Desalination and Water Treatment 317 (2024) 100034

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Desalination and Water Treatment

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Evaluation of different natural waste materials as bio-coagulants for

domestic wastewater treatment ]]
]]]]]]
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Hussein. M. Ahmeda, , Mohamed. A. El-Khateebb, Nouran Y. Mohameda, Neama A. Sobhya,

⁎

Mariam E. Fawzyb
a
Housing and Building Research Center (HBRC), Sanitary and Environmental Engineering Institute (SEI), Egypt
b
Water Pollution Research Department, National Research Centre, P.Box 12622, Dokki, Giza, Egypt

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The process of removing pollutants from wastewater is a significant challenge for many countries due to the high
Bio-coagulants cost of current technologies and the continuous increase in water consumption. Several methods are used to treat
Coagulation/flocculation wastewater, but their efficiency varies according to the quality of the treated effluent and the technology used. In
Natural adsorbents this study, seven natural waste materials: Moringa leaves, Chitosan, Opuntia, Pomegranate peel, Lupin straw,
Wastewater
Sugarcane bagasse, and tea were prepared, characterized, and utilized as bio-coagulants for domestic wastewater
Treatment
treatment. Jar test experiments were carried out for the bio-coagulants using the coagulation/flocculation
procedure. The optimum dose and time were tested for the bio-coagulants and the experiments were performed
at pH 7.5 and at 25 °C. The presence of surface functional groups such as -COOH, -C]N and –OH and the
formation of surface adsorbents were characterized using Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy and
electron microscopy (SEM) analysis. All bio-coagulants were effective in removing contaminants from waste-
water. The tested bio-coagulants removal efficiency increased with increasing doses until equilibrium was
reached. The maximum removal percentage of Moringa, Chitosan, Opuntia, Pomegranate, Lupin, Sugarcane bagasse,
and tea waste residue was observed at the optimal dose of 0.8 g/L. Pomegranate showed the highest pollutant
removal efficiency. Chitosan and Lupin showed moderate efficiency for chemical oxygen demand (COD), bio-
logical oxygen demand (BOD5), total suspended solids (TSS), phosphate (PO4), ammonia (NH3), nitrate (NO3),
turbidity, total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN), total nitrogen (TN), and total organic carbon (TOC). The highest ad-
sorption capacities achieved for Opuntia in terms of TSS, COD, BOD5, PO4, NH3, NO3, TKN, TN, and TOC were
367.42, 625, 450, 82, 3.5, 3.83, 10.43, 8.21, 18.64, and 231.66 mg/g, with corresponding average removal
efficiency of 85%, 88.25%, 88.07%, 90.32%, 90.29%, 93.82%, 90.23%, 92.23%, and 95.69%, respectively, due
to the presence of cracked texture with porous adsorption sites. The research work suggested that the materials
could be considered eco-friendly, low-cost, and effective bio-coagulants for wastewater treatment.

1. Introduction humans. Therefore, it was necessary to find new alternatives for the
treatment of wastewater using energy-saving, eco-friendly, sustainable,
The presence of water is essential for life due to its vital functions. and cost-effective methods [3]. To date, several methods have been
The rapid growth of population and industrial development has led to used to treat wastewater, such as chemical coagulation [4], biological
the discharge of large amounts of untreated water, posing a threat to [5], adsorption process[6], reverse osmosis, ion exchange, nano-
the environment and water resources[1]. However, some countries technology [7], and wetland systems [8]. Conventional chemical coa-
suffer from a scarcity of clean water and can utilize wastewater treat- gulation/flocculation and adsorption processes are the most famous and
ment as an attractive option for pollution mitigation [2]. Treated water effective methods used for wastewater treatment [6,9]. Currently,
is used for many purposes in industry as well as secondary uses such as natural bio-coagulants derived from plants, animals, or microorganisms
irrigation, toilet flushing, and car washing [3]. The pollutants found in are potential resources for water and wastewater treatment. They are
the water are considered highly dangerous to the environment and environmentally friendly and can substitute inorganic coagulants like

⁎
Corresponding author.
E-mail address: [email protected] (H.M. Ahmed).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.dwt.2024.100034
Received 4 January 2024; Received in revised form 4 January 2024; Accepted 13 January 2024
1944-3986/© 2024 The Author(s). Published by Elsevier Inc. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc-nd/4.0/).
H.M. Ahmed, M.A. El-Khateeb, N.Y. Mohamed et al. Desalination and Water Treatment 317 (2024) 100034

alum, ferric chloride, and calcium oxide in wastewater treatment [10]. are removed at the same time [2]. In general, biosorbent coagulants
They have a high molecular weight and contain polymers that increase that originate from plant leftovers contain a high content of cellulosic
the efficiency of treatment and purification. They exhibit many ad- material like hemicellulose and lignin [27]. They are characterized by
vantages because of their wide availability, biodegradability, low-cost, the presence of multiple functional groups such as C]O,-COOH, -C]N,
safe disposal with low sludge production. In the literature, several and -OH. As well as the surface area of the bio-sorbent, which has a
natural bio-coagulants are used such as corn cobs[11], Pomegranate high affinity to bind and adsorb a wide range of pollutants such as dyes,
peels[12], Opuntia peels [13], Moringa [14], tea waste[15], Sugarcane heavy metals, POPs, organic, and inorganic matter [28]. The aim of this
bagasse [16], Lupins [17], and Chitosan [18]. They are tested for the work is to valorize the use of natural materials for domestic wastewater
removal of pollutants from wastewater[19–21]. Among these bio-coa- treatment. Bio-coagulants namely; Moringa leaves, Chitosan, Opuntia,
gulants and adsorbents is Chitosan, which is a natural polymer obtained Pomegranate peel, Lupins straw, Sugarcane bagasse, and tea waste residue
by removing acetyl-chitin groups in an alkaline environment and is were prepared, characterized and tested as bio-coagulants for domestic
used in water treatment as an excellent agent for removing a variety of wastewater treatment using the coagulation/flocculation method. The
pollutants [19]. The mechanism of pollutant removal is claimed to be adsorption studies were also evaluated according to the efficiency of
charged neutralization due to the presence of positive amino grouping bio-coagulants, which is affected by the dose of sorbent
and bridging [20]. Pomegranate was used as an effective coagulant for
nitrogen removal from milking paltor wastewater [21]. Lupin was used 2. Material and Methods
to eliminate lead ions up to 98.45% with an initial concentration of
5 mg/L from an aqueous solution. Effective adsorption was due to the 2.1. Preparation of bio-coagulants
rough surface area of lupin with a high carbon and oxygen content of
88.27% and 11.73%, respectively [17]. Also, bagasse was used as a Opuntia, Lupins straw, and Pomegranates peel were purchased from
coagulant at pH 7.5 for the removal of turbidity by 97.3%, this is re- the local market and thoroughly washed with tap water and deionized
ported to the irregular structure of bagasse with pores and cavities water to remove impurities. They were then crushed and sieved
amenable for adsorption [16]. Moringa has a wide range of applications (90 µm) to achieve a consistent particle size. Next, the materials were
as an adsorbent for removing dyes, heavy metals, and organic com- dried at 105 °C for 12 h to remove the moisture content [12,17,26]. Tea
pounds [14], [22]. It is a plant consisting of a crown and a stem that is waste residue (TWR) was obtained from used tea, washed with boiled
drought-tolerant and has nutritional and water-purifying properties. It water until the water became clear, and then dried at 105 °C for 12 h to
is an eco-friendly plant that is non-toxic, contains bioactive compounds, remove moisture content. The dried TWR was ground into powder,
and is highly bioavailable in the environment [14]. Moringa was used as screened for sizes up to 100 µm, and then dried at 105 °C for an ad-
a natural coagulant for the removal of organic matter and turbidity. It ditional 5 h. Moringa leaves used in the experiment was purchased from
improves the quality of effluent to reach the discharge limits especially NRC, Egypt. It was grinded and sieved (90 µm) to obtain a homo-
for wastewater below 500 NTU. They are rich with hydroxyl and car- geneous particle size. The material was then dried at 105 °C for 12 h to
boxylic groups that enhance the coagulation process and reduce tur- remove moisture content and immersed in distilled water for 24 h to
bidity to 80% by charge neutralization and adsorption method [23]. remove any remaining oil after mechanical pressing [22]. It was then
Seeds of Moringa oleifera (600 mg/L) were used for the elimination of filtered and dried at 105 °C. Chitosan of medium molecular weight was
bacterial load, turbidity and color from domestic wastewater. The re- obtained from Chitotech. It was ground and sieved (90 µm) to obtain
moval rates reached 99%, 94% and 73% [14]. In another study done by similar particle size, and then dried at 105 °C for 12 h to remove
Varasani et al. [22], Moringa was used as a bio-coagulant for the re- moisture content [19]. Sugarcane bagasse from juice shops in Giza,
duction of COD, BOD, Total solids (TS), pH, electric conductivity (EC) Egypt, was used for the experiment. It was washed thoroughly with tap
and turbidity in wastewater. Tannery wastewater was treated for pur- water, followed by washing with deionized water to remove excess
ification by using Moringa, and the color removal reached 90% [23]. In impurities [16]. It was then ground and sieved (90 µm) to obtain a
summary, the decrease in turbidity leads to the decrease of chemical homogeneous particle size. Next, the material was dried at 105 °C for
oxygen demand which consequently reduce BOD and DO in wastewater 12 h to remove moisture content. The bio-coagulant materials men-
[24]. Miller et al. [13] stated that in the coagulation process is the tioned above were prepared and extracted with water without the ad-
mechanism of removal mainly adsorption and bridging. Opuntia is dition of chemicals, and are ready for use, as shown in Photo 1 (a-g).
characterized by the presence of complex sticky carbohydrates and has
been used as a natural coagulant for the removal of turbidity and COD 2.2. Characterization techniques
from municipal wastewater by an optimal dose of 120 mg/L, the re-
moval rates reached 83.7% and 72.73%, respectively [25]. Dipole in- Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) analysis was con-
teraction or hydrogen bonding is the mode of action carried out by ducted by Thermo Fisher Scientific (UK) to record the spectra of bio-
Opuntia. They achieved 98% for turbidity from simulated water samples coagulants prior treatment. An FT-IR infrared spectrometer was utilized
by the coagulation process. Double layer compression, entrapment, to elucidate the functional groups present. Bio-coagulant samples were
bridging of colloidal particles and charge neutralization are the main proportionally macerated with KBr crystals (1 mg sample/100 mg KBr),
mechanisms involved in the coagulation process in wastewater treat- and a spectral range of 4000 to 400 cm−1 was analyzed. Surface images
ment. During the flocculation process the destabilized particles com- of the bio-coagulants were recorded using a Quanta FEG 250 scanning
bine together to form large flocs, which can then effectively be removed electron microscope (FEI Company, USA) available at HBRC, Cairo. The
by sedimentation. In a study done by Otalora et al. [26], for the use of samples were mounted on SEM stubs and then the SEM conditions in-
Opuntia as a natural bio-coagulant for the removal of color and turbidity cluded a 10.1 mm working distance with an in-lens detector and ex-
from turbid simulated water. The efficiency reached 70% and 80%, citation voltage of 20 kV.
respectively at pH 12 and 12 mg/L optimum dose. This is mainly due to
the presence of galacturonic acid in the polysaccharide chain and also 2.3. Analysis and characterization of wastewater
due to the neutralization of simulated water with negatively charged
particles of Opuntia. Tea waste is a recycling waste material composed Real influent wastewater after screening was collected from
of cellulose, lignin, and carbohydrates and is efficient for adsorption Orascoila wastewater treatment plant (WWTP), New Cairo, Egypt. A
[11]. Furthermore, the physico-chemical coagulation method using pH/conductivity meter (WTW) was used to determine the pH values of
coagulation/flocculation is utilized for the removal of suspended solids, the raw and treated effluents. The chemical oxygen demand (COD) was
turbidity and color. However, 40% of organic load and nitrogen content measured using a COD digester and spectrophotometer (T70), while the

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H.M. Ahmed, M.A. El-Khateeb, N.Y. Mohamed et al. Desalination and Water Treatment 317 (2024) 100034

Photo 1. (a-g). Bio-coagulants used for wastewater treatment.

Table 1 (NO3), and total kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) in influent samples were 3.4,
Physicochemical characteristics of raw wastewater. 8.9, and 7.2 mg/L, respectively, and phosphate (PO4) was 3.1 mg/L.
Parameter Unit Results EEAA Method of
Analysis* * 2.4. Batch coagulation studies

pH —— 7.5 6.00 - pH meter

Coagulation experiments were performed using a jar test system
9.00
TDS mg/L 618 2000 2540-C (Velp JLT-6) at room temperature (25 °C). A one-liter raw domestic
EC µs/cm 1112 2500- 2520-B wastewater sample was utilized in each run with each coagulant.
7500 Several runs for each coagulant were performed using different doses of
Turbidity NTU 54 — Turbitimeter coagulant to find out the optimum dose with the highest removal effi-
TSS mg/L 434 40 2540-D
COD mgO2/L 630 80 5220-D
ciency. The doses of coagulant studied were 0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.8, 1.0 and
BOD5 mgO2/L 409 40 5210-B 1.5 g/L for each experimental run. The samples were flash mixed ra-
PO4 mg/L 3.1 2.0 4500-C pidly at 300 rpm for one min. then followed by flocculation for 30 min
NH3 mg/L 3.4 2.5 4500-NH3 at 150 rpm and finally settling for 45 min [4,10]. The supernatants were
NO3 mg/L 8.9 45 4500-B
withdrawn, the effects of the dose of coagulants, and the concentration
TKN mg/L 7.2 15 4500-Norg
TN mg/L 16.1 — 4500-N of COD, BOD5, TSS, PO4, and TN on removal efficiency (%) and capa-
TOC mg/L 193 — 5310-C city qmax (mg/g) of COD, BOD5, TSS, PO4, and TN were carried out. The
UV254 nm 1.012 — EPA method - removal efficiency (R%) and the dose of pollutants adsorbed on a
415.3 specific dose of adsorbent qe (mg/g) were calculated from Eqs. (1, 2)
*Average of 5 samples [6,9].
* *All parameters were analyzed according to the APHA, except for UV 254, Co Ce
which was according to the EPA. R% = × 100
Co (1)

(Co Ce)V
biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) was determined using Kottrmann qe(mg/g) =
(2)
m
incubator. Total Kjeldahl nitrogen (TKN) was measured using a
Gerhardt distillator (Model Vapodest) and digester (Model Kjeldahl Where (R%) is the removal efficiency, qe is the dose of pollutants ad-
Therm). Total organic carbon (TOC) was measured using multi N/C sorbed on a specific dose of adsorbent (mg/g). C0 is the initial con-
3100 TOC analyzer by Analytik Jena. All analyses were performed ac- centration (mg/L), Ce is the concentration after adsorption (mg/L), m is
cording to the Standard Method for Water and Wastewater the dose of adsorbent (g), and V is the volume of sample (liter).
Examination, APHA [29]. Table (1) shows the characteristics of raw
wastewater used during the study compared to the Egyptian Environ- 3. Results and discussion
mental Association Affair (EEAA) [30]. Based on a five sampling and
analysis, it can be concluded that influent concentrations for turbidity, 3.1. Characteristic of bio-coagulants and the proposed mechanisms for
TSS, BOD5 and COD did not meet the permissible limits of EEAA. The coagulation process
average values of TSS, TOC, COD and BOD5 were 434 mg/L, 193 mg/L,
630 and 409 mgO2/L, respectively. The turbidity measured 54 NTU. The analysis of the Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectrum was
The total nitrogenous species represented by ammonia (NH3), nitrate performed. The FT-IR spectra of coagulants are shown in Fig. (1a-g) to

3
H.M. Ahmed, M.A. El-Khateeb, N.Y. Mohamed et al. Desalination and Water Treatment 317 (2024) 100034

Fig. 1. FT-IR spectra of bio-coagulants (a) Lupins (L) (b) Opuntia(O) (c) Pomegranate (P) (d) Moringa (M) (e) Chitosan (f)Tea waste (T) (g) Sugarcane bagasse (SB).

investigate the functional groups of natural waste materials used as adsorption is attributed to the abundance of hydroxyl groups in cellu-
coagulants that are responsible for the adsorption and removal of pol- lose and the band presented at 3450 cm−1, in which aqueous media
lutants before adsorption. The pollutants binding mechanism of promote ion exchange and/or complexation with pollutants [7,11]. The

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H.M. Ahmed, M.A. El-Khateeb, N.Y. Mohamed et al. Desalination and Water Treatment 317 (2024) 100034

Fig. 2. (a-g): SEM images of the bio-coagulants (a) Lupins (L) b) Opuntia(O) (c) Pomegranate (P) (d) Moringa (M) (e) Chitosan (C) (f)Tea waste (T) (g) Sugarcane
bagasse (SB).

Fig. (3). The removal efficiency (R %) of Pomegranate peels for different Fig. (4). The removal efficiency (R %) of Lupin straw for different parameters.
parameters.
[6,10]. Fig. (1-a) for the FTIR of Lupin powder shows that 5 peaks at
band presented at 2900 cm−1 may indicate the –C–H stretching vibra- 3450, 2810, 1600, 1410, and 1050 cm−1 were detected. Coagulation by
tion from aliphatic compounds. The absorption at 1600 cm−1 indicated Lupin is assigned to be due to the N-H symmetric vibrations overlapping
N–H bending in the adsorbent. The C]N stretching in heterocyclic with the –OH from the phenol groups present in the cellulose and lignin
rings was also identified at wave number 1410 cm−1. The peak at of Lupin [17]. Fig. (1-b) shows bands at 3450 and 1600 cm−1, Opuntia
1450 cm−1 is due to the C–OH stretching vibration of alcohols. Finally, contains ketones, esters, aldehydes, hydroxyls, and carboxyl functional
the carboxylic acids were observed at 1050 cm−1 of the adsorbents groups. Additionally, from the literature data for Pomegranate, it is clear

5
H.M. Ahmed, M.A. El-Khateeb, N.Y. Mohamed et al. Desalination and Water Treatment 317 (2024) 100034

Fig. (5). The removal efficiency (R %) of Opuntia for different parameters.

Fig. (9). The removal efficiency (R %) of tea waste residue for different
parameters.

which is rich in protein and polysaccharides that enhance the coagu-

lation process [31]. Meanwhile, Fig. (1-d) for Moringa shows the ex-
istence of different bands with numerous amide, hydroxyl, carboxylic,
and amine functional groups. These functional groups aid in the elec-
trostatic complexation between the biosorbent surface of Moringa and
the pollutants. The FT-IR of Chitosan confirms the presence of long-
chain polysaccharides and amino groups, as shown in Fig. (1- e). Pol-
lutant removal by Chitosan is found to be due to the electrostatic in-
teraction and chelation process. The negatively charged pollutants
present in wastewater, like organic matter and heavy metal ions, in-
teract with the polymeric chain via electrostatic interactions and lead to
Fig. (6). The removal efficiency (R %) of Chitosan for different parameters. the effective removal of TSS, COD, and turbidity, which is in agreement
with Kyoon and Meyers[32]. Fig. (1-f) shows the FTIR of tea waste,
which is rich in cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, proteins, and tannin. It
contains a lot of functional groups, which are efficient for the adsorp-
tion of pollutants [15]. Moreover, sugarcane bagasse is presented in Fig.
(1-g). The mechanism of coagulation of Sugarcane bagasse is mainly due
to the diffusion of pollutant particles on the surface of bagasse (sorbent),
followed by the entrapment of molecules carried by capillary action,
and then agglomeration through the rough, porous surface area of the
bagasse, as reported by Anusha and Dineshkumar [33].
The surface morphology of bio-coagulants was characterized using a
scanning electron microscope (SEM). Fig. 2(a–g) displays the porous
structures of different coagulants. The SEM images clearly indicate the
presence of binding cavities for pollutants such as organic compounds,
inorganic pollutants, and N-P compounds, suggesting high contaminant
Fig. (7). The removal efficiency (R %) of Sugarcane bagasse for different binding. The SEM image of Lupin shows paper-like overlapped struc-
parameters. tures with numerous pores and a rough crimped surface area, as shown
in Fig. (2a)[34]. The SEM image of Opuntia (Fig. 2b) reveals an irregular
matrix with a cracked pattern. In the case of the SEM image of Pome-
granate (Fig. 2c), it can be seen that it has a rough surface area with
different micro- and macrophages like those obtained by Ben-Ali [35].
Fig. (2d) display the SEM image of Moringa, which display the presence
of villus structures with a porous matrix that facilitates the adsorption
process [14,22]. The SEM image for Chitosan Fig. (2e) indicates a core-
shell structure. Additionally, the SEM image of tea waste reveals a
porous fibrous structure (Fig. 2 f). Finally, the SEM image obtained for
sugarcane bagasse (Fig. 2 g) shows the fibrous, layered structure of the
bagasse.

3.2. Effect of bio-coagulant dose

Fig. (8). The removal efficiency (R %) of Moringa for different parameters.

Through the work of the experiment, it was found that all coagu-
that the functional groups are due to the presence of hydroxyl groups, lants have the ability to bind to the pollutants present in domestic
and the surface of Pomegranate is rich in oxygen, as shown in Fig. (1-c). wastewater. Figs. (3–9) show the removal efficiency (R %) for different
Treatment of pulp and paper wastewater was achieved by Pomegranate tested parameters with varying doses of coagulants (0.1, 0.3, 0.5, 0.8,
seeds with an optimal dose of 600 mg/L and a 30 min contact time for and 1 g/L), including Moringa, Chitosan, Opuntia, Pomegranate, Lupin,
the removal of COD and turbidity of 87% and 60%, respectively. This Sugarcane bagasse, and tea waste residue. The adsorption capacity of
was attributed to the structure of the fiber material for Pomegranate, contaminants increased with doses up to 0.8 g/L, at optimal conditions

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H.M. Ahmed, M.A. El-Khateeb, N.Y. Mohamed et al. Desalination and Water Treatment 317 (2024) 100034

Table 2
Adsorption capacities of different pollutants using different natural bio-coagulants q (mg/g).

Pollutant Pomegranate Opuntia Chitosan Lupine Tea residue Sugarcane bagasse Moringa

TSS 366.56 367.42 467.47 446.78 409.69 390.71 390.71

TOC 231.25 231.66 225.83 215.83 197.92 188.75 188.75
COD 693.75 695.00 677.50 647.50 593.75 566.25 566.25
BOD5 450.00 450.82 439.27 419.48 384.00 365.85 365.85
PO4 3.45 3.50 3.06 2.94 1.81 1.40 1.40
NH3 3.71 3.83 3.56 3.38 1.76 1.13 1.13
NO3 10.31 10.43 9.87 8.63 3.63 2.38 2.38
TKN 7.94 8.21 7.62 7.22 3.77 2.41 2.41
TN 18.25 18.64 17.49 15.85 7.40 4.78 4.78

Table 3
Comparison of the removal efficiency (R %) for the different bio-coagulants used for wastewater treatment.

Pollutant Raw Po %R Op %R Ch %R L %R TWR %R SB %R M %R

Turbidity 54 8 85.18 6 88.88 9 83.33 10 81.48 15 72.22 25 53.70 25 53.70

(NTU)
TSS (mg/L) 434 35 85 37 85.2 62 86.03 77 82.22 106 75.39 122 71.90 123 71.90
COD (mg/L) 630 75 88.09 74 88.25 88 86.03 112 82.22 155 75.39 177 71.90 179 71.90
BOD (mg/L) 409 39 87.91 40 88.07 58 85.81 73 81.94 102 75.01 116 71.47 118 71.47
PO4 (mg/L) 3.1 0.34 89.03 0.3 90.32 0.65 79.03 0.75 75.80 1.65 46.77 1.98 36.12 1.99 36.12
Ammonia 3.4 0.43 87.35 0.33 90.29 0.55 83.82 0.7 79.41 1.99 41.47 2.5 26.47 2.6 26.47
(mg/L)
Nitrate (mg/ 8.9 0.65 92.69 0.55 93.82 1.0 88.76 2.0 77.52 6.0 32.58 7.0 21.34 7.1 21.34
L)
TKN (mg/L) 7.276 0.92 87.35 0.70 90.29 1.1 83.82 1.4 79.41 4.25 41.47 5.35 26.47 5.39 26.47
TN ( mg/L) 16.17 1.57 90.29 1.25 92.23 2.1 86.54 3.4 78.37 10.2 36.58 12.35 23.65 12.39 23.65
TOC ( mg/L) 193.6 8.6 95.52 8.3 95.69 13 93.28 21 89.15 35.3 81.75 42.6 77.96 42.69 77.96
UV 254 (nm) 1.012 0.45 55.53 0.42 58.49 0.7 30.83 0.8 20.94 0.9 11.06 1.0 1.18 1.03 1.18

Table 4 molecules being crowded [13]. In the case of Opuntia, our results were
The cost for preparation 1000 mg of waste material. better than those obtained by Rachdi et al. [36]. They reported that
82.75% of TSS and 64.3% of COD were achieved for urban wastewater
Process Water Electricity
consumption* (m3) consumption* (kWh) treatment. It is noticed that Moringa removal was limited for turbidity,
UV 254 nm and nutrient removal; this may be attributed to Moringa
Washing 0.003 — favoring the basic medium for the adsorption process, which is in
Washing with hot 0.002 2.4
agreement with Desta and Bote [37]. However, satisfactory removal
water
Drying at 1050C –= 2.3 was achieved for COD, BOD, TSS and TOC for domestic wastewater
(2 h) with a pH value of 7.5.
Crushing — 0.2
Washing 0.002 —
Burning at 5500 C - — 3.3. Comparison between the different adsorbents used for pollutant
(1 h)
removal from domestic wastewater
Washing 0.002 —
Total Consumption 0.009 4.9
Cost 0.09 8.33 Based on the previous data obtained at an optimal dose of 0.8 g/L
3
for bio-coagulants, the data depicted in Table (2) shows the adsorption
*In Egypt, the cost of 1 m of water for industrial use = 10.0 L.E
capacities for total suspended solids, total organic carbon, chemical
*In Egypt, the cost of 1 kWh of electricity for industrial use = 1.7 L.E
oxygen demand, biological oxygen demand and nutrients (phosphorous
and nitrogen) using different natural adsorbents. It was found that the
of room temperature, and a contact time of 30 min. The R % changed adsorption capacities for TOC, COD, BOD, PO4, NO3, NH3, TKN, and TN
slightly, reaching a peak then reaching equilibrium. This means that the were in the following order: Opuntia > Pomegranate peels > Chitosan
absorption process is rapid at the beginning of the removal or inter- > Lupin straw > tea waste residue > Sugarcane bagasse = Moringa.
action process, then gradually decreases with the continuation of the However, the removal capacity for total suspended solids was in the
removal process, but by a small percentage with the increase in the order of Chitosan > Lupin straw > tea waste residue > Opuntia
dose, until it reaches the degree of saturation, and then the removal > Pomegranate peels > Sugarcane bagasse = Moringa. It is important to
process decline. The removal process increased with increasing the dose note that all the bio-coagulants used for domestic wastewater treatment
due to the abundance of surface area available at higher concentrations were efficient and had high adsorption capacities. The coagulation/
of the coagulants[6,9]. A significant increase in the adsorption process flocculation followed by adsorption mechanisms involved can be at-
was observed when the dose was increased from 0.1 to 0.8 g/L. A fur- tributed to the synergetic interaction between the pollutants and the
ther increase in the dose of coagulants up to 1 g/L gives a high removal presence of different mechanisms like electrostatic, complexation, Van
efficiency. However, a dose of 0.8 g/L was preferable to minimize the der Waals forces, and hydrogen bonding [32–38]. In addition, the
cost of the process, and there was also no great difference between the surface morphology of the bio-coagulants facilitates the adsorption
removal efficiency in terms of organic pollutants and nutrient removal process and enhances the entrapment of pollutants. As well as the un-
at 1 g/L. Moreover, the increase in the dose of coagulants up to 1.5 g/L ique structure of bio-coagulants, which are rich in lignin, cellulose, and
did not significantly change in adsorption process. This may be due to hemicellulose with multi-functional groups like (-OH), (-C]O),
the overlapping of the adsorbent sites as a result of the coagulants (-COOH), (C]N), (C-OH) and (-SH) groups enhances the adsorption

7
H.M. Ahmed, M.A. El-Khateeb, N.Y. Mohamed et al. Desalination and Water Treatment 317 (2024) 100034

process is enhanced by the existence of active adsorption sites, as re- Declaration of Competing Interest
ported by Tee et al. [3]. Furthermore, Table (3) indicates the removal
efficiency of the bio-coagulants used for domestic wastewater treatment The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
based on the removal rates obtained. The best removal rates obtained interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ-
for Opuntia for turbidity, TSS, COD, BOD5, PO4, NH3, NO3, TKN, TN, ence the work reported in this paper..
TOC and UV 254 nm were 88.88%, 85.2%, 88.25%, 88.07%, 90.32%,
90.29%, 93.82%, 90.29%, 92.23%, 95.69%, and 58.49%, respectively. Acknowledgements
The contact time and the dose of coagulant are reported in the removal
of nitrogen from wastewater, which is carried out by the volatilization This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
process. The removal rate of total nitrogen varies from 23.65% to 90% agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
according to the type of coagulant, and this may be a result of the
stabilization and re-dispersion of the colloidal particles [21]. Also, References
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