix 𝐴 = [ ], denoted by
𝑑 𝑏
𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) or |𝐴|, is defined by the formula
𝑎 𝑐
𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = | | = 𝑎𝑏 − 𝑐𝑑.
𝑑 𝑏
3 5
Example: Find the determinant of a matrix 𝐴 = [ ].
2 7
Solution: Using the above definition, the determinant of matrix 𝐴 is given by
3 5
det(𝐴) = | | = (3)(7) − (5)(2) = 21 − 10 = 11.
2 7
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13
Determinant of 𝟑 × 𝟑 Matrices: Let 𝐴 = [ 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ] be a 3 × 3 matrix, and
𝑎
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33
𝐴𝑖𝑗 (𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑖, 𝑗 = 1, 2, 3) be the 2 × 2 submatrix of 𝐴 obtained by deleting the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ - row and 𝑗 𝑡ℎ -
column of 𝐴. Then determinant of 𝐴 is denoted by 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) or |𝐴|, is defined as:

|𝐴| = (−1)1+1 𝑎11 |𝐴11 | + (−1)1+2 𝑎12 |𝐴12 | + (−1)1+3 𝑎13 |𝐴13 |
𝑎22 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎23 𝑎21 𝑎22
= 𝑎11 |𝑎 𝑎33 | − 𝑎12 |𝑎31 𝑎33 | + 𝑎13 | 𝑎31 𝑎32 |.
32

Example: Compute the determinants of the following matrices

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2 3 4 3 −2 4
a. 𝐴 = [3 4 5] b. 𝐵 = [−7 −1 0]
4 5 9 1 5 2
Solution: a. Using the above definition, the determinant of the matrix 𝐴 is given by
2 3 4
det(𝐴) = |𝐴| = |3 4 5|
4 5 9
4 5 3 5 3 4
= (−1)1+1 (2) | | + (−1)1+2 (3) | | + (−1)1+3 (4) | |
5 9 4 9 4 5
= 2(4 × 9 − 5 × 5) − 3(3 × 9 − 5 × 4) + 4(3 × 5 − 4 × 4)
= 22 − 21 − 4 = −3
3 −2 4
−1 0 −7 0 −7 −1
det(𝐵) = |𝐵| = |−7 −1 0| = 3 | | − (−2) | |+ 4| |
5 2 1 2 1 5
1 5 2
= 3((−1)2 − 0(2)) + 2(2(−7) − 0(1)) + 4((−7)5 − (−1)5)

= 3(−2) + 2(−14) + 4(−35 + 1) = −6 − 28 − 136 = −170

Singular and Non-singular matrices

● Let 𝐴 be any square matrix. Then, 𝐴 is said to be

❑ non-singular matrix if det(𝐴) ≠ 0

❑ singular matrix if det(𝐴) = 0

Minors and cofactors of elements of matrices

a) Minor
Minor 𝑀𝑖𝑗 of an element 𝑎𝑖𝑗 is the determinant of the submatrix obtained by deleting the
i-th row and j-th column.
b) Cofactor
The cofactor 𝐶𝑖𝑗 is given by 𝐶𝑖𝑗 = (−1)𝑖+𝑗 𝑀𝑖𝑗 .

1 2
Example: For the matrix 𝐴 = [ ]
3 4
The minor of 𝑎11 is 𝑀11 = 4, and the cofactor is 𝐶11 = (−1)1+1 𝑀11 = 1 × 4 = 4.

Example: Find the minors and cofactors of elements of matrix 𝐴, where

−1 3 6
𝐴 = ( 2 −1 5)
−3 7 4

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Solution: To find the minor of a matrix 𝐴, 𝑀𝑖𝑗 = |𝐴𝑖𝑗 |, where 𝐴𝑖𝑗 is obtained by deleting the i-th
row and j-th column of 𝐴.
−1 5 2 5 3 6
𝑀11 = | | = −39, 𝑀12 = | | = 23, 𝑀13 = | | = −30
7 4 −3 4 7 4
3 6 −1 6 −1 3
𝑀21 = | | = −30, 𝑀22 = | | = 14, 𝑀23 = | |=2
7 4 −3 4 −3 7
3 6 −1 6 −1 3
𝑀31 = | | = 21, 𝑀32 = | | = −17, 𝑀33 = | | = −5
−1 5 2 5 2 −1
So, based on this the cofactors are

𝑐11 = (−1)1+1 𝑀11 = −39, 𝑐12 = (−1)1+2 𝑀11 = −23,

𝑐13 = (−1)1+3 𝑀13 = 11, 𝑐21 = (−1)2+1 𝑀21 = 30, 𝑐22 = (−1)2+2 𝑀22 = 14,

𝑐23 = (−1)2+3 𝑀23 = −2, 𝑐31 = (−1)3+1 𝑀31 = 21,

𝑐32 = (−1)3+2 𝑀32 = 17, 𝑐33 = (−1)3+3 𝑀33 = −5

Inverse of matrix
a. Gauss Jordan Method
The Gauss-Jordan method involves augmenting the matrix with the identity matrix and performing
row operations to transform the original matrix into the identity matrix. The augmented part then
becomes the inverse.
1 2
Example 1: 𝐴 = [ ]
3 4
Augmented with the identity matrix
1 21 0
[ | ]
3 40 1
Perform row operations to get:

1 0 −2 1
[ |1 1]
0 1 2 −2

−2 1
Thus, 𝐴−1 == [ 1 − 1]
2 2

2 1 −1
Example 2: Find inverse of the matrix[1 0 −1] using Gauss-Jordan method.
1 1 2
b. Adjoint method

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The inverse of a matrix 𝐴 can be found using the adjoint and determinant:
𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴)
𝐴−1 =
det(𝐴)
Where 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴) is the adjoint matrix (transpose of the cofactor matrix).
Conditions:

● 𝐴 is invertible if and only if 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) ≠ 0.

● Only non-singular matrices have an inverse.

● If 𝐵 is an inverse of 𝐴, then 𝐴 is also an inverse of 𝐵.

● Inverse of a matrix is unique.

1 2
Example: Find the inverse of the matrix 𝐴 = [ ].
0 1
Example: Find the adjoint of 𝐴 and inverse of 𝐴, where
−1 3 6
𝐴 = ( 2 −1 5)
−3 7 4
−39 −23 11
Solution: Compute minors and cofactors to obtain the cofactor matrix: 𝐶 = ( 30 14 −2).
21 17 −5
−39 30 21
Compute adjoint, 𝐴𝑑𝑗 (𝐴) = 𝐶 𝑡 = (−23 14 17 )
11 −2 −5
Compute the determinant: det(𝐴) = 36 ≠ 0
−39 30 21
1 1
Compute inverse: 𝐴−1 = det(𝐴) 𝐴𝑑𝑗(𝐴) = 36 (−23 14 17 )
11 −2 −5
Properties of Invertible Matrices

Let A and B be invertible matrices of order n and 𝛼 a nonzero scalar. Then,

● (𝐴𝑡 )−1 = (𝐴−1 )𝑡

● (𝐴−1 )−1 = 𝐴

● (𝐴𝐵)−1 = 𝐵 −1 𝐴−1
1
● (𝛼 A)−1 = 𝛼 𝐴−1

Properties of Determinants

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If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 𝑛 × 𝑛 matrices, then

1. det(𝐴𝑡 ) = det (𝐴)

1
2. det(𝐴−1 ) = det(𝐴) (Provided 𝐴 is invertible)

3. det(𝐴𝐵) = det (𝐴)det (𝐵) Provided AB is compatible

4. det(𝐴2 ) = (𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴)2. Generally, det(𝐴𝑚 ) = (𝑑𝑒𝑡𝐴)𝑚 .

5. det(kA) = 𝑘 𝑛 det (𝐴) if A is multiplied by the scalar 𝑘.

6. det(𝐵) = 𝑡. 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) (if one row/column scaled by 𝑡).

7. 𝐴 = 𝐵 ⇒ det(𝐴) = det (𝐵)

8. Determinant of triangular/diagonal/scalar matrices = product of diagonal elements.
9. If a row or column is zero, det(𝐴) = 0.
10. If rows or columns are dependent, det(𝐴) = 0.
11. Interchanging rows/columns changes the sign of the determinant.
12. Adding a multiple of one row/column to another does not change the determinant.
Exercise

1. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 2 × 2 matrices with 𝐴 = 6𝐴−1 , then find det(𝐵𝑡 𝐴2 (2𝐵)−1 ) .

2. Find det(6𝐵 𝑡 𝐴2 (3𝐵)−1 ) if 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 2 × 2 matrices where 𝐴 = 4𝐴−1 .

3. If 𝐴 and 𝐵 are 2 × 2 matrices with 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴) = −4 and 𝐶 = (3𝐵)−1 , find det(𝐴2 𝐵 𝑡 𝐶 ) .

4. Find det(2𝐴𝐵 𝑡 𝐶 −1 ) if 𝐴 & 𝐶 are 3 × 3 with 𝐵 = 2𝐴−1 and 𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 32.

5. If 𝐴 and 𝐶 are 3 × 3 matrices where 𝐴 is non-singular matrix with 𝐵 = 6𝐴−1 and

𝑑𝑒𝑡(𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 24, then find det(𝐶 −1 ) .

Solutions of system of linear equations

System of Linear Equations

● Consider a system of 𝑛 linear algebraic equation in 𝑛 unknowns.

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎1𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎2𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏2

𝑎𝑛1 𝑥1 + 𝑎𝑛2 𝑥2 + ⋯ + 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑥𝑛 = 𝑏𝑛

where 𝑎𝑖𝑗 , (𝑖, 𝑗 = 1, 2,3, … , 𝑛) are the known coefficients, 𝑏𝑖 , (𝑖, 𝑗 = 1, 2,3, … , 𝑛) are the known
values and 𝑥𝑖 , (𝑖, 𝑗 = 1, 2,3, … , 𝑛) are the unknowns to be determined.

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● In matrix form the above system can be written as

𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
𝑎11 𝑎12 ⋯ 𝑎𝑛1 𝑏1
𝑎21 𝑎22 ⋯ 𝑎2𝑛 𝑏2
where 𝐴 = [ ⋮ ⋮ ⋮ ] is coefficient matrix, 𝐵 = [ ⋮ ] which is a column vector and
𝑎𝑛1 𝑎𝑛2 𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑏𝑛
𝑥1
𝑥
𝑋 = [ 2 ] is the unknown column vector .
⋮
𝑥𝑛
a. Gaussian Elimination method
Gauss elimination involves transforming the augmented matrix of the system into REF and
then solving for the variables.
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 3
Example 1: Solve { using Gauss elimination method.
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 7
Example 2: Solve the following using Gauss elimination method:

𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = 4

2𝑥1 + 5𝑥2 + 8𝑥3 = 9

3𝑥1 + 7𝑥2 + 11𝑥3 = 13

b. Cramer’s Rule
Cramer's Rule is a method for solving linear systems using determinants.
In general, Cramer’s Rule is the analytical method for solving the system of linear equation given
by

𝐴𝑋 = 𝐵
and the solution takes the form
|𝐵𝑖 |
𝑥𝑖 = , 𝑖 = 1,2,3, … , 𝑛.
|𝐴|

where 𝐵𝑖 is the matrix obtained by replacing the 𝑖 𝑡ℎ column of 𝐴 by the vector 𝐵.

● For three equations and three unknowns:
● Consider the system

𝑎11 𝑥1 + 𝑎12 𝑥2 + 𝑎13 𝑥3 = 𝑏1

𝑎21 𝑥1 + 𝑎22 𝑥2 + 𝑎23 𝑥3 = 𝑏2

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𝑎31 𝑥1 + 𝑎32 𝑥2 + 𝑎33 𝑥3 = 𝑏3

● In matrix form the above system can be written as

𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑎13 𝑥1 𝑏1
𝑎
where 𝐴 = ( 21 𝑎22 𝑎23 ) , 𝑋 = (𝑥2 ) and 𝑏 = (𝑏2 ).
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑎33 𝑥3 𝑏3

● The matrix 𝐵1 is obtained by replacing the 1𝑠𝑡 column of 𝐴 by the vector 𝑏. Thus, |𝐵1 | =
𝑏1 𝑎12 𝑎13
|𝑏2 𝑎22 𝑎23 |.
𝑏3 𝑎32 𝑎33

● The matrix 𝐵2 is obtained by replacing the 2𝑛𝑑 column of 𝐴 by the vector 𝑏. Thus, |𝐵2 | =
𝑎11 𝑏1 𝑎13
|𝑎21 𝑏2 𝑎23 |,
𝑎31 𝑏3 𝑎33

● The matrix 𝐵3 is obtained by replacing the 3𝑟𝑑 column of 𝐴 by the vector 𝑏. Thus, |𝐵3 | =
𝑎11 𝑎12 𝑏1
|𝑎21 𝑎22 𝑏2 |
𝑎31 𝑎32 𝑏3
𝑥 + 2𝑦 = 3
Example 1: Solve { using Cramer’s Rule
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 = 7
Example 2: Solve the following system using Cramer’s Rule

2𝑥1 − 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 1

𝑥1 + 𝑥2 − 𝑥3 = 0

𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −1
Solution: Here
2 −3 1 1 −3 1
● 𝐴 = [1 1 −1] ⟹ |𝐴| = 1, 𝐵1 = [ 0 1 −1 ] ⇒ |𝐵1 | =-3
1 −2 1 −1 −2 1
2 1 1
● 𝐵2 = [1 0 −1] ⇒ |𝐵2 | = −5
1 −1 1
2 −3 1
● 𝐵3 = [ 1 1 0 ] ⇒ |𝐵3 | = −8
1 −2 −1
By Cramer’s rule, we get

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|𝐵1 | |𝐵2 | |𝐵3 |

𝑥1 = |𝐴|
= −3, 𝑥2 = |𝐴|
= −5, 𝑥3 = |𝐴|
= −8

Note: Cramer’s Rule is valid only when the system is square system (i.e., a system in which the
number of equations is equal to the number of variables) and for systems whose coefficient matrix
is non-singular.
Cramer’s Rules as Test for Number of Solutions

Let the equation 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏 represent a system of 𝑛 linear equations in 𝑛 variables.

● If |𝐴| ≠ 0, then the system 𝐴𝑋 = 𝑏 is consistent and has a unique solution.

● If |𝐴| = 0 and |𝐵𝑖 | = 0 for all 𝑖 = 1,2, … , 𝑛, the system is consistent and has infinitely
many solutions (though it cannot be solved using Cramer’s rule).

● Conversely, if |𝐴| = 0 and at least one |𝐵𝑖 | is nonzero, the system has no solution and is
termed inconsistent.
Example: Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the following linear systems.
2𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −1 4𝑥1 − 2𝑥2 + 3𝑥3 = −2
i. { 3𝑥1 + 3𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = 1 ii. { 2𝑥1 + 2𝑥2 + 5𝑥3 = 16
2𝑥1 + 4𝑥2 + 𝑥3 = −2 8𝑥1 − 5𝑥2 − 2𝑥3 = 4

Applications
Area of a triangle in the 𝒙𝒚 −plane

Determinant can be used to find the area of triangle whose vertices are in the 𝑥𝑦-plane. The area
of a triangle with vertices 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and 𝐶(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) is in the plane is given by
𝑥1 𝑦1 1 𝑥1 𝑦1 1
1
𝑥
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (∆𝐴𝐵𝐶) = 2 | 2 𝑦2 1| if |𝑥2 𝑦2 1| > 0 and
𝑥3 𝑦3 1 𝑥3 𝑦3 1
𝑥1 𝑦1 1 𝑥1 𝑦1 1
1
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 (∆𝐴𝐵𝐶) 𝑥
= −2| 2 𝑦2 1| if |𝑥2 𝑦2 1| < 0.
𝑥3 𝑦3 1 𝑥3 𝑦3 1

Example: Find the area of the traingle with vertices 𝑃(1, 1), 𝑄(1, 3) and 𝑅(4, 5).

Solution: Using the cofactor expantion along the first row,

1 1 1
3 1 1 1 1 3
|1 3 1| = 1 | | − 1| | + 1| | = −2 + 3 − 7 = −6 < 0.
5 1 4 1 4 5
4 5 1
1 1 1
1 1
Therefore, Area (∆𝑃𝑄𝑅) = − 2 |1 3 1| = − 2 (−6) = 3 square units.
4 5 1

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Test for collinear points in the 𝒙𝒚-plane

Three points in 𝑥𝑦-plane are said to be collinear if all the three points lie on the same line.
Determinant can be used to determine whether three points in the 𝑥𝑦 -plane are collinear or not.

Three points 𝐴(𝑥1 , 𝑦1 ), 𝐵(𝑥2 , 𝑦2 ) and 𝐶(𝑥3 , 𝑦3 ) in the 𝑥𝑦 -plane are collinear if and only if
𝑥1 𝑦1 1
|𝑥2 𝑦2 1| = 0.
𝑥3 𝑦3 1

Example: Determine if the points 𝐴(1, 1), 𝐵(2, 2) and 𝐶(3,3) are collinear.

Solution:
1 1 1
|2 2 1| = 0.
3 3 1
This implies, the points (1, 1), 𝐵(2, 2) and 𝐶(3,3) are collinear.

Exercise:

1. If the area of a triangle with vertices (−2,0), (2,0), and (0, 𝑘) is 8 square units, determine
the value(s) of k.
2. If the points (3, 𝑘), (𝑘, 1), and (6, −1) are collinear, determine the value(s) of k.

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