WEEK FOUR

TERMS USED IN HIGHWAY SCHEME

Users of the Road

Motor vehicles travel the highway under the control of individual operators. It follows that
the design of a typical roadway should be done to allow for the influence of the various users
of the roadway.

The major users of a given roadway are:-

1. Drivers
2. Pedestrians
3. Motorcycles and bicycle operators.

Driver, Vehicle and Pedestrian Characteristics

In order to incorporate the wide differences existing among each class of user of a highway
and the various kinds of vehicles expected on the roadway with different operating
characteristics into the design process, it is necessary to understand the features of the Driver,
the vehicle and the pedestrian.

This is because vehicles come in different types and shapes and pedestrians and vehicle
operators have different abilities to grasp and respond to highway features and traffic events.

This consideration ensures that the vehicle-capacity characteristics are viewed from the
extremes and the varied characteristics exhibited by operators of vehicles (drivers) and
pedestrians are well taken care of.

i.​ Driver Characteristics

In any discussion of human beings as vehicle operators, it must be recognized at the outset
that there is no such things as an average driver or an average driving condition.
Drivers in a single age group have different abilities to see, process information, judge and
react. These abilities may change under certain effects. So much of the safe and efficient
operation of a highway scheme depends on the tendencies exhibited by the driver.

There should be an expected coordination of the decision and actions taken by a vehicle
operator. These are in turn, controlled by the human sensory process that depends entirely on
the operation of the central nervous system.

Drivers often react and act based on objects viewed, perceived motion, distortion in balance
(e.g. negotiating a bend) and sound.

Thus the senses frequently used are those of sight (visual), Auditory, Kinesthetic
(movement), vestibules (equilibrium balance). The understanding or perception of these
various senses and the subsequent development of alertness vary from driver to driver and
across age –barriers. Thus the sense of sight declines with age so also is the ability to judge,
even though older drivers may compensate for some of these deficiencies by experience and
by being more cautious.

The driver characteristic is fundamentally described by the perception – reaction time.

Perception-Reaction (PIEV) time is defined as the time that elapses between the observation
of a particular situation on the highway and the initial action that is taken in response to such
a situation.

It is broken down into 4 components:

i. Perception: Perception time is the time required for the sensations received by the eyes or
ears to be transmitted to the brain through the nervous system and spinal cord.
ii. Intellection: It is the time required for understanding the situation. It is also the time
required for comparing the different thoughts, regrouping and registering new sensations.
iii. Emotion: It is the time elapsed during emotional sensations and mental disturbance such
as fear, anger etc or any other emotional feeling.
iv. Volition: Volition time is the time taken for the final action. The will to take some act or
produce some action is volition.

PIEV time is the time from when the situation or object is seen to when the operator has a
feel of the brake pedal and it varies from 0.5 to 3 secs or more. The Perception-Reaction time
forms the basis for the design of safe stopping distance (the time it takes to bring a moving
vehicle to a stop) and passing distances (minimum sight distance required to overtake a
slower vehicle) on highways.

Other driver related characteristics are: -

i. Fear of possible accidents may control driver decisions: Operating speeds are ordinarily set
instinctively at the highest level of which the driver feels that his information gathering, data
processing, and reacting abilities match the situation, so that he feels secure.
ii. Fear of arrest and punishment also affects driver behaviour, for instance drivers reduced
their speed when they sight highway patrol car.

ii.​ Pedestrian Characteristics

Pedestrians are one of the most vulnerable road-user groups throughout the world. A large
number of pedestrian trips involve road crossing at intersections. In high-income countries,
pedestrians cross the road in an orderly manner following the pedestrian traffic lights at
intersections. Therefore, driver behaviour largely dictates the safety of the pedestrians while
crossing at controlled intersections.
The design of safe and convenient facilities for pedestrians is largely dependent on the
evaluated characteristics of pedestrians. This is necessary to prevent the casualties that arise
from a collapsed highway which is usually the pedestrian as this class forms the major user of
the roadway.

The characteristics exhibited by the pedestrian that are of importance include space
requirement and walking (running) speeds. Also the nature and characters of a group of
human traffic is important.

Empirical studies show that the pedestrian facility is based on shoulder breadth and body
girth of the average human body. These are respectively 570mm and 325mm and serve as a
guide for the design of the facility. Walking speed of pedestrians varies from 0.61 to 1.83mls
for conditions of free movement. Variation depends on the condition existing.

iii.​ Vehicle and Vehicular Characteristics

It is quite important to study the various vehicular characteristics which affect the design
and traffic performance because it is possible to design a road for any vehicle. The basic
criterion of highway engineering is to cater for the needs of existing and anticipated traffic. It
will not be economically feasible to keep on increasing the geometric standards and thickness
of pavements from time to time to meet the needs of a few vehicles whose dimensions and
weight are increased.

The physical characteristics of vehicles in use and anticipated use for the future are essential
in the design of roads. The physical characteristics include the weight and size of different
kinds of vehicles.

These are indicated by tonnage, overall length, width, wheel base, overhang, thread width etc.
They are given in standard tables for different classes of vehicles with specified min, max and
accepted values.

i. Width – the width of the vehicle will affect the lane width, shoulders and width of parking
spaces.
ii. Length - the length of vehicle will affect the extra widening and minimum turning radius,
passing sight distance, road capacity and parking facility.
iii. Height – The height of the vehicle affects clearance to be provided for electric service
lines, tunnel, under bridge and under structure.
iv. Weight – weight of vehicles affect pavement thickness requirement, and limiting gradient
and design of bridges as there are standard permissible axle load limits.
v. Speed – vehicle speed affects horizontal and vertical alignment design, super elevation
limiting radius, sight distances, grades and width of pavement on straight and curves.
 WEEK FIVE​
DESIGN REQUIREMENT FOR A HIGHWAY SCHEME
​
Geometric Design
This is the process of establishing the visible (physical) elements of the road such as
pavement slope, gradient, right of way etc. It is the process of relating the physical element to
the vehicle, driver and pedestrian characteristics as well as to merge with the natural terrain.

The roadway elements such as pavement slope, gradient, right of way etc., affect
transportation in various ways. Central portion of the pavement is slightly raised and is
sloped to either sides so as to prevent the ponding of water on the road surface. This will
deteriorate the riding quality since the pavement will be subjected to many failures like
potholes etc. Minimum lane width should be provided to reduce the chances of accidents.
Also the speed of the vehicles will be reduced and time consumed to reach the destination
will also be more. Right of way width should be properly provided. If the right of way width
becomes less, future expansion will become difficult and the development of that area will be
adversely affected.

The main criteria that guide the highway Geometric Design procedure include:-

1.​ Traffic characteristics i.e. traffic volume or roadway capacity

2.​ Design speed.
3.​ Road alignment including horizontal and vertical profile.
4.​ Cross –sectional elements.
5.​ Gradients.

Other factors to varying degree affect the design standard adopted for the geometric element.
They are the functional classification of the roadway, topography, cost and available funds,
safety consideration (signing), society and environmental factors.
Possibly the most important single rule in highway design is consistency by making every
element conform to the driver’s expectations and by avoiding abrupt changes in standard can
a smooth flowing, accident free facility be produced.

1.​ TRAFFIC CHARACTERISTIC FOR DESIGN​

Systematic traffic surveys, traffic studies, and their scientific analysis are essential in traffic
engineering and find wide application in planning for future needs of roads, improvement of
existing facilities, geometric design aspects, pavement design, and traffic regulation and
control.

Traffic surveys, also called traffic census, include types of traffic, size and weight, traffic
flow, traffic volume per hour and per day, including seasonal variations/annual variations,
distribution in different parts of a road network, and distribution in different directions at
intersections.

The function of a proposed highway largely depends on the volume and composition of
traffic. Traffic flow on a highway is measured by the number of vehicles at a particular
station during a given interval of time. Traffic flow at a given location depends on numerous
factors peculiar to that site. It varies by hours of the day, days of the week and month of the
year. Traffic parameters are:
Average Daily Traffic (ADT): the average or an approximate number of vehicles passing a
specific point on a roadway on an average day. It means the volume of traffic passing through
a segment of a road in both directions during a period of time, divided by the number of days
in the period and which is estimated to represent traffic volume for an average day of the
year.

Design hourly volume (DHV): It is a predictable value estimated based on hourly volume
which can be used for the purpose of design.​
​
Highway Design Capacity: Capacity of the highway is defined as the maximum number of
vehicles which has a reasonable expectation of passing over a section of a lane or a roadway
in one direction or in both directions for a two lane during a given time period under
prevailing roadway and traffic condition. This is important to the operation of the highway.

Purposes of Traffic Volume Study

• To establish relative importance of any route or road facility.
• To decide the priority for improvement and expansion of a road and to allot the funds
accordingly.
• To plan and design the existing and new facilities of traffic operations on the road.
To make analysis of traffic patterns and trends on the road.
• To do structural design of pavements and geometrically design of roads by classified
traffic volume study.
• To plan one-way street and other regulatory measures by volume distribution study.
• To do design of road intersections, planning signal timings and channelization by
turning movement study.
• To do planning of sidewalks, crosswalks and pedestrian signals by pedestrian volume
study.
• To do economic studies after estimating the highway user's revenue.

Traffic volume counts can be obtained by the following methods:

i. Manual Method
A team of observers can record not only traffic volume but also the types of vehicles, turning
movements, directions of movements, laden weights of trucks and other such details that
cannot
be captured by using automatic methods.

However, it is not practicable to conduct manual counts for all the 24hours of the day and on
all days of the year. But it is the most reliable method to obtain traffic volume by classified
kinds of traffic and directional volume for short counts needed for intersection design.
Statistical sampling techniques are used to extrapolate short-term counts.

Data may be recorded on prescribed sheets with appropriate tabular format or using
multibank
hand tally counters. Daily summary and weekly summary sheets are prepared.

ii. Video Photographic Method

Video photographic method gives a permanent record of volume counts. Its analysis can be
done conveniently by the use of the video which gives the required data for the analysis. By
using video photographic method one can perform the classification of traffic volume easily
by counting different type of vehicles. These vehicle classification counts are used in
estimating structural and geometric design, computing expected highway user revenue and
capacity. It can be used for pedestrian data extraction also.

iii. Automatic Counters

Automatic counters use less number of observers and have the advantage of collecting a
continuous record of traffic movement. The disadvantage is that details of classified traffic
and
other relevant information cannot be got.

1.​ Pneumatic Counters:

In this type, the counter is activated by an air switch attached to a flexible hose set across the
road over which vehicles pass.

2.​ Electrical Counters:

In this method, the counter is activated by the closing of an electrical circuit by the moving
vehicle.
 3.​ Photo-Electric Cell Counters:
In this method, the counter is activated by the interruption of light rays falling on a photo-
electric cell placed on the side of the road as the vehicle moves past it.

Counting Periods
The time and length that a specific location should be counted depends upon the data desired
and the application in which the data are used. Counting periods vary from short counts at
spot
points to continuous counts at permanent stations. Hourly counts are generally significant in
all engineering design, while daily and annual traffic is important in economic calculations,
road system classification and investment programmes. Continuous counts are made to
establish national and local highway use, trends of use and behaviour and for estimating
purposes. Some of the more commonly used intervals are:

●​ 24-hour counts normally covering any 24-hour period between noon Monday and
noon Friday. If a specific day count is desired, the countshould be from midnight to
midnight.
●​ 16 hour counts usually 5:30 am to 9:30 pm or 6 am to 9 pm.
●​ 12 hour counts usually from 7 am to 7 pm
●​ Peak Period counting times vary depending upon size of metropolitan area, proximity
to major generators and the type of facility. Commonly used periods are 7 to 9 am and
4 to 6 pm.

Presentation of Traffic Volume Study Data:

The data obtained from traffic volume studies are presented in different forms for arriving at
appropriate conclusions depending on the purpose of studies:
(a) Hourly, daily, weekly, seasonal, and annual variations of traffic in the form of charts or
graphs. These will help in evaluating the existing facilities and for traffic regulation and
control.
(b) Annual average daily traffic (AADT) of the total traffic as well as classified traffic are
determined.

2. DESIGN SPEED
This is defined as the speed determined for design and correlation of the physical features of
a highway that influence vehicle operation. It is the maximum safe speed that can be
maintained over a specified section of highway when conditions are so favourable that the
design feature of the highway governs.

Design speed can be used to design the geometry of road like horizontal and vertical curves,
super elevation etc.
​
Selection of the proper design speed is extremely important, because this choice sets the limit
for curvature, sight distance and other geometric features. Design speed range from 58 –
112k/hr with significant intermediate values depending on the classification of highways. It is
advisable to use a constant speed in the design of roadway of substantial large distance.
Changes in speed as informed by terrain or other conditions are affected over sufficient
distance for gradual change in speed.

3. ROAD ALIGNMENT
The alignment of a road is the positioning of the centreline of the highway and a series of
straight lines called tangents connected by circular curves. Horizontal and vertical alignments
are mainly the two types of alignment. Centreline of the road follows the horizontal
alignment and the vertical gradient follows the vertical gradient. Alignment must be
consistent. Near curves, chances of accidents are more. Speed of the vehicles is also affected.
Sudden changes from flat to sharp curves and long tangents followed by sharp curves must be
avoided; otherwise accident hazard will be created. Placing circular curves of different radii
end to end or having a short tangent between two curves should be avoided, unless suitable
transitions between them are provided. Long, flat curves are preferable at times.

4.​ CROSS SECTIONAL ELEMENTS​

The major cross section elements considered in the design of streets and highways include the
pavement surface type, cross slope, lane widths, medians shoulders, kerbs, gutters/ditches,
Right Of Way R.O.W, guardrails etc.The design of the cross section of highways elements
lanesdepends on variables such as volume of traffic, character and speed of vehicles.
Therefore the design of the cross section of highway should be able to accommodate these
variables.
The types of roads in cross-section are 2 , 3 lanes, multilane undivided and multilane divided.
Two lane roadways constitute the bulk of rural roads and are about 7.5m and with 3m
shoulders on either side. Multilane highways have similar travel width with 2 lane roads with
the provision of median on divided highways.
​
Shoulder is that portion of roadway between the outer edge of the traffic lane and the inside
edge of the ditch, gutter kerb or slope. Shoulders provide a place for vehicle to park when
disabled or when stopped for any other reasons. The carriage way intended for one line of
traffic movement is called a traffic lane.

A single Carriageway
 A dual Carriageway

5.​ GRADIENT
Gradient of Road is defined as the rate of rising or falls along the length of the road with
respect to the horizontal alignment. This is the rate of rise or fall of road level along its
length. When the road is ascending the inclination is said to be positive but when descending,
the inclination is said to be negative. Determination of the gradient between any two stretches
of the highway is one of the most important factors of highway design. Higher grades affect
the operating cost​
of vehicles as there is increased consumption of fuel and reduced speed.​
Types of gradients
i) Ruling gradient,
ii) Limiting gradient,
iii) Exceptional gradient and
iv) Minimum gradient

(i) Ruling gradient

The ruling gradient or the design gradient is the maximum gradient with which the designer
attempts to design the vertical profile of the road. This depends on the terrain, length of the
grade, speed, pulling power of the vehicle and the presence of the horizontal curve. In flatter
terrain, it may be possible to provide flat gradients, but in hilly terrain it is not economical
and sometimes not possible also. The ruling gradient is adopted by the designer by
considering a particular speed as the design speed and for a design vehicle with standard
dimensions.

(ii) Limiting gradient

This gradient is adopted when the ruling gradient results in enormous increase in cost of
construction. On rolling terrain and hilly terrain it may be frequently necessary to adopt
limiting gradient. But the length of the limiting gradient stretches should be limited.

(iii) Exceptional gradient

Exceptional gradients are very steeper gradients given at unavoidable situations. They
should be limited for short stretches not exceeding about 100 meters at a stretch. In
mountainous and steep terrain, successive exceptional gradients must be separated by a
minimum 100 meter length gentler gradient.
(iv.)Minimum gradient – This type is provided on a flat or level road to drain off the rain​
water. Its value depends on the topography type of soil, type of soil, run off . In general 1 in
200 is sufficient but for cement concrete surface a grade of 1 in 500 is quite sufficient.