VIVEKANANDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY
GUDIMAVU,KUMBALAGODU,BANGALORE-74

ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY STUDY MATERIAL

Module-2
Energy Conversion and Storage

Prepared by

Dr.H.G.Bheemanna, M.Sc., Ph.D

Professor
Scheme: 2022
AY: 2022-2023
Module-2: Energy Conversion and Storage (8 hr) Batteries: Introduction, classification of batteries.
Components, construction, working and applications of modern batteries; Na-ion battery, solid state
battery (Li-polymer battery) and flow battery (Vanadium redox flow battery). Fuel Cells: Introduction,
construction, working and applications of methanol–oxygen and polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM)
fuel cell. Solar Energy: Introduction, importance of solar PV cell, construction and working of solar PV
cell, advantages and disadvantages.

1. What are batteries? Give the classification of batteries or galvanic cells with examples.
Battery is a device consisting of two or more Galvanic cells connected either in series or parallel to
produce electrical energy. It acts as a portable source of electrical energy.
Classification of Battery: Batteries are classified in to following three types.
i) Primary batteries ii) Secondary batteries and iii) Reserved batteries
i) Primary batteries
The batteries which cannot be recharge and reused are called primary batteries. In primary
batteries, redox reaction cannot be reversed by supplying current from external source. Hence, they are
also known as Irreversible batteries or non-rechargeable batteries. They are designed for single
discharge.
Eg. Dry cell, Zn air battery, Li-MnO2 battery etc.,
ii ) Secondary batteries
The batteries which can be recharge and reused are called secondary batteries. In secondary batteries,
redox reaction can be reversed by supplying current from external source. Hence, they are also known
as reversible batteries or rechargeable batteries. They are designed for multiple discharge.
In secondary batteries the externally supplied electrical energy will be stored in the form of chemical
energy and hence, they are also known as storage batteries.
Eg. Lead acid battery, Ni-MH battery, Lithium ion battery etc.,
iii) Reserve batteries
The batteries in which one of the key component is kept separated from the rest of the battery and it is
added to the battery prior to usage is called Reserve batteries. Since, the key components is separated,
the problem of self-discharge is essentially eliminated. Generally, electrolyte solution is kept out side
the battery.
Eg; Li-V2O5, Mg-AgCl battery
Basic concepts – The principal components of a battery:
The basic electrochemical unit of a battery is a galvanic cell. The components of such a cell are
shown schematically in the figure.
 Terminals

Seal with vent

Anode Cathode

Anode active mass Cathode active mass

Separator

Electrolyte

Principal components of a battery

The principal components of a battery are:

1. The anode or negative electrode – It gives out electrons to the external circuit by undergoing
oxidation during electrochemical reaction.
2. The cathode or positive electrode – It accepts the electrons from the external circuit and causes
the reduction of some substances.
3. The electrolyte – The electrolyte is commonly a solution or slurry of acids, alkalies or salts
having high ionic conductivity. Solid electrolytes with appreciable ionic conductivity are also
used at the operating temperature of the cell.
4. The separator – The materials which electronically isolate anode and cathode in a battery to
prevent internal short circuiting are referred to as separators. They are permeable to the
electrolyte so as to maintain desired ionic conductivity. Thus, their main function is to transport
ions from anode to cathode compartment and vice versa. Materials such as fibrous cellulose,
vinyl polymers, polyolefins, cellophane and naphion membranes are commonly used as
separators
2. Describe the construction, working and applications of Sodium-ion battery
Sodium Ion Battery:
The sodium-ion battery (SIB) is a type of rechargeable battery analogous to the lithium-ion
battery but using sodium ions (Na+) as the charge carriers.

Anode: Hard carbon is used as the standard anode material in SIB, that stores sodium ions at low
potential
Cathode: Cathode material is layered Sodium oxides (NaCoO 2)
Electrolyte: Sodium – ion batteries can use aqueous as well as non-aqueous electrolyte. NaClO4 ,
NaPF6, etc. dissolved in mixed organic solvents (propylene carbonate, ethylene carbonate, dimethoxy
ethane, etc.). Thin aluminium foil is used as the current collector .
Separator: Polymer separator or glass fiber.
Cell Potential: 1.85 to 3.45 V

SIBs generally contain two electrodes, one anode and one cathode. A polymer separator is placed
between the two electrodes which allows only sodium ions to move freely between the electrodes.
During discharging, sodium ions are extracted from the anode and move towards the cathode through
electrolyte. During charging the reverse process occurs where sodium ions are extracted from the
cathode and reinserted into the anode. The discharge and charge reactions are given below.
During discharging:
At anode: C-Na Na+ + e- + C

At cathode: Na+ + e- + CoO2 Na-CoO2

During recharging:

At anode: Na-CoO2 Na+ + e- + CoO

At cathode: Na+ + e- + C C-Na

Applications: Cellular phones, laptops, electric vehicles and power tools

3. Describe the construction, working and applications of Lithium-polymer battery

Lithium polymer battery (LiPo)

The principle of operation and construction of Li-polymer batteries are identical to those of Li-ion
batteries. The group of batteries in which Lithium metal is used as anode are called Lithium batteries.
The differ the selection of cathode chemicals and electrolyte solutions.
Definition: ‘Lithium-polymer (Li-polymer) batteries are rechargeable batteries that use a solid or gel-
like polymer electrolyte instead of a liquid electrolyte.’
Lithium-polymer battery(LPB): It is a secondary battery which can be recharge and reused. It is
capable of producing high voltage up to 3.7V after complete charging.
1. Anode: is made up of carbon electrode with thin copper foil as current collector.
2. Cathode: Commonly made from lithium metal oxides, such as lithium cobalt oxide (LiCoO₂),
lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO₄), or lithium manganese oxide (LiMn₂O₄). with thin aluminum
foil as current collector.
3. Electrolyte: A solid or gel-like polymer that allows lithium ions to move between the anode
and cathode. Examples include polyethylene oxide (PEO), polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), or
polyacrylonitrile (PAN), often mixed with lithium salts like lithium hexafluorophosphate
(LiPF6) to improve conductivity.
4. The separator: : A thin, porous membrane that prevents direct contact between the anode and
cathode while allowing lithium ions to pass through. Common materials used for separators in
LiPo batteries include: Polyethylene (PE), Polypropylene (PP), Polyethylene terephthalate
(PET), Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) .
5. Cell representation: Li(x)/Li+, C/LiPF6/LiCl in ethylene / Li(1 -x)-CO 2

Discharging reaction
At Anode: The Li atoms in carbon electrode undergoes oxidation producing electrons and Li+ ions.
The electrons flows from anode to cathode through external circuit and Li + ions through electrolyte
solution
Li x -C x Li+ + C + x e-
At Cathode: The Li+ ions undergo reduction to lithium metal. The Li atoms are inserted in to the
layered structure of cobalt oxide.
x Li+ + x e- + Li (1-x) CoO2 Li - CoO2
Recharging reaction
At Anode: The Li atoms in cobalt oxide layer undergoes oxidation producing electrons and Li + ions.
The electrons flows from anode to cathode through external circuit and Li + ions through electrolyte
solution
Li - CoO2 x Li+ + x e- + Li (1-x) CoO2
At Cathode: The Li + ions undergo reduction to lithium metal. The Li atoms are inserted in to the
layered structure of carbon
x Li+ + C + x e- Li x -C
Applications: Li- polymer battery is used in
1. Cellular phones 2. Lap tops 3. Computers 4. Electric vehicles. 5. Military devices 6. Power tools
7.aero space etc

4. Describe the construction, working and applications of Vanadium redox flow battery (VRFB).
 A vanadium redox battery consists of an assembly/stacking of power cells in which two
electrolytes are separated by a proton exchange membrane.
 The electrodes in a VRB cell are carbon based such as carbon felt, carbon paper, carbon cloth,
and graphite felt.
 Both electrolytes are vanadium-based. The electrolyte in the cathode contains V4+ & V5+ ions,
while the electrolyte in the anode consists of V3+ & V2+ ions.
 The electrolytes can be prepared by electrolytically dissolving vanadium pentoxide (V2O5)
in sulfuric acid (H 2SO4). The solution remains strongly acidic in use.
 The membrane is another critical component. The most common membrane material is per
fluorinated sulfonic acid (PFSA) (Nafion).
 However, vanadium ions tend to penetrate the membrane and destabilize the cell. So
penetration is reduced with hybrid sheets made by growing tungsten trioxide nanoparticles on
the surface of single-layered graphene oxide sheets.
 These hybrid sheets are then embedded into a sandwich structured PFSA membrane reinforced
with polytetrafluoroethylene (Teflon).
 Working of Vanadium Flow Redox Batteries
Discharging,
At anode
V2+ is oxidized to V3+ ions and an electron is released to do work in the external circuit
At Cathode
V5+ in the form of VO2 + accepts an electron from the external circuit and is reduced to V4+ in
the form of VO 2+.
Hydrogen (H+) ions are exchanged between the anode and cathode to maintain charge
neutrality. The hydrogen ions diffuse through the anion or cation-ion permeable polymer
membrane that separates the half cells

The reaction uses the half-reactions

𝑉 2+ + 𝑉𝑂2 + + 2𝐻 + ⇋ 𝑉𝑂2+ + 𝑉 3+ + 𝐻2

Applications:

VRB battery can be used in utility-scale energy storage projects, microgrids, renewable energy
generation integration, grid smoothing, backup power, and in remote and off-grid power applications.

5.What are fuel cells? Describe the construction and working of Methanol – Oxygen (CH3OH-
O2) fuel cell. Mention its applications
The galvanic cells, which converts chemical energy of fuel directly into electric energy by electro
chemical combustion process are called fuel cells.
Eg: H2 - O2 fuel cell, Methanol - O2 fuel cell etc.
A fuel cell consists of two electrodes and an electrolyte. However, in fuel cells, fuel and oxygen
(reactants) are continuously supplied to the anode and cathode respectively and at the same time. The
fuel undergoes oxidation at anode liberating electrons and oxygen undergoes reduction at cathode by
consuming electrons. These cells are capable of supplying current as long as they are supplied with the
reactants.

A fuel cell may be represented as Fuel/electrode/electrolyte/electrode/oxidant

At Anode: Fuel Oxidized Product + n e-

At Cathode: O2 + n e- Reduced Product

Fuel + O2 Oxidized Product + Reduced Pproduct

Methanol oxygen fuel cell is an example for hydrocarbon fuel cell. It converts chemical energy of fuel directly
into electric energy by electro chemical combustion process. It consists of porous Ni electrodes. The anode is
impregnated with Pt or Pd catalyst whereas the cathode with Ag catalyst. A 3.7 M H2SO4 was used as an
electrolyte. During the working of fuel cell, methanol is passed over anode and oxygen at cathode continuously
as shown in fig. Anode and cathode electrode are separated by a sulphonic acid polymer membrane, which
allows conduction of proton between two electrodes and also minimizes the diffusion of methanol into the
cathode.

Cell reactions: CH3OH + H2O CO2 + 6H+ + 6e-

3/2 O 2 + 6H++ 6e- 3H2O

CH3OH +3/2 O 2 CO 2 + 2H2O

Applications:
1. Transportation: Powering fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) for zero-emission transportation.
2. Stationary Power Generation: Providing backup power and distributed energy generation for
residential and commercial buildings.
3. Portable Electronics: Powering laptops, mobile phones, and other portable devices where long
runtime and quick recharge are beneficial.
4. Military and Aerospace: Used in applications requiring lightweight and reliable power sources.
6. Describe the construction and working of Proton Exchange Membrane Electrolysis or Polymer
electrolyte membrane fuel cell. Mention its advantages.
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) Fuel Cell
Introduction:
Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells are a type of proton-exchange membrane fuel cell that
operate at relatively low temperatures (typically around 80-100°C).
Definition: ‘A Proton Exchange Membrane (PEM) fuel cell is a type of fuel cell that generates
electrical power by converting the chemical energy of hydrogen and oxygen into electricity through an
electrochemical process.’
Construction of PEM Fuel Cell
1. Anode: Typically, platinum (Pt) nanoparticles supported on carbon.
2. Cathode: Similar to the anode, usually platinum (Pt) nanoparticles supported on carbon.
3. Electrolyte: A proton-conducting membrane separates the anode and cathode compartments.
perfluorosulfonic acid polymer, is commonly used due to its high proton conductivity and chemical
stability.
4.Separator: Perfluorosulfonic acid polymer (Nafion)

Working:
1. Fuel supply: Hydrogen gas (H₂) is supplied to the anode, where it undergoes oxidation, while
oxygen gas (O₂) from the air is supplied to the cathode, where it undergoes reduction.
2. Electrochemical Reactions:
At the anode: Hydrogen molecules are split into protons and electrons. Protons migrate
through the PEM to the cathode side.
H 2  2H   2e 
At cathode: Oxygen is reduced by accepting protons and electrons, forming water.
O 2  4H   4e   2H 2 O
3. Electron Flow: Electrons generated at the anode flow through an external circuit, creating
electrical current. Protons generated at the anode pass through the PEM to the cathode.
 4. Electrical Power Generation: The flow of electrons through the external circuit generates
electrical power that can be used to drive motors, charge batteries, or power electronic devices.
5. Water Management: Water is produced at the cathode as a byproduct of the oxygen reduction
reaction. Excess water is removed from the cell to prevent flooding and maintain efficient
operation.
Applications of PEM Fuel Cells
5. Transportation: Powering fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs) for zero-emission transportation.
6. Stationary Power Generation: Providing backup power and distributed energy generation for
residential and commercial buildings.
7. Portable Electronics: Powering laptops, mobile phones, and other portable devices where long
runtime and quick recharge are beneficial.
8. Military and Aerospace: Used in applications requiring lightweight and reliable power sources.
Additional information:

Galvanic Cells (Batteries) Fuel cell

1.They convert chemical energy in to electrical energy 1.They convert fuel energy in to electrical energy

2.The driving force is Spontaneous reduction reaction 2.The driving force is Electro chemical combustion reaction

3.They store chemical energy 3 Chemical energy is not stored

4. Reactants are stored inside the battery 4. Reactants are supplied from outside.
5. By products are harmful and hence they are not eco 5. By products are not harmful and hence they are eco friendly
friendly
6. Efficiency is low 6. Efficiency is very high
7. They produce electrical energy as long as reactants 7. They produce electrical energy as long as reactants are
are present. Supplied continuously.
8. They require recharging 8. They do not require recharging.
9. Maintenance is needed. 9. Low maintenance.

7. What is a Photovoltaic cell? Explain the construction, working and applications of a PV cell
It is a semiconductor device that converts solar energy directly into electricity. The conversion is
based on the principle of photovoltaic effect.
Photovoltaic cell mainly consists of a p-n junction diode made from Si semiconductor. It has two
electrical contacts, one is a metallic grid over n-type and second is a layer of silver metal at the back of
p-type semiconductor. An antireflective layer (SiN) is coated in between the metal grids to prevent
reflection of solar light. When sunlight having suitable frequency (E = hv) falls on p-n diode, electrons
are ejected from p-type semiconductor creating an electron –hole pair. These ejected electrons move to
n-side through p-n junction. Since p-n junction allows only one-way movement of electrons, these
electrons must flow through the external circuit to recombine with holes present in p-side of
semiconductor. This movement of electrons through external circuit generates an electric current.
Electrical energy obtained from a PV-cell is directly proportional to area of the cell exposed to light
radiation and intensity of incident light radiation which can eject electrons.
Applications: 1. Biogas solar cell – transportation, solar cells in calculators, solar cell panels
2. PV-cell system can be used to supply electricity for water pumps, laptops
computers and military vehicles
3. PV-cell is used for LED bulbs etc.
8. Explain the Advantages and disadvantages of PV cells:
Advantages of PV- cells:
1. They are environmental friendly.
2. They need no recharging
3. They do not suffer wear and tear as they have no movable parts
4. They do not corrode
5. They operate at ambient temperature
6. They are renewable
Disadvantages of PV – cells:
1. They are quite expensive to install.
2. They require storage system This is because solar energy is not available throughout the
day and night and also not equally in all reasons and areas.
3. DC power output obtained in solar cells and it must be converted to the AC power for use.
Circuit
Engg. Chemistry study material, VKIT, B’lore-74 Page 13