TCT 102

INSTRUCTIONAL METHODS
 Unit Topics
 The nature and structure of teaching and learning.
 A systems approach to teaching.
 Educational aims and objectives
 Teaching strategies and methods
 Instructional resources
 Planning for teaching.
 Communication in the classroom.
 Motivation and sustenance of Learner’s interest.
 Providing for individual differences.
 Procedures for measuring and evaluation learning outcomes.
Topic 1: The nature and structure of teaching
and learning
Teaching
The process of telling or showing a person how to do something through talking, telling, explaining,
showing illustrating and demonstrating.
• As a process, effective teaching involves a series of steps which include:
i. Consultation of syllabus
ii. Choice of topics to teach
iii. Interpretation of the objectives
iv. Selection of the teaching methods
v. Selection of resource materials and planning for the lesson
vi. Actual classroom presentation of lessons
vii. Assessment of the learning outcome
Roles of a teacher
• Set high expectations which inspire, motivate and challenge pupils. This
includes establishing a safe and stimulating environment, setting goals
that stretch and challenge pupils, and demonstrating consistently the
positive attitudes, values and behaviour which are expected of pupils.
• Promote good progress and outcomes by pupils. This includes being
accountable for pupils’ attainment, progress and outcomes, being aware of
pupils’ capabilities and their prior knowledge, and planning teaching to
build on these, guiding pupils to reflect on the progress they have made
and their emerging needs, and encouraging pupils to take a responsible
and conscientious attitude to their own work and study.
• Demonstrate good subject and curriculum knowledge. This includes
having a secure knowledge of the curriculum, demonstrating a critical
understanding of developments in the curriculum, and demonstrating an
understanding of and taking responsibility for promoting high standards of
literacy, articulacy, and the correct use of standard English.
Cont’d
• Plan and teach well-structured lessons. This includes imparting knowledge and developing understanding
through effective use of lesson time, promoting a love of learning, and setting homework and planning other out-
of-class activities to consolidate and extend the knowledge and understanding pupils have acquired.
• Adapt teaching to respond to the strengths and needs of all pupils. This includes knowing when and how to
differentiate appropriately, using approaches which enable pupils to be taught effectively, having a secure
understanding of how a range of factors can inhibit pupils’ ability to learn, and how best to overcome these, and
demonstrating an awareness of the physical, social and intellectual development of children, and know how to
adapt teaching to support pupils’ education at different stages of development.
• Make accurate and productive use of assessment. This includes knowing and understanding how to assess,
making use of formative and summative assessment to secure pupils’ progress, and giving pupils regular
feedback, both orally and through accurate marking, and encourage pupils to respond to the feedback.
• Manage behaviour effectively to ensure a good and safe learning environment. This includes having clear rules
and routines for behaviour in classrooms, having high expectations of behaviour, using praise, sanctions and
rewards consistently and fairly, and maintaining good relationships with pupils.
Learning
Learning is the process of acquiring new understanding,
knowledge, behaviors, skills, values, attitudes, and preferences.
The ability to learn is possessed by humans, non-human
animals, and some machines
Theories of learning

Learning theories describe the conditions and processes through

which learning occurs, providing teachers with models to develop
instruction sessions that lead to better learning. These theories
explain the processes that people engage in as they make sense
of information, and how they integrate that information into their
mental models so that it becomes new knowledge. Learning
theories also examine what motivates people to learn, and what
circumstances enable or hinder learning. e.g. Behaviorism ·
Cognitivism · Constructivism · Humanism · Connectivism
Types of education
There three forms of education:
i. Formal education – education carried out in institutions which follow a structured curriculum. Such
institutions include schools, colleges and universities with syllabuses, course outlines and timetables to be
followed.
ii. Non – formal education – any organized activity out of the structured or formal system but which is meant to
meet the needs of a particular group of people e.g children, youths or adults in the community. Examples
include sensitization seminar by agricultural extension officer due to livestock disease outbreak or health and
family planning officer explaining to a group of people on new method of practicing family planning.
iii. Informal education – unstructured learning that takes place unconsciously at home, among peers or through
the environment. It pursues its own course at its own pace in a spontaneous way throughout a person’s life.
Training
• Training (practical education) is a process that helps people
learn the necessary skills to perform their jobs effectively. It can
be delivered in various formats, including classroom-based,
online, and on-the-job. The type of training required will vary
depending on the level of skill required for the job. Classroom-
based training is typically used for new employees or for
those who need to learn new skills.
Education
The act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge,
developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and generally
of preparing oneself or others intellectually for mature life.
Pedagogy
• Pedagogy is the combination of teaching methods (what
instructors do), learning activities (what instructors ask their
students to do), and learning assessments (the assignments,
projects, or tasks that measure student learning).
 TOPIC 2: SYTEMS APPROACH
• System – a set of elements, components or objects which are
interrelated and work towards an overall objective.
• Human body systems – digestive, circulatory and nervous systems
• Mechanical systems – music, refrigeration, generator, computer
systems
• Social systems – family, educational, political parties, trade unions,
industries and churches.
• Natural systems – physical entities such as rivers, forests e.t.c
• Components of a system
• Components of a system include:
• Goals – this is the target which the system seeks to achieve. All
components of the system work towards the achievement of the set
goal.
• Elements – parts of the system which must be two or more. All the
elements within a system are interrelated and interact.
• Harmony – the coherent interaction of elements to attain the
common goal. Though the elements work in harmony, each has its
own function which it contributes in achieving the goal of the system.
• Feedback – this is the provision for assessing the suitability of the
success level of the interactions leading to the attainment of the
intended goal.
 Characteristics of a system
The following are general characteristics of a system:
• Goals and mission – each system work towards a specified goal or accomplishment of a given mission
• A system exists in a hierarchy of relationships in which each functional unit forms a sub-system with elements
that cannot work independently. The sub-systems each with a measure of performance but interdependent
on each other join up to form a supra system.
• A system has boundaries which distinguish each other from the other parts of the system thus ensuring that
a specific task is performed at a particular point, yet both parts depend on each other.
• Each system has an environment which consists of a set of conditions that are relevant but not directly under
the influence of the system. The environment usually contains resources and constraints.
• Systems just like living things receive inputs, act on them to produce output and are capable of growth.
System objectives operate within environmental constraints and there is a critical point at which the system
may collapse. Flexibility of operational objectives is therefore necessary to minimize entropy (internal
disorder).
• Feedback – the specific input into the system that gives information about the achievement (output) for the
purposes of re-examining the system.
• Growth – a system grows through transformation, diversification or multiplication.
• Dynamic stability – each system is dynamically in harmony with the environment and exhibits levels of
balance among its elements or sub-systems based on common expectations.
• Equifinality – the same final point which can be reached from various starting, original or initial conditions.
• Environment of a system-Each system has an environment within which it operates.
It is a set of all objects, a change whose attributes affect the system
• Environment and the system
• The environment provides inputs such as money, people and resources which enter
the system and which will to a great extent determine the quality of the operation of
the system
• The environment and the supra system establish the constraints such as inadequate
materials upon the system.
• The supra system receives the products of an open system which becomes the
functioning part of the environment, thus influencing the operations of the supra
system.
• The environment consists of resources and constraints that affect the system either
positively or negatively realized through its products.
• Each system has a dynamic stability (equilibrium) with the environment and exhibits
various levels of balance among its elements based on common expectations and
goals.
 A school as system
• Goal- The school receives raw materials (learners) whose behavior is
transformed through the process of education. The output is assessed in
adults whose behavior has been transformed and the quality of this
transformation has been accepted by quality controller.
• The school receives its goals from the society who is the environment as well
as the supra system.
• In Kenya most of these long-term goals come from MOEST and are stated in
school syllabus or educational reports.
• The long term goals include 8 national goals of education.
• The teacher with the help of other school operators discerns and defines
these objectives into different subjects.
• Whatever is done in the school system must address these goals.
• Elements – The parts which must be processed in the system for the goals to be realized.
• Include head teacher, teachers, learners, non-teaching staff, teaching/learning resources and physical
facilities.
• The operators must interact with each other as well as the learners so as to move from an input condition of
original or entering behavior to an output condition of modified behavior.
• Harmony – For the goals to be realized, the elements of those involved in the education process must work
harmoniously.
• The head teacher must provide effective leadership.
• Teacher’s role is to facilitate learning and this must establish conditions that make it possible to achieve
effective learning. They should teach the right material in class at the right time. They must strive to provide
an environment with optimum conditions for learning.
• The learners must work harmoniously with their teachers, administrators and support staff for teaching and
learning to be effective. They must be disciplined because lack of order will disrupt learning hence hinder the
attainment of set goals.
• Support staff must perform their respective goals e.g. cooks, nurses and cleaners must do their parts.
• Feedback- Both the teachers and learners need to get feedback from the learning process to test whether the
products are being processed in the desired way.
• Feedback can be positive or negative.
• Positive feedback encourages participants.
• Negative feedback requires that quality control be applied – adjust teaching and learning methods, resources,
approaches and class management.
• Models of a Systems Approach
• A model is an abstract representation of reality.
• It is a picture or pictorial representation that provides information on how
system approaches work.
i. Technological Model
• Input –Learner is ignorant of content to be covered. The learner
however has entry behavior which includes: Background experience,
Knowledge, Skills, Values, Altitudes, Behavior. These attributes are
expected to be improved through teaching.
• Process – Teaching and learning process. Facilitated by the teacher.
The teacher chooses the teaching method resource materials,
learning activities, evaluation procedures.
• Output- An educated person with increased knowledge/ facts, laws,
processes, generalization , procedures concepts, ideas etc. highly
skilled intellectual skills, motor skills, social skills, affective skills,
observation skills, logical skills, language skills etc). Better (positive)
skills, positive altitudes, positive behaviours etc as determined by
exam (certificates, employer, parents, community teachers etc).
ii. Ayot and Patel (1987) model
• The results of the process are checked through the feedback mechanism.
• The actual output is evaluated against the expected standards; it will go back
through the process.
• Despite this, the model still lacks adequate checks and balances since
teaching and learning is a dynamic process.
iii. Glaser’s model
• There is a goal in form of instructional objectives.
• There are four elements represented by the boxes.
• There is harmony reflected by the reversible arrows among the elements.
• There is feedback provided to all the elements through performance
assessments.
• To teach a specific part of content following this model, one needs to check
with learners present knowledge or their performance level.
iv. Gerlach-Ely’s model
• The model illustrates integration among elements.
• Incorporates more elements besides the four of Glaser’s.
• Use of this model requires that one specify the objectives which should
be realized by teaching a given topic
• Incorporates type of group organization, time allocated for the content
to be covered and the space available which determines how effective
the teaching method adopted will be.
• Content and objectives influence selection of resources to be used in
the teaching/ learning process.
• Evaluation of the process is carried out at reach stage to check whether
or not the content is being learnt.
• Gerlach’s model thus meets the requirements of a system approach.
• Modified model
 Lesson presentation as a model of system approach
• Systems approach relates to lesson plan or lesson presentation in the
following:
• Objectives – Every lesson has some objectives (content) to guide the
teacher. These play the role of a goal in a system approach.
• Elements – Students, class teachers, resources, methods used and
learning activities.
• Harmony – for the objectives to be attained, a suitable method, resources
and ability (entry behavior) of learners have to be related thus be in
harmony.
• Evaluation or feedback –provided for by questions asked and answered
during the lesson and at the end of the lesson. Additional evaluation can
be given using assignment.
Topic 3: AIMS & OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION
Learning Objectives

 Define an aim of education.

 Define a long term objective of education.

 Define short term objective of education.

 Define instructional objective.

 List conditions that effective instructional/ objective should fulfill.

 Relate objectives to domains/taxonomies of knowledge.

• Aims of education
• Also referred to as goals of education.
• Set at international level by UNESCO
• Also referred to as UNESCO goals of education.
• Are very broad and give a general but desirable direction to which education
offered by individual countries of the world should focus.
• Harmonized with an individual country’s aims of education through seminars,
conferences and scientific training sponsored by UNESCO.
• There are three main aims of education.
i. Foster international consciousness.
ii. Improve standards of living in various countries of the world.
iii. Solve continuing problems that affect humanity such as wars, hunger, disease and
unemployment.
 Aims of education in Kenya
• It is expected that education should:
• Foster nationalism, patriotism and promote national unity.
• Promote the social, economic, technological and industrial needs for national
development.
• Promote individual development and self-fulfillment.
• Promote sound moral and religious values.
• Promote social equality and religions values.
• Promote social equality and responsibility.
• Promote respect and development of Kenya’s rich and varied cultures.
• Promote international consciousness and foster positive attitudes towards
other nations.
• Promote positive attitudes towards good health and environmental
protection.
 Long term objectives
• Derived from aims of education.
• Include long term objectives of primary education, secondary education and
tertiary education.
• Are stated in general terms
• Are difficult to state in behavioral terms because they relate to many human
activities, situations and standards of performance.
• Can only be attained over a long period of time.
 Course Objectives
 Objectives for each subject area
 Attained after 4 years of secondary education of 8 years of primary
education
 Also include term objectives which are attained over a school term
 Instructional Objectives
• Objectives to be achieved within a teaching session of 40 min (single lesson)
or 80 min( double lesson).
• Are essential to meaningful teaching as they guide the teacher in organizing
his/her instructional procedures including selection of content identification
of resources and planning for learning activities.
• Facilitate relevant assessment.
• Serve as a basis for sound curriculum development.
• Enable the learner to evaluate his/her own progress and thus plan on what to
do in order to perform better in a given subject.
Instructional/learning objectives:
i. Should be stated in terms of the learner’s behavior
ii. Should be measurable
iii. Should be attained within a given time
iv. Should specify the level of performance
v. Should be concise and clear
Reasons for setting educational objectives:
i. to determine with some precision whether or not the teaching has
brought about the terminal activity (or product) desired by the teacher at
the end of the learning process. Whether it is by the end of the learning
process. Whether it is by the end of one lesson, a number of related
lessons covering one topic or a whole curriculum.
ii. to give direction and establish criteria for measuring success.
iii. to plan orderly learning activities, in which the order consists of the
progressive learning processes.
iv. to have foresight in advance for possible determination of the number of
lessons necessary to complete the topic.
v. to influence the steps taken to reach the end results (choice of content,
materials, methods and strategies).
 Learning Objectives
Statements that tell in complete sense who will perform a behavioral activity during the learning
process (the learner). An objective should:
i. Have an overt behavior or active verb which is observable.

ii. The activity should be measurable.

iii. Should be stated in clear language

iv. Should be short and to the point

v. The standard of performance expected should be indicated.

vi. Conditions under which the action/behavior will be performed should be given.

vii. Should be stated in terms of what the learner should be able to do by the end of the lesson (stated
in future tense)
• Comparing goals of education with learning objectives
 Examples of instructional objectives
i. By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to give five
examples of cash crops produced in Kenya.
ii. By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to type at a
speed of one hundred words per minute
iii.By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to label the parts
of human alimentary canal in a diagram given.
 Blooms Taxonomy
Developed by Benjamin Bloom (1956) to classify knowledge
• Knowledge is divided in to 4 main areas or domains:
• Cognitive – Knowledge involving simple recall and higher abilities.
• Affective – knowledge involving altitudes and interest.
• Psychomotor – Knowledge involving practical skills.
• Social – values
Each of the four taxonomies deals with knowledge in the following
areas:
• Cognitive domain – concepts, ideas, factual knowledge.
• Affective – appreciation, altitudes and interest.
• Psychomotor – Handling skills
• Social – values, morals, social relation skills and interaction skills
Cognitive Domain Pyramid
Cognitive Domain Verbs
 Examples of well stated Learning objectives
• By the end of the lesson on the chemical bonding, a learner should be able to
correctly interpret Lewis structure diagrams for 10 common molecules
• By the end of the lesson on statistics, a learner should be able
to compute standard deviation for a given data set with at least 95% accuracy
• By the end of the lesson on intermediate Python program, a learner should be
able to design and implement a fully-functioning game using Pygame library
• By the end of the lesson on Civil War, a student should be able to write a 1500-
word essay comparing the major causes of conflict between the North and
South, using at least five primary sources
• By the end of the lesson on marketing a student should be able to develop a
complete marketing plan for a new product, incorporating market research,
SWOT analysis, and a marketing strategy
• By the end of the lesson on genetics, a learner should be able to describe the
process of DNA replication in a written test
 Affective Domain
• Proposed by Krathwohl and associates (1956)
• Classified into five levels including receiving, responding, valuing, organizing
and characterization by complex value.
• Objectives for this domain should be stated;
• By the end of the lesson, the learner should be able to:
i. Show interest in literature by doing extra reading
ii. Participate wholeheartedly in the biology classroom discussion
iii. Find pleasure in studying ecology
 Psychomotor Domain
Include an assessment of six major physical behavior e.g.
• Reflex movements
• Psychomotor coordination
• Manual dexterity—skill and ease of use hands
• Psychomotor speed and precision
• Motor kinesthesis
• Ambidexterity—ability to use right and left hand with precision
 Social Domain
• Deals with social effects including values, ethics, etc. which affect
society.
• Issues to do with pollution, cloning etc. fall under this domain
• Objectives for this domain include; by the end of the lesson, the
learner should be able to:
• Outline the main effects of gaseous emissions to the environment.
• Describe the uses of forest to control pollution.
Chapter 4: Teaching Strategies
and Methods
• Teaching Approach is a description of teaching. This description explains
what is done during the teaching process
• The sorts of teaching and learning activities that we have planned (lecture, tutorial,
self-directed learning, case study, workshop, workplace learning);
• Ways in which we try to engage students with the subject matter (provide students
with basic facts, relate new knowledge to what students already know, build in
interaction, being passionate, and enthusiastic);
• The ways in which we support our students (encourage questions, set formative
assessments, and provide constructive feedback).
• Teaching Method comprises the principles and methods used for instruction
Commonly used teaching methods may include class participation,
demonstration, recitation, memorization, or combinations of these. The
choice of teaching method or methods to be used depends largely on the
information or skill that is being taught, and it may also be influenced by the
aptitude and enthusiasm of the students.
• Teaching strategies For example, we could read the information to them; we
could display it pictorially; we could allow them to research the information
themselves; we could present it as a PowerPoint presentation. We can use
our creativity so as to make every class interesting by using good strategies
for teaching. People learn in 3 main ways - visually, auditory and
kinesthetically.
• Visual learners learn by looking at/seeing something.
• Auditory learners learn by hearing it/being told it.
• Kinesthetic learners learn by actually doing/experiencing it.
• Your teaching strategies should aim to include all types of learner.
• Types of Teaching Methods
There are different types of teaching methods which can be categorized into four broad
types. These are teacher-centered methods, learner-centered methods, content-focused
methods and interactive/participative methods.
• (a) Instructor/Teacher Centered Methods
• Here the teacher casts himself/herself in the role of being a master of the subject matter.
The teacher is looked upon by the learners as an expert or an authority. Learners on the
other hand are presumed to be passive recipients of knowledge from the teacher.
Examples of such methods are expository or lecture methods - which require little or no
involvement of learners in the teaching process. It is also for this lack of involvement of
the learners in what they are taught that such methods are called “closed-ended”.
• (b) Learner-centered Methods
• In learner-centered methods, the teacher/instructor is both a teacher and a learner at the
same time. In the words of Lawrence Stenhouse, the teacher plays a dual role as a learner
as well “so that in his classroom extends rather than constricts his intellectual horizons”.
The teacher also learns new things everyday which he/she didn’t know in the process of
teaching. The teacher, “becomes a resource rather than an authority”. Examples of
learner-centered methods are discussion method, discovery or inquiry based approach
and the Hill’s model of learning through discussion (LTD).
•
• (
c) Content-focused Methods
In this category of methods, both the teacher and the learners have to fit into the content that is taught. Generally, this means the information and
skills to be taught are regarded as sacrosanct or very important. A lot of emphasis is laid on the clarity and careful analyses of content. Both the
teacher and the learners cannot alter or become critical of anything to do with the content. An example of a method which subordinates the
interests of the teacher and learners to the content is the programmed learning approach.

(d) Interactive/participative Methods

This fourth category borrows a bit from the three other methods without necessarily laying emphasis on the learner, content or teacher. These
methods are driven by the situational analysis of what is the most appropriation for us to learn/do now given the situation of learners and the
teacher. They require a participatory understanding of varied domains and factors.
 Specific Teaching Methods
• Lecturer method--It is the method of relaying factual information which
includes principles, concepts, ideas and all THEORETICAL KNOWLEDGE about
a given topic. In a lecture the instructor tells, explains, describes or relates
whatever information through listening and understanding.
• It is teacher-centered method
• Limited involvement of student learning
• Discussion Method ---Discussion involves two-way communication between
participants. In the classroom situation an instructor and trainees all
participate in discussion. During discussion, the instructor spends some time
listening while the student spends sometimes talking. The discussion is,
therefore, a more active learning experience compared to the lecture. A
discussion is the means by which people share experiences, ideas and
opinions.
• Demonstration method ---It is an instructional approach in which the
teacher employs visual aids, practical examples, or live demonstrations to
present concepts, processes, or skills to students. It involves actively showing
or illustrating information to enhance students’ understanding and facilitate
effective learning. The method requires clear language and the ability to ask
questions and involves students’ active participation and props, such as
charts. It is a trendy and effective way of teaching.
• Buzz group---It is a cooperative learning technique that involves the
formation of small discussion groups with the objective of developing a
specific task, such as idea generation or problem-solving. After the initial
presentation of the task to be completed, big groups are divided into smaller
groups of three to six people. While they are buzzing, participants are able to
exchange ideas and draw on their wide collective experience. Buzz groups
are simply small groups of 3-4 students formed to discuss a topic for a short
period. These groups may be assigned same or different topic to discuss.
Buzz groups help students develop collaborative and group problem solving
skills and can provide students with opportunities to integrate material, as
well as formulate applications and generalizations or principles. Students can
get responses to their ideas from others and can learn a lot from other
students. When students speak in "in private" they are much more likely to
speak afterwards "in public" in the whole group
Organizing buzz groups
1. Be clear about why you are using buzz groups and how it serves the
objectives of the course
2. Arranging chairs in circles (if possible) makes discussion more effective.
3. Allow students to know one another (learn names of one another)
4. Make the question or topic of discussion very clear. Ask them to list or
identify a number of issues.
5. Assign roles or ask students to assign roles (a scribe, a timekeeper, a
spokesperson) while participating in discussion.
6. The instructor can move between groups and give directions or
explanation or leave them to work on their own.
7. Groups share their conclusions and instructor can correct and clarify the
discussions and summarize and provide closure.
• Brainstorming Its is a method of teaching that encourages students to
generate and share their own ideas on a given topic or problem. The teacher
poses a question, problem or topic, and the students express their possible
answers, relevant words, and ideas. The teacher accepts all contributions
without criticism or judgment and summarizes them on a board. The ideas
are then examined in an open class discussion. Brainstorming can be used
with different learning styles and teaching focuses
• Role playing—It is a teaching method that allows students to immediately
apply content as they are put in the role of a decision-maker. It is a technique
that allows students to explore realistic situations by interacting with other
people in a managed way in order to develop experience and trial different
strategies in a supported environment. Role-play allows students to practice
hypothetical situations in a safe environment and eventually become good at
them. It is useful even in small classes and is one of the very important
teaching policies in subjects like history, literature, civics and science, etc
Chapter 5: Instructional Resources
 Resources
• Also referred to instructional materials, teaching resources, teaching aids and
audio visual aids.
• These are aids that teacher use to assist learning and also increase interest in
learning.
• A teacher uses resources to enhance student participation for effective learning.
• Because students’ interests and abilities are varied the teacher needs to use a
variety of resources to take care of their individual differences.
• There are locally made and commercially manufactured teaching resources.
• Locally made resources are mostly made by teachers or jointly with students.
• Useful as resources are in the teaching learning process, they cannot replace the
teacher.
• Due to their importance in influencing effective learning and their wide variety,
teachers planning, preparation, selection and use of instructional resources is very
important.
 Types of instructional resources
As defined by Hall and Paolucci (1970):
• Reading materials – Include text and reference books, magazines,
newspapers, journals and periodicals.
(i) Materials for viewing – displays of three dimensional materials, real objects (realia)
and models, specimens and exhibits.
ii) Flat materials – Are two dimensional materials like pictures, graphic materials, such
as photographs, drawings, posters, charts, diagrams, graphs, bulletin, boards, magnetic
boards, the chalk board and duplicated materials.
• Projected materials – include film strips, film slides or sound motion
pictures, small three-dimensional objects that can be used on an opaque
projector
• Materials for listening to – include television radio and recordings such as
radio cassettes
• Programmed instruction – Include independent programs, CAT 1 and
simulation games
As defined by Farrant (1980):
• The chalkboard – still the most common and the most useful instructional
resource. Comes in a variety of colors. Include writing boards and walls.
• Books, periodicals and work cards- include textbooks, work books, reference
books, fiction nonfiction, pamphlets, assignment cards and packs or kits.
• Wall sheets – Include pictures, posters and diagrams.
• Maps, atlases and globes – Show features of real things in summary form.
• Media from real and simulated life – Include
• Specimen – Living, preserved, or pictures of them
• Artifacts – Manmade articles such as tools, clothing and weapons
• Models – articles made to look like real things
• Dioramas – three dimensional representative of reality.
• Simulation and instructional games – Include question and answer games, dice or
spinners games using movable pieces, a base board, cards or printed materials and
role play
• Puzzles - useful in solving problems
Traditional media – include folk communicators and other resource person.
• Dramatization
• Puppetry
• Interviewing
Educational technology- Include a wide range of teaching audio and projected
media which are part of a new advances in teaching technology. They include:
• Audio media: radio, record player and the tape recorder.
• Projected media: overhead projector, slides, film strips.
• Teaching machines: they visually assist teachers to understand what they are
learning include:
• Television
• The computer and the internet.
 Selection of instructional resources
• Guided by purpose, content, appropriateness, cost and circumstances for use.
i. Select the best available material to realize a goal of lesson objective. If the lesson is on skill
development, choose a resource that will give students firsthand experience on skill development.
ii. The material should make the learning situation more realistic and concrete. Teaching about
flowering of plants would require carrying real plants.
iii. The material should be appropriate for the age, intelligence, interest and experience of the
learners.
iv. The material should make learning easier and quicker. A map would better help in teaching cities
and towns in Kenya.
v. The material should present the information in an interesting manner. Focusing on the map to
identify various towns and indicate routes would create interest among learners than describing.
vi. The material should supply a concrete basis for conceptual thinking. In teaching, use thought
provoking resources such as incomplete diagrams that students can complete.
vii.The resource should stimulate critical thinking in students.
viii. It should encourage integration of the subject matter e.g. a fruit or vegetable specimen should
link food item to Biology.
ix. Should help learners develop and improve skills.
x. The material should be physically attractive. Should have real colors and neat.
xi. Should present up to date information on the topic.
xii. Should be worth the time expense and effort involve in its use. The resource should be durable
and assist in the realization of the objectives.
Chapter 6: Planning for
Instruction
Preparation is crucial for classroom teaching. It involves preparation of the
syllabus, schemes of work and lesson plans which are essential documents in
planning for teaching.
Syllabus
• A syllabus is a guide to a course. It will include course policies, rules and
regulations, required textbooks, and a schedule of content and assignments.
A syllabus describes what is needed in a course how it will be taught and the
expectations.
• A document which shows the content to be covered in a given subject in a
given time at a particular level.
• It helps the teacher have a broad view of the subject and to select
appropriate content to teach.
• The syllabus is prepared by a committee or team carefully selected under the
guidance of a curriculum development officer at the KICD in a specific
subject area.
• A scheme of work—It is a long-term plan that outlines the content that
needs to be taught and learned over the course of a term or school year. It is
a document that structures the teaching, learning, and assessment of a
subject in a logical and progressive way over several sessions. A scheme of
work is often compared to a syllabus, but they differ because a syllabus
simply covers what should be taught, while a scheme of work goes deeper
into how topics will be taught.
 Key considerations in preparation of a schemes of work
• Familiarize with the topics and sub-topics (content) in the syllabus.
• Establish the number of teaching weeks available in the school term.
• Find out the number of lessons/ Periods allocated to teaching the particular subjects each
week and throughout the term. In the process consider: Class tests, Revision, Holidays
/mid-term breaks, Examination, and Other school activities.
• Allocate of distribute the available time to topics or sub-topics while doing this, consider
the difficult of concepts to be taught, the amount of information to be covered and the
teaching methods that you intend to use.
• Arrange the topics such that a sequence of instruction is developed. The topics should be
arranged such that teaching progresses from simple to complex or from known to
unknown or from the familiar to the unfamiliar.
• Ascertain the learners entry behavior, students intellectual competence, students logical
competence, their handling and process skills.
• Read or consult relevant textbooks, notes, persons and other resources to identify the
content to be included in each sub-topic. This helps in choosing appropriate teaching
methods and activities.
• Consider the teaching methods to be used. Topics to be taught through project method
should appear early in the term so as to give the students time to work on the project.
• Essential elements of a scheme of work
• Administrative details – Also referred to as preliminary information include: Name of school, Class, Subject, Term and
year
• Long term objectives – General objectives that are to be achieved by teaching the content (topics and sub-topics)
scheme for the term.
• Week – weeks of the school term
• Content – The subject matter to be covered. Include knowledge facts, generalizations, principles processes, concepts,
ideas, examples, illustrations, definitions, skills, values, behaviors, altitudes etc. that will be learned by the student.
Content is sourced from the syllabus, textbooks and personal notes.
• Instructional objectives- Construction of the objectives should be guided by:
• Learning activities – The description of what the students will be doing or involved in during the teaching-learning
process.
• -indicate the main learning activity for each of the lessons.
• Learning activities ought to be:
• Varied and involving use of most senses.
• Related to and helping in achieving the objectives of the lesson
• Appropriate in keeping learners meaningfully occupied in learning some skills.
• Resource materials – materials the teacher would require to aid in teaching/ learning of the content.
• References – Printed materials used by both the teacher and learners to facilitate classroom instruction, include
textbooks, teachers, guides, notes, newspapers, journals etc.
• Remark column- the lesson assessment column in which the teacher indicates his/her perception of attainment of
lesson objectives. The comments assist in planning for the next lesson.
Format of a Scheme of Work
School /Institution……………….Formal class………………….subject……………….
Term…………………..year………………………………..
Teacher’s name…………………………………..
Main objectives
i………………………………….
ii…………………………………
iii………………………………..

week Lesson Content Objectives L/A Resource Ref. Rem

1 1.

3.

2 1.

3.

4
• A lesson plan is a teacher's detailed description of the course of instruction
or "learning trajectory" for a lesson. A daily lesson plan is developed by a
teacher to guide class learning. Details will vary depending on the preference
of the teacher, subject being covered, and the needs of the students. There
may be requirements mandated by the school system regarding the plan. A
lesson plan is the teacher's guide for running a particular lesson, and it
includes the goal (what the students are supposed to learn), how the goal
will be reached (the method, procedure) and a way of measuring how well
the goal was reached (test, worksheet, homework etc.).
 Phases of a Lesson Plan
• Introduction– introduce new material for the day’s lesson.
• Present the material in a dramatic manner so as to adequately get the learners full participation.
• Carry out a brief revision of the previous lesson.
• This will enable the teacher and learners relate to present learning i.e. integrating aspects of
subject matter in the minds of the learners.
• Developmental Phase ( Main body) – phase for teaching new materials
• Arranged in sequential steps so as to facilitate easy and organized coverage of the content.
• Most common method used is the teacher giving facts.
• Learners should be involved mentally and physically to avoid their passive participation.
• Conclusion phase- Revision phase of the day’s lesson.
• Mostly the teacher summarizes either orally or in writing the major points of the lesson on the
writing –board.
• Use of carefully structured question could help involve learners in concluding the lesson.
• Relate bits and pieces of facts, figures concepts and information to ensure that that the materials
learnt form a structure in the minds of the learners.
• Lesson Reflection phase—What went well, what failed, how the lesson can be revised.
 • Lesson Plan Layout
• Administrative details – background information including name of school, form/class,
date, time, subject, topic, sub-topic, week and lesson number.
• Learning objectives – Observable /measurable
• Should set an acceptable level of attainment.
• Specify the conditions of attainment.
• Learner centered
• Time – A critical factor in lesson planning. Determines the amount for practice of skills and
application. Gives the time in minutes that each phase and stage or step of the lesson plan
will take.
• Content – The main focus of the communication in the classroom.
• Details of what is to be covered in each stage or step of lesson.
• Stated in form of topics or sub-topics.
• Include knowledge, skills, altitudes and values.
• Learning activities – An indication of what the learner is supposed to be doing or involved
in at each step or stage during the lesson process e.g. discussing in small groups, writing,
drawing, classifying, performing experiments and responding to questions.
• Resource materials – Means of conveying information.
 Teaching Practice Lesson Plan Format
Reg. No. Name School
Class No. of students Date Time
Subject Topic Subtopic
Week Lesson
Learning Objectives

Time Lesson Content ( A brief outline of what to be Active Learning Activities and Resources/Materials/Referen
(mins) taught) Assessment strategies ces
5 Introduction
30 Lesson Development
5 Conclusion
Lesson Reflection
Chapter 7: COMMUNICATION IN THE CLASSROOM
 Communication is a process of interaction of ideas between the communicator and
the receiver to arrive at a common understanding for mutual benefit (Berlo, 1960).
 A process of transmitting information and common understanding from one person
to another (Keyton, 2011).
 Imparting, conveying or exchange of ideas, knowledge etc. either through speech,
writing or signs (Oxford English Dictionary).
 The process of attempting to share with another person other persons ones
knowledge, interest, altitudes, opinions, and ideas (Ralph, Hance & Wiksell 1975).
 The process of passing an understandable message from one person to another
(Farrant, 1980).
Therefore communication is the process of generating meaning by
sending and receiving verbal and non-verbal symbols and signs. It is a
two way interactive process.
Elements of communication
• Context–Include: Culture relating to a setting which determines the way
communication takes place. External stimulus that can motivate students to respond
in oral or written form.

• Sender/Encoder: The person who sends message. In classroom oral communication

the encoder is the teacher, and in written communication the writer is the encoder.
The teacher uses combination of words, gestures, symbols, graphs and pictures.

• Message – The information shared between sender and receiver. For good
communication the central idea of the message must be clear. The teacher must decide
what to communicate keeping in mind the context and how the receiver (students)
will interpret the message
• Medium/channel – the sensory route through which encoder will communicate his/her
message to the decoder. The medium can be print, electronic or sound. The choice of
the medium may dependent on contextual factors, relationship between the sender
and the decoder etc.

• Receiver/decoder – The person to whom the message is meant. Receiver (student)

may be a listener or a reader depending on the choice of medium by sender (teacher)
to transmit the instructional content.

• Feedback – The response or reaction of the receiver to a message. Communication is

effective only when it receives some feedback as it completes the loop of
communication.

• Noise- Anything that can distort the message. These include physical discomfort,
perceptions of the message, language of communication etc.
 The Process of Communication

 The source sends out information.

 The receiver plays the role of the message recipient.
 In-between the source and the receiver, there can be other varying
modes such as channel and feedback
 The channel sends messages as verbal and non-verbal.
 The receiver can give back some form of feedback if required.
The SMCR model (Stewart & Dangelo, 1980)
Application: In the classroom situation the teacher usually initiates
communication and is therefore the source.
 The learner is the receiver of the message.
 If the teacher for instance asks a question, the message is the question
 The channel used is verbal.
• The student may answer questions which are the feedback.
 It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction.
 Firstly, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a
receiver.
 Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So
communication is fluid/simultaneous. This is how most conversation is like.
 The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication
environment (how you interpret the data that you are given).
 Where the ellipses meet is the area of most effect with regard to communication area
because both communicators share the same meaning of the message. For example –
talking/listening to friends. While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them
feedback on what you think through your facial expression verbal feedback without
necessarily stopping your friend from talking.
Transactional Model
 It assumes that people are connected through communication; they engage in transaction.
 Firstly, it recognizes that each of us is a sender-receiver, not merely a sender or a receiver.
 Secondly, it recognizes that communication affects all parties involved. So communication is
fluid/simultaneous. This is how most conversation is like.
 The transactional model also contains ellipses that symbolize the communication environment (how
you interpret the data that you are given).
 Where the ellipses meet is the area of most effect with regard to communication area because both
communicators share the same meaning of the message. For example – talking/listening to friends.
While your friend is talking you are constantly giving them feedback on what you think through your
facial expression verbal feedback without necessarily stopping your friend from talking.
Transactional Model
Forms of Classroom Communication

• Verbal: Verbal communication entails the use of words in delivering the intended
message. There are two major forms of verbal communication include written and oral
communication.
• Nonverbal Communication: Nonverbal communication entails communicating by
sending and receiving wordless messages. These messages usually reinforce verbal
communication, but they can also convey thoughts and feelings on their own.
• Visual Communication: A third type of communication is visual communication through
visual aids such as signs, typography, drawing, graphic design, illustration, color and other
electronic resources.
Verbal Communication

• Written communication – include traditional pen and paper letters and documents, typed
electronic documents, e-mails, text chats, SMS and anything else conveyed through written
symbols such as language. This type of communication is indispensable for formal business
communications and issuing legal instructions. Communication forms that predominantly use
written communication include handbooks, brochures, contracts, memos, press releases, formal
business proposals, and the like. The effectiveness of written communication depends on the
writing style, grammar, vocabulary, and clarity
Oral Communication – The other form of verbal communication is the spoken word, either face-to-
face or through phone, voice chat, video conferencing or any other medium. Various forms of
informal communications such as the grapevine or informal rumor mill, and formal communications
such as lectures, conferences are forms of oral communication. Oral communication finds use in
discussions and causal and informal conversations. The effectiveness of oral conversations depends
on the clarity of speech, voice modulation, pitch, volume, speed, and even non-verbal
communications such as body language and visual cues. Verbal communication makes the process of
conveying thoughts easier and faster, and it remains the most successful form of communication. Yet,
this makes up only seven percent of all human communication.
Non-Verbal Communication
i. Physical nonverbal communication, or body language, includes facial expressions, eye contact,
body posture, gestures such as a wave, pointed finger and the like, overall body movements, tone of
voice, touch, and others.Facial expressions are the most common among all nonverbal
communication. For instance, a smile or a frown conveys distinct emotions hard to express through
verbal communication. Research estimates that body language, including facial expressions, account
for 55 percent of all communication.
ii. Paralanguage: The way something is said, rather than what is actually said, is an important
component of nonverbal communication. This includes voice quality, intonation, pitch, stress,
emotion, tone, and style of speaking, and communicates approval, interest or the lack of it. Research
estimates that tone of the voice accounts for 38 percent of all communications.
Other Non-Verbal Communication
 Aesthetic communication or creative expressions such as dancing, painting, and the like.

 Appearance or the style of dressing and grooming, which communicates one’s personality.

 Space language such as paintings and landscapes communicate social status and taste.

 Symbols such as religious, status, or ego-building symbols.

Visual Communication

 Visual communication with graphs and charts usually reinforces

written communication, and can in many case replace written
communication altogether. As the adage goes “a picture is worth a
thousand words," such visual communication is more powerful than
verbal and nonverbal communication on many occasions.
Technological developments have made expressing visual
communications much easier than before.
Application to Classroom Communication
 Use appropriate voice volume that can be heard from all corners of the
classroom. The volume should neither be too loud as to make the learners feel
uncomfortable nor too soft that learners have to stretch their necks in an attempt
to capture the information. It should be appropriate enough to allow a student to
listen comfortably enough to assimilate information from the teacher.
 The voice should be of appropriate pitch. The pitch should neither be too high nor
low (deep) as to affect reception of the message. In classroom setup, a deep voice
tends not to be audible enough while a high pitched voice appears to “disturb”
the ears. An average pitch should thus be adopted. It is also useful to vary the
pitch or tone in situations where you need to make some emphasis.
Contd
 The voice should be clear enough to enable conception of the verbal messages. Clarity has got to do with the
way words are pronounced. Words and terms should be clearly pronounced using the set conventions. Since
some words have been found to present pronunciation difficulty, care should be taken to avoid confusion.
Pronunciation problems in English have also been linked to ethnicity e.g. people from some tribes with
pronunciation of words with s and sh, r and l etc. Each teacher need to work on such unique attribute with
the aim of reducing and if possible eliminating such problems.
 For effective conception of verbal communication, one should speak facing the audience. In the classroom,
the teacher should speak loud enough and clearly facing the students most of the times. The verbal
communication should be laced with non-verbal or visual communication such as writing on the board, use
of charts, graphs etc.
Writing Board and Classroom Communication

In using the WB, the following should be considered:

 Plan your teaching and WB-plan in advance.
 Divide the WB into at least two portions and use each portion in an organized manner.
 Use neat, tidy writing with large handwriting that can be seen clearly by all learners in the class.
 Write in a straight line.
 Erase irrelevant words and phrases that might confuse. Avoid erasing using your hands or fingers
as you write.
 Highlight key words or definitions by using coloured chalks or writing in capital letters.
 Always clean the WB before you leave the class.
Barriers of Communication
i. Psychological barriers- Characteristics of a situation from ‘inside’ the person
communicating that hinder effective communication. Has got to do with altitude,
interests, expectations and generally the behavior of the person communicating.

ii. Physiological barriers – These are factors that have got to do with body
conditions. Conditions such as sickness, hunger and deafness are good examples
of physiological limitations.
iii.Physical (or environmental) barriers. The environment that surrounds your
communication can have a lot of influence. Extremely hot, cold or noisy
environments interfere with concentration of learners.
Teacher Behaviour and Classroom Control
i. Fairness. Rated very highly by learners. To most learners, fairness means a teacher adopts a
uniform set of standards and procedures when relating to class or individuals.
ii. A sense of humour. Most learners appreciate a teacher who can share a joke with the class.
Shared humour reduces the barriers between the teacher and the learners provided it is not
overdone.
iii. Relaxed, Self-controlled and Patient. A teacher who is calm and relaxed is less likely to be
angry when faced with control or communication problem. Linked to calm and relaxed manner
is the value of patience. A patient teacher considers the learning difficulties of learners and helps
them accordingly.
Use of questioning Technique and
Feedback
 Pose the question before you call on who is to answer
 Do not call on students from one area of the class for all the answers.
 Ask shyer and slower students low-level questions.
 Save high-level questions for brighter students.
 Do not only call on students who volunteer.
 Wait at least five seconds prior to accepting responses to high-level questions. Inform the
students that you are going to do this.
 Inform the students that there is no penalty for incorrect or partially correct answers.
 Inform them that it is not a quiz but a learning experience.
Chapter 8: MOTIVATION IN THE
CLASSROOM
 It is a general term used to describe the conditions that cause one to
begin an activity and pursue it with vigour and persistence.
 It is estimated that in the learning process, intelligence accounts for
about 45% of the variance related to performance while motivation
accounts for 35%.
Cont’d

 It is manifested in an individual as deep desire and an urge to direct

energy in one direction to the exclusion of others for the purposes of
learning or the realization of a goal or accomplishing a task.
 It has got to do with a person, desires, drives, urges, wishes, actions,
goals and in the classroom, achievement and success are the main
target goals.
Types of Motivation
Intrinsic Motivation
 Also referred to as self-imposed motivation. When the reason for acting is
in the action. The desire, drive or wish is from within an individual.
 One does a task or job because it interest him or her e.g. a student who
loves mathematics will work on a certain number of sums or problems
each day, because he/she enjoys the work.
 When one performs the task in question he/she considers the task useful or
important.
Cont’d
Extrinsic Motivation

 Motivation that depends on rewards that are external to the action itself.
 Is supported and enhanced by external influences such as promised rewards, promotions
and commendations.
 Students may work very hard to get good grades so that they can be promoted to the next
class.
 The most common forms of external motivation in schools are rewards and punishment.
If well used, both can be stimulating for a while, but their efforts are short lived.
General Classroom Motivation Strategies
 Provide a supportive environment i.e. do not give work whose source is not available.
 Give students work with appropriate level of challenge or difficulty. Too difficult or challenging
task will result into failure and frequent failure is demotivating. Too easy tasks often bore
students.
 Set meaningful and worthwhile learning objectives. Students enjoy learning what is interesting
and useful to them.
 Make moderation and variation in strategy use.
 Use rewards, praise, reinforcement and punishment to avoid monotony in strategy use.
 Use promotions, praise, recognition, field trips and relevant treats such as special lunches where
possible to motivate learners
Cont’d
 Examples of rewards include praise or words of commendation, items in kind such as exercise
books, textbooks, story books, pens, pencils, school outings, field trips, merit certificates and
trophies for various achievements.
 Punishment takes many forms as motivational strategies. Examples include giving extra duties,
verbal rebukes, withholding certain privileges such as school outings and asking students to repair
damages where possible.
 External motivation should be based on good teacher –student relationship. If the teacher is kind,
caring and respectful, students will jump at the promise because they know it will be kept.
 Rewards and punishment should be appropriate to the age of the individual as well as the
achievement or offence committed.
Intrinsic Motivational Strategies
 Motivate by maintaining success expectations. Focus on the success rather than failure.
Intrinsic motivation does not always arise first. The teacher may have to supply the
motivator by a promise of something, then the student internalizes the thing takes it
seriously and intrinsic motivation sets in.
 Use appropriate learning methods and incorporate interesting activities into the learning
for example games, and puzzles.
 Minimize performance anxiety, avoid threats and fear.
 Encourage project intensity such as in depth study of a phenomenon such as research.
 Encourage enthusiasm in the phenomenon e.g. its importance and relevance.
Extrinsic Motivational Strategies

 Emphasize rewards as incentives for good performance. Use material rewards,

both personal and group rewards.
 Link student’s knowledge skills with their present and future life outside the
school. e.g. Career development, self-employment and community service.
 Prepare group and individual competition for prizes or recognition such as
between school houses, classes or clubs.
 Provide an environment conducive to learning with suitable and sufficient
resources and good working equipment
Motivation Process
 An unsatisfied need is the starting point in the process of motivation.
 A deficiency of something within an individual is the first link in the chain of events leading to behaviour.
 The unsatisfied need causes tension within the individual, leading the individual to engage in some kind of
behaviour to satisfy the need and thereby reduce tension.
 The behaviour is usually directed towards a goal. Achieving the goal satisfies the need and the process of
motivation is complete.
 Once satisfaction is reached, some students may just fall back into a state of inattention and laziness.
 The teacher thus needs to understand how motivation works in order to recognize when to re-energize
students.
 With human beings, when one need is satisfied another one often arises. These steps are diagrammatically
represented as;
Diagram: Motivation Process
Theories of motivation

• Content Theories
• Are concerned with identifying what is within an individual of the role
of environment to energize and sustain behavior. Include Maslow’s
need hierarchy and Hertzberg’s two factor theory.
Maslows Motivational Theory
• Maslow's hierarchy of needs is a psychological motivational
theory comprising a five-tier model of human needs, often
depicted as hierarchical levels within a pyramid. The five levels
of the hierarchy are physiological, safety, love/belonging,
esteem, and self-actualization. Content may be subject to
copyright.
Cont’d

•Process Theories
 They explain and describe the process of how behavior is energized,
directed, sustained and finally stopped.
 Include expectancy and reinforcement theories.
Reinforcement Theory
• Reinforcement theory is a psychological principle suggesting
that behaviors are shaped by their consequences, and that
individual behaviors can be changed through reinforcement,
punishment and extinction.
Diagram
Strategies for sustaining classroom attention

 Use stimulus variation or attention drawing signals in class e.g. pausing, hand signals,
use of pictures and making occasional calculated movements up and down the class or
across the class instead of standing or sitting in one place.
 Establish incentives, contingencies e.g. let students take 5 minutes to sketch an item and
after that pick a few to draw on the chalkboard or to explain their diagrams to the class.
 Use of feedback – comment on a student’s performance positively.
 Avoid distractions such as noise and disorganization in the classroom especially during
group work.
Cont’d
 Use dramatic examples such as humorous comments.
 Give students adequate work to keep them busy
 Vary your mode of delivery, tone and voice during teaching.
 Look out for signs of fatigue and restlessness and address them appropriately and
promptly.
 Use active words that lead to enquiry when giving students assignments.
 Use key words that lead to enquiry for learning purposes such as demonstrate,
construct, clarify, discus, investigate, evaluate, create, imitate and describe.
Chapter 9: PROVIDING FOR INDIVIDUAL
DIFFERENCES IN THE CLASSROOM
• The aim of education is to enable each student to attain all-round
development according to his/her own attributes
• Each student is a unique individual, different in cognitive and affective
development, social maturity, ability, motivation, aspiration, learning
styles, needs, interests and potential.
• Catering for individual differences should aim for understanding why
students are able or unable to learn well and finding appropriate ways
to help them learn better.
Types of Individual Differences among Learners

 Age
 Gender
 Mental ability
 Physical characteristics
 Emotional stability
 Economic status
Types of Individual Differences among Learners

• 1. Cognitive Differences
• Variations in intelligence, memory, problem-solving skills, and reasoning abilities.
• Some students grasp concepts quickly, while others require additional support and practice.
• 2. Learning Styles Differences
• Visual Learners – Learn best through images, charts, and diagrams.
• Auditory Learners – Prefer listening to explanations and discussions.
• Kinesthetic Learners – Learn best through hands-on activities and movement.
• 3. Personality Differences
• Some students are extroverted (outgoing and social), while others are introverted (reserved and
prefer working alone).
• Differences in motivation, confidence, and perseverance affect learning engagement.
• Age
• Gender
Contd
• 4. Socioeconomic and Cultural Differences
• Students come from different cultural backgrounds, which influence
their perspectives and learning experiences.
• Economic status may affect access to resources like books,
technology, and extra tutoring.
• 5. Special Educational Needs and Disabilities (SEND)
• Some learners may have conditions such as dyslexia, ADHD, autism,
or physical disabilities that require specialized support.
• Teachers must provide accommodations, such as assistive technology
or modified instruction.
Cont’d
6. Language and Communication Differences
• Some students may be multilingual or learning in a second language, affecting their
comprehension and expression.
• Variations in vocabulary, speech development, and communication skills impact participation.
7. Emotional and Social Differences
• Differences in emotional intelligence, self-esteem, and coping skills affect how students interact
and respond to challenges.
• Some students require additional emotional support and encouragement.
8. Interest and Talent Differences
• Students have unique interests and strengths in different subjects or extracurricular activities
(e.g., arts, sports, mathematics, science).
• Recognizing and nurturing these talents helps in boosting confidence and motivation.
Importance of understanding individual
differences
• 1. Enhancing Teaching Strategies
• Enables teachers to adapt their instructional methods to suit different learning
styles (visual, auditory, kinesthetic, etc.).
• Ensures that all students receive instruction in a way that best supports their
learning.
• 2. Improving Student Engagement
• Helps in using diverse teaching techniques to keep students interested and
motivated.
• Encourages active participation by making lessons relatable to different learners.
• 3. Supporting Students with Special Needs
• Allows early identification of students with learning difficulties or disabilities.
• Helps in providing appropriate interventions and accommodations.
Cont’d
• 4. Promoting Inclusivity and Equity
• Ensures that all students, regardless of background or ability, feel valued and
included.
• Encourages respect for cultural, linguistic, and socio-economic diversity in the
classroom.
• 5. Enhancing Classroom Management
• Reduces behavioral issues by addressing students' unique needs and challenges.
• Creates a positive and respectful learning environment.
• 6. Providing Personalized Assessment and Feedback
• Helps in designing fair and varied assessments that cater to different abilities.
• Enables teachers to give meaningful feedback that supports individual growth.
Methods of identifying individual differences
• 1. Observation
• Watching students during class activities, group work, and independent tasks.
• Noting their learning pace, participation levels, and interaction styles.
• 2. Student Assessment and Performance Analysis
• Using quizzes, tests, and assignments to evaluate students' strengths and weaknesses.
• Analyzing patterns in performance to identify learning difficulties or advanced abilities.
• 3. Learning Style Assessments
• Conducting surveys or questionnaires to determine whether students are visual, auditory, or kinesthetic
learners.
• Using informal activities to observe how students best absorb and process information.
• 4. One-on-One Interaction
• Engaging in personal discussions to understand students’ interests, challenges, and learning preferences.
• Providing opportunities for students to express their thoughts and concerns.
Cont’d
5. Peer Feedback and Group Work Observations
• Noting how students interact and contribute in group settings.
• Gathering insights from peer evaluations and collaborative activities.
6. Parent and Guardian Communication
• Consulting with parents to learn about students' backgrounds, learning habits, and any special needs.
• Discussing observations to gain a broader perspective on students’ behaviors and abilities.
7. Use of Psychological and Diagnostic Tests
• Administering standardized tests to assess cognitive abilities, personality traits, or specific learning
difficulties.
• Working with school counselors or special educators for professional evaluations.
8. Student Self-Reflection and Journals
• Encouraging students to keep learning journals to express their thoughts on lessons and difficulties faced.
• Using self-assessment tools to help students evaluate their own learning progress.
Methods of Providing for Individual Differences
in the Classroom
1. Differentiated Instruction
• Adjusting teaching methods, content, and assessment to suit different learning styles and abilities.
• Using flexible grouping to allow students to work at their own pace.
2. Varied Teaching Strategies
• Incorporating multiple instructional approaches, such as visual aids, hands-on activities, and discussions.
• Using storytelling, role-playing, and project-based learning to cater to diverse learners.
3. Individualized Instruction and Support
• Providing personalized learning plans for students with special needs or advanced abilities.
• Offering extra support through tutoring, mentoring, or small-group instruction.
4. Use of Technology and Multimedia Resources
• Integrating educational software, videos, and interactive tools to support different learning preferences.
• Allowing students to use assistive technologies, such as audiobooks or speech-to-text software.
Cont’d
5. Flexible Assessment Methods
• Using diverse forms of evaluation, such as oral presentations, portfolios, and creative projects.
• Allowing students to demonstrate learning in ways that best reflect their strengths.
6. Encouraging Student Choice and Autonomy
• Giving students the option to choose topics, projects, or assignments based on their interests.
• Allowing different pathways for completing tasks, such as group work or independent study.
7. Creating an Inclusive and Supportive Environment
• Promoting respect for diversity and encouraging peer support.
• Establishing a classroom culture where all students feel valued and confident to participate.
8. Collaboration with Parents and Specialists
• Engaging parents to understand students' needs and learning habits outside the classroom.
• Working with special education teachers, counselors, or psychologists to provide targeted
support.
 Chapter 10: PROCEDURES FOR MEASURING AND EVALUATION LEARNING
OUTCOMES

• Measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or dimensions of some physical object
are determined. When we measure, we generally use some standard instrument to determine how big,
tall, heavy, voluminous, hot, cold, fast, or straight something actually is.
• Assessment is a process by which information is obtained relative to some known objective or
goal. Assessment is a broad term that includes testing.
• Evaluation is perhaps the most complex and least understood of the terms. Inherent in the idea of
evaluation is "value." When we evaluate, what we are doing is engaging in some process that is
designed to provide information that will help us make a judgment about a given situation.
 assessment is the process of making a judgment or measurement of
worth of an entity (e.g., person, process, or program).

 Educational assessment involves gathering and evaluating data

evolving from planned learning activities or programs. This form of
assessment is often referred to as evaluation.
• Learner assessment represents a particular type of educational
assessment normally conducted by teachers and designed to serve
several related purpose.
Purpose of Learner Assessment
i. Motivating and directing learning
ii. Providing feedback to student on their performance
iii. Providing feedback on instruction and/or the curriculum
iv. Ensuring standards of progression are met
Types of Assessments
 Formative assessment is designed to assist the learning process by providing feedback to the
learner, which can be used to identify strengths and weakness and hence improve future
performance. Formative assessment is most appropriate where the results are to be used internally
by those involved in the learning process (students, teachers, curriculum developers).
 Summative assessment is used primarily to make decisions for grading or determine readiness
for progression. Typically summative assessment occurs at the end of an educational activity and
is designed to judge the learner’s overall performance. In addition to providing the basis for grade
assignment, summative assessment is used to communicate students’ abilities to external
stakeholders, e.g., administrators and employers.
Contd
 With informal assessment, the judgments are integrated with other tasks, e.g., lecturer feedback
on the answer to a question or preceptor feedback provided while performing a bedside
procedure. Informal assessment is most often used to provide formative feedback. As such, it
tends to be less threatening and thus less stressful to the student. However, informal feedback is
prone to high subjectivity or bias.
 Formal assessment occurs when students are aware that the task that they are doing is for
assessment purposes, e.g., a written examination or KCPE, KCSE. Most formal assessments also
are summative in nature and thus tend to have greater motivation impact and are associated with
increased stress. Given their role in decision-making, formal assessments should be held to higher
standards of reliability and validity than informal assessments.
Contd
 Continuous assessment occurs throughout a learning experience (intermittent is probably a more
realistic term). Continuous assessment is most appropriate when student and/or instructor
knowledge of progress or achievement is needed to determine the subsequent progression or
sequence of activities. Continuous assessment provides both students and teachers with the
information needed to improve teaching and learning in process. Obviously, continuous
assessment involves increased effort for both teacher and student.
 Final (or terminal) assessment is that which takes place only at the end of a learning activity. It is
most appropriate when learning can only be assessed as a complete whole rather than as
constituent parts. Typically, final assessment is used for summative decision-making. Obviously,
due to its timing, final assessment cannot be used for formative purposes.
Contd
 Process assessment focuses on the steps or procedures underlying a particular ability or task, i.e.,
the cognitive steps in performing a mathematical operation or the procedure involved in analyzing
a blood sample. Because it provides more detailed information, process assessment is most useful
when a student is learning a new skill and for providing formative feedback to assist in improving
performance.
 Product assessment focuses on evaluating the result or outcome of a process. Using the above
examples, we would focus on the answer to the math computation or the accuracy of the blood
test results. Product assessment is most appropriate for documenting proficiency or competency in
a given skill, i.e., for summative purposes. In general, product assessments are easier to create
than product assessments, requiring only a specification of the attributes of the final product.
Contd
 Divergent assessments are those for which a range of answers or solutions might be considered correct. Examples include essay
tests, and solutions to the typical types of indeterminate problems posed in PBL. Divergent assessments tend to be more authentic
and most appropriate in evaluating higher cognitive skills. However, these types of assessment are often time consuming to
evaluate and the resulting judgments often exhibit poor reliability.

 A convergent assessment has only one correct response (per item). Objective test items are the best example and demonstrate the
value of this approach in assessing knowledge. Obviously, convergent assessments are easier to evaluate or score than divergent
assessments. Unfortunately, this “ease of use” often leads to their widespread application of this approach even when contrary to
good assessment practices. Specifically, the familiarity and ease with which convergent assessment tools can be applied leads to
two common evaluation fallacies: the Fallacy of False Quantification (the tendency to focus on what’s easiest to measure) and the
Law of the Instrument Fallacy (molding the evaluation problem to fit the tool).