biomimetics

Review
Nature-Inspired Designs in Wind Energy: A Review
Farzaneh Omidvarnia * and Ali Sarhadi

Department of Wind and Energy Systems, Technical University of Denmark (DTU), Frederiksborgvej 399,
4000 Roskilde, Denmark; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +45-53148246

Abstract: The field of wind energy stands at the forefront of sustainable and renewable energy
solutions, playing a pivotal role in mitigating environmental concerns and addressing global energy
demands. For many years, the convergence of nature-inspired solutions and wind energy has
emerged as a promising avenue for advancing the efficiency and sustainability of wind energy
systems. While several research endeavors have explored biomimetic principles in the context of
wind turbine design and optimization, a comprehensive review encompassing this interdisciplinary
field is notably absent. This review paper seeks to rectify this gap by cataloging and analyzing the
multifaceted body of research that has harnessed biomimetic approaches within the realm of wind
energy technology. By conducting an extensive survey of the existing literature, we consolidate and
scrutinize the insights garnered from diverse biomimetic strategies into design and optimization in
the wind energy domain.

Keywords: biomimetics; bio-inspired design; biomimicry; wind energy systems; wind turbine;
turbine blade

1. Introduction
With 3.8 billion years of evolution, nature has developed technologies that rival or
outperform those developed by humans [1]. Biomimetics, also known as biomimicry, bio-
inspired, or biologically inspired [2], is a burgeoning research field that draws inspiration
from natural models, systems, and elements to provide innovative design solutions for
Citation: Omidvarnia, F.; Sarhadi, A.
various problems [3,4]. The approach aims to integrate designs inspired by biological
Nature-Inspired Designs in Wind organisms into engineered technologies. As an interdisciplinary field, biomimetics connects
Energy: A Review. Biomimetics 2024, 9, the collaborative efforts of biologists, physicists, chemists, engineers, and architects, offering
90. https://doi.org/10.3390/ the potential to deliver sustainable solutions [5], and enables the development of machines
biomimetics9020090 that imitate the performance of organisms, especially when their performance surpasses
current mechanical technology or offers innovative solutions to existing challenges [6]. The
Academic Editor: Peng Liu
term “biomimetics” was coined by Otto Schmitt in the 1950s to describe the process of
Received: 16 January 2024 drawing inspiration from nature to address practical challenges we face [7]. In 1997, Janine
Revised: 24 January 2024 M. Benyus introduced the term “biomimicry” in her book Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired
Accepted: 26 January 2024 by Nature [8].
Published: 1 February 2024 Biomimetics, drawing inspiration from biological systems, has long intrigued engi-
neers and designers, tracing back to Leonardo da Vinci’s studies of bird flight and even
earlier to myths like Daedalus and Icarus. Historical references, including King Solomon’s
throne adorned with mechanical creatures and the Talmud’s tales of the Golem, illustrate
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
this enduring fascination [9,10]. Bar-Cohen has compiled a comprehensive review that
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland.
explores the intricate technological applications of various biological systems in the field of
This article is an open access article
engineering [11]. The fundamental inclusive principles inherent in nature can be broadly
distributed under the terms and
categorized into ten key aspects, forming the foundation of bioinspiration [12,13].
conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
Nature’s 10 principles [13] emphasize sustainable and efficient practices. Energy
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
efficiency is key, with only essential energy used for functions. Recycling and reuse
4.0/). transform waste into resources, while resilience and diversity ensure balance amidst chaos.

Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90. https://doi.org/10.3390/biomimetics9020090 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/biomimetics

Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 2 of 37

Nature optimizes resource use for equilibrium and fosters collaboration for collective
success. Continuous learning and adaptation are achieved through feedback mechanisms.
Safe materials and chemicals are used, with a reliance on abundant resources and cautious
use of scarce ones. Nature’s adaptability to its environment ensures survival, integrating
function and form for minimal energy and material use.
One promising application of biomimetics lies in the design of advanced materials,
thanks to their remarkable mechanical, hydrodynamic, optical, and electrical properties,
which have evolved over time [10,14–20]. Interest in biomaterials and biostructures has
grown, driving the development of intelligent biological systems, inspired by a variety
of notable examples [21,22]. However, the challenge extends beyond imitating nature’s
materials and structures; it involves understanding the principles and mechanisms be-
hind biological systems and their functions [23]. Additionally, engineering often faces
unique conditions and constraints, potentially resulting in different materials [24–26].
Biomimicry-inspired self-healing materials encompass methods from vascular-like systems
to nanoparticle-based delivery [27,28]. Techniques in self-healing concrete, like adhesive
conduits and shape-memory alloys [29,30], replicate biological materials, resulting in syn-
thetic versions with improved strength and durability, suitable for aerospace, construction,
and manufacturing applications.
Biomimetics has significantly influenced the field of robotics and automation [31,32].
By mimicking the locomotion and sensory mechanisms observed in animals and insects,
engineers have developed highly agile and efficient robots [33–37].
Biomimetics is revolutionizing sustainable energy technologies, particularly in solar
panel and wind turbine design, in response to the growing global energy demand and the
surge in renewable energy exploration [38,39]. In the past decade, the field of automobile
design has expanded its influence beyond aesthetics, extending to functionality, exemplified
by DaimlerChrysler’s bionic concept car inspired by the boxfish’s exterior shape [40]. The
Japanese bullet train’s design, inspired by the kingfisher’s beak, reduces sonic booms and
air resistance, mirroring the bird’s splash-minimizing dive. This biomimicry enhances the
train’s acceleration and energy efficiency, earning it the “bullet train” nickname [40–42].
Wind energy has witnessed rapid expansion in recent years. Projections indicate that
wind energy could constitute over 40% of all renewable energy sources by 2030 [43] and
contribute to fulfilling approximately 20% of the world’s energy requirements [44].
The development of wind turbines and their aerodynamic modeling has been a focal
point in recent research, with considerable advancements and reviews documented over
the past few decades [45–47]. In the realm of biomimetics, Roy et al. [48] contributed
significantly to wind turbine research by comprehensively reviewing the application of
bio-inspired tubercles on horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) blades, highlighting their
potential to enhance aerodynamic performance, especially in post-stall regimes and varying
wind conditions. Siram et al. [49] reviewed small wind turbines (SWTs), particularly for off-
grid and decentralized energy systems, emphasizing their operation under low Reynolds
number and tip speed ratio (TSR) conditions. It addresses key aspects like airfoil selection,
blade design, and aerodynamic enhancements, including bio-inspired profiles, suitable for
low-Re and low-k SWTs.
The present study offers an extensive review of the utilization of biomimetics in the
development of wind turbine systems. It studies various natural inspirations applicable
across various facets, including blade structure design, component development, and
innovative proposals for new wind turbine configurations. The objective of this review is to
underscore the potential advantages, inherent challenges, and progressive advancements
associated with incorporating nature-inspired solutions in wind turbine design.

2. Methodological Approach: A Review of Inspirational Sources and Research Trends

By tracing the trajectory of past research endeavors, the aim was to discern notable
patterns based on the sources of biological inspiration that have informed these investiga-
tions. In doing so, the endeavor was to shed light on the extent of researchers’ adaptability
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realm. 1). 1).
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tablerepresentsthe
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majorandand
and
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and
and
subcategories
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subcategories of
of of
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major
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major sources
major sources
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sources ofof
of inspiration
inspiration
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inin
ininthis
thisthis
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realm.
inthis realm.
realm.
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Table 1. Symbolic representation of inspirational sources.

Table
Table
Table
Table
Table1.1.1.
Table
Table 1.
1. Symbolic
Symbolic
Symbolic
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1. 1. representation
representation
representation
representation
representation
Symbolic representation
Symbolic ofofof
representation of
of inspirational
inspirational
inspirational
inspirational
inspirational
of sources.
sources.
sources.
sources.
inspirational
of sources.
sources.
inspirational Natural
sources.Composite Fibonacci Se-
Plants Insects Aquatic Inspirations Birds
Materials quence
Natural
Natural
Natural
Natural
Natural
Natural
Natural Composite
Composite
Composite
Composite
Composite
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Composite Fibonacci
Fibonacci
Fibonacci
Fibonacci
FibonacciSe-
Se-
Fibonacci Se-
Se-
Se-
Se-
Plants
Plants
Plants
Plants
Plants
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Plants Insects
Insects
Insects
Insects
Insects
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Insects Aquatic
Aquatic
Aquatic
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Aquatic
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Aquatic Inspirations
Inspirations
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Inspirations
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Inspirations
Inspirations BirdsBirds
Birds
Birds
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Birds
Birds Fibonacci Sequence
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials
Materials quence
quence
quence
quence
quence
quence

•Movement of tree • Cicada • Owl

• Fish schooling • Nacre • Natural fin-
branches and leaves • Bee • Guillemot
• Humpback • Bone Struc- ger’s ability
• Lotus flower (Ne- • Wasp • Seagull
•••••••Movement
Movement
Movement
Movement ofofof
Movement
Movement of
tree
tree
of tree
tree
tree
of tree ••••••• Cicada
Cicada
Cicada
Cicada
Cicada
Cicada whales
• •••• •• Owl
Owl
Owl Owl
Owl
Owl tures to fold
lumbo
Movement nucifera)
of tree branches Mosquito
••••••Fish
FishFish
Fish ••••••Nacre
schooling
schooling
schooling
Fishschooling
schooling
Fish schooling Albatros
Nacre
Nacre
Nacre
Nacre
Nacre ••••••Natural
Natural
Natural
Natural
Natural
Natural fin-
fin-
fin-
fin-
fin-
fin-
branches
branches
branches
branches
and and
leaves
branches
branches and
and
and leaves
leaves
and leaves
and leaves •••••• Bee
leaves
leaves BeeBee
Bee
Bee
Bee •••••• Guillemot
Guillemot
Guillemot
Guillemot
Guillemot
Guillemot
• Lotus flower (Nelumbo ••••••Humpback
Humpback
Humpback
Humpback
Humpback
Humpback ••••••BoneBone
Bone
Bone
Bone
Bone Struc-
Struc-
Struc-
Struc-
Struc-
Struc- ger’sger’s
ger’s
ger’s
ger’s ability
ability
ability
ability
ger’s ability
ability
••••••Lotus
Lotus
Lotus
Lotus
Lotus flower
flower
flower
flower
Lotus flower
nucifera) (Ne-
(Ne-
(Ne-
flower (Ne- •••••• Wasp
(Ne-
(Ne- Wasp
Wasp
Wasp
Wasp
Wasp ••••••• Seagull
Seagull
Seagull
Seagull
Seagull
Seagull
Owl
• Cicada whales
whales
whales
whales
whales
whales tures
tures
tures
tures
tures
tures • to to
to to
fold
fold
to to fold
fold
fold
Natural fold
finger’s
lumbo
•lumbo
lumbo
Maple
lumbo
lumbo
lumbo nucifera) •••••• Mosquito
nucifera)
nucifera)
seed
nucifera)
nucifera)
nucifera) Mosquito
Mosquito
Mosquito
• Mosquito
Mosquito
Bee • Fish schooling ••••••• Albatros
Guillemot
Albatros
Albatros
Albatros
Albatros
Albatros ability to fold
• Triplaris samara seed • Seagull • Nacre
• Wasp • Humpback • Natural
• Dryobalanops aromatica seed • Albatros • Bone Structures
• Mosquito whales geometrical
• Borneo camphor seed • Stork
• Dragonfly patterns
• Petrea Volubilis seed • Golden eagle
• Mimosa seed
• Bauhinia Variegata seed
• Epilobium hirsutum seed
 aromatica seed
• Borneo camphor seed
• Petrea Volubilis seed
• Mimosa seed
• Bauhinia Variegata
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 4 of 37
seed
• Epilobium hirsutum
seed
4. Learning from the Plant Kingdom in Wind Energy
4. Learning
4.1. Movementfrom theBranches
of Tree Plant Kingdom in Wind Energy
and Leaves
4.1. Plants
Movement
have of long
Tree Branches
served asand Leaves
a profound source of inspiration in the realm of biomimetic
engineering,
Plants particularly
have long servedwithinasthe
a context
profound of sustainable energies. One
source of inspiration of the
in the most
realm ofprominent
biomi-
examples is the development
metic engineering, particularlyof solar
withinphotovoltaic
the context of technology,
sustainable which draws
energies. Oneinspiration
of the most from
the way leaves
prominent captureissunlight
examples and convert
the development it intophotovoltaic
of solar chemical energy [50,51].which
technology, Engineers
drawshave
inspiration to
endeavored from the way
replicate leaves capture
the efficiency sunlight andsystems
of photosynthetic convertbyit designing
into chemical energy
advanced solar
[50,51].
cells that Engineers
emulate the have endeavored
molecular to replicate
structures found the efficiency of photosynthetic systems
in plants.
by designing advanced
In the pursuit solar cells that
of sustainable energy,emulate the molecular
biomimicry structures
extends beyondfound energy ingeneration
plants.
In thestorage.
to energy pursuit of sustainableare
Researchers energy, biomimicry
exploring extendssolutions
biomimetic beyond energy generation
for efficient energy
to energy
storage storage.by
systems Researchers
looking atare exploring
how plantsbiomimetic
store and solutions for efficient
release energy energy
through stor-
processes
agetranspiration
like systems by looking
and ionattransport
how plants store These
[52,53]. and release energy hold
innovations through processesoflike
the promise more
transpiration
efficient and ion transport
and eco-friendly energy[52,53].
storageThese innovations hold the promise of more effi-
solutions.
cient and eco-friendly
Plants energy storage
have also inspired solutions. in wind energy [54]. Biomimetics has led
breakthroughs
Plants have also inspired breakthroughs
to the creation of wind turbine designs inspired in wind byenergy [54]. Biomimetics
the swaying has ledortothe
of palm fronds
aerodynamic efficiency of leaves [55,56]. The Aeroleaf [57], a French company,the
the creation of wind turbine designs inspired by the swaying
® of palm fronds or aero-
represents
dynamic efficiency of leaves [55,56]. The Aeroleaf ® [57], a French company, represents a
a micro wind turbine with a patented design influenced by leaves and trees (Figure 2).
micro this
Within winddesign,
turbineawith a patentedgenerator
synchronous design influenced by leavesmagnets
with permanent and trees (Figure
makes up2).each
Within this design, a synchronous generator with
Aeroleaf. The maximum power per leaf is reported around 300 W. permanent magnets makes up each Aer-
oleaf. The maximum power per leaf is reported around 300 W.

Turbines Characteristics
Launch speed 2.5 m/s (9 km/h)
43 m/s continuously
Wind speed limit
50 m/s in gusts (180 km/h)
Electrical Characteristics
WindTree’s Installed Capacity 10,800 W
WindTree’s Nominal Power 5868 W
Maximum power per Aeroleaf 300 W

Output Voltage of the Inverter 110/230 V

Figure 2. Technical specifications of the Windtree and WindTree is a steel structure (trunk and
Figure 2. Technical specifications of the Windtree and WindTree is a steel structure (trunk and
branches) on which 36 Aeroleaf®® were installed. Reprinted with permission from [57], Copyright©
branches) on which 36
2024, New World Wind. Aeroleaf were installed. Reprinted with permission from [57], Copyright©
2024, New World Wind.
Within the realm of sustainable energy solutions, novel approaches have gained
Within the
prominence, realm the
including of sustainable
utilization ofenergy solutions,
tree movement novel approaches
to harvest have gained
energy. Harvesting en-
prominence,
ergy from the movement of trees has the potential to provide power for wirelessHarvesting
including the utilization of tree movement to harvest energy. devices
energy frominthe
deployed movement
densely wooded of trees has the potential
environments to provide
where other energypower for such
sources, wireless devices
as solar,
deployed in densely wooded environments where other energy sources, such as
may be limited. The study by McGarry et al. [58] focused on investigating the amount ofsolar, may
be limited. The study by McGarry et al. [58] focused on investigating the amount of energy
and power available from the motion of a tree in a sheltered position, specifically through
Beaufort 4 winds.
Several methods for extracting energy from tree movement have been explored, including
harvesting energy from the tree’s horizontal acceleration, lean angle, and force/displacement,
and the force/displacement approach showed the greatest potential for harvesting energy.
The tree’s average power output, over 900 s, to lift and lower the mass in only one (arbitrarily
selected) direction, was calculated to be 44.7 mW in one axis. According to the results of
this study from analysis of tree movement energy harvesting methods, the total wind power
dissipated by the tree was around 496 W [58].
McCloskey et al., in their study [59], focused on the potential of using plant-inspired
designs to convert wind energy. The goal of their study was to explore alternative methods
 force/displacement, and the force/displacement approach showed the greatest potential
for harvesting energy. The tree’s average power output, over 900 s, to lift and lower the
mass in only one (arbitrarily selected) direction, was calculated to be 44.7 mW in one axis.
According to the results of this study from analysis of tree movement energy harvesting
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 5 of 37
methods, the total wind power dissipated by the tree was around 496 W [58].
McCloskey et al., in their study [59], focused on the potential of using plant-inspired
designs to convert wind energy. The goal of their study was to explore alternative meth-
to traditional
ods wind wind
to traditional turbines to overcome
turbines their limitations,
to overcome such as such
their limitations, noise,asvisual impact,
noise, visualand
im-
restricted deployment in residential areas. They investigated the use of artificial
pact, and restricted deployment in residential areas. They investigated the use of artificial plants
containing piezoelectric
plants containing elements,
piezoelectric which can
elements, generate
which electricalelectrical
can generate energy from wind-induced
energy from wind-
vibrations (Figure 3).
induced vibrations (Figure 3).

Figure3.3.Cottonwood-shaped
Figure Cottonwood-shapedplastic
plasticleaves
leavesmounted
mountedon
onan
analuminum
aluminumtrellis
trellis[59].
[59].

4.2.
4.2. Lotus
LotusFlower
Flower Inspiration
Inspiration
In
Inengineering,
engineering,the thestudy
study of flower petals
of flower has inspired
petals the development
has inspired the developmentof lightweight
of light-
and resilient
weight and materials. Mimicking
resilient materials. the microstructures
Mimicking and properties
the microstructures and of petals, researchers
properties of petals,
have createdhave
researchers materials
created that are notthat
materials onlyare
strong but strong
not only also flexible, making
but also flexible,them
makingidealthem
for
applications in aerospace, automotive, and construction industries [60].
ideal for applications in aerospace, automotive, and construction industries [60]. Flowers Flowers also
influence biomimetic
also influence designs
biomimetic in robotics
designs and medical
in robotics and medicaldevices. The The
devices. study of flower-like
study of flower-
structures has informed the development of soft robots and medical
like structures has informed the development of soft robots and medical implants implants that mimic that
the
flexibility and adaptability of petals, offering solutions for minimally invasive
mimic the flexibility and adaptability of petals, offering solutions for minimally invasive procedures
and patient and
procedures comfort [61,62].
patient comfort Furthermore, the self-cleaning
[61,62]. Furthermore, properties
the self-cleaning of some of
properties flower
some
surfaces, like the lotus leaf, have inspired the creation of superhydrophobic
flower surfaces, like the lotus leaf, have inspired the creation of superhydrophobic mate- materials.
These materials
rials. These have ahave
materials widearangewide of applications,
range from self-cleaning
of applications, surfacessurfaces
from self-cleaning to water- to
resistant coatings on textiles and electronics.
water-resistant coatings on textiles and electronics.
The
TheNile’s
Nile’sLotus
Lotusflower,
flower,abundant
abundant in Egypt, holds
in Egypt, cultural
holds and historical
cultural significance
and historical [63,64].
significance
Abdelrahman et al. [63] investigated the development of a new design for HAWT
[63,64].
blades, drawing inspiration from the flower of Nelumbo nucifera (Sacred lotus, Figure 4).
Abdelrahman et al. [63] investigated the development of a new design for HAWT
Recognizing the aerodynamically favorable structure of the lotus flower, the study aimed to
blades, drawing inspiration from the flower of Nelumbo nucifera (Sacred lotus, Figure 4).
enhance the efficiency of wind turbine blades by integrating these natural design elements.
Recognizing the aerodynamically favorable structure of the lotus flower, the study aimed
The authors claimed that the lotus-inspired turbine model exhibited a 31.7% increase in
to enhance the efficiency of wind turbine blades by integrating these natural design ele-
Biomimetics 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
output power compared to the traditional NACA 2412 airfoil turbine model and that the 6 of 3
ments. The authors claimed that the lotus-inspired turbine model exhibited a 31.7% in-
design is suitable for small- and medium-scale wind turbine projects.
crease in output power compared to the traditional NACA 2412 airfoil turbine model and
that the design is suitable for small- and medium-scale wind turbine projects.

Figure4.4.Nelumbo
Figure Nelumbo nucifera,
nucifera, alsoalso known
known as sacred
as sacred lotus, lotus,
IndianIndian
lotus, orlotus, orlotus
simply simply
[63].lotus [63].

4.3. Insights from Seeds

The maple tree (Acer) is adapted to habitats with poor nutrients in temperate cli
mates [65]. Maples disperse their seeds by wind, updrafts, and turbulent gusts, like man
other pioneer trees [66,67]. In windy conditions, maple seeds disperse quickly and start t
autorotate within 1 m of detaching from the tree. The wing-shaped seed (Figure 5) auto
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 Figure 4. Nelumbo nucifera, also known as sacred lotus, Indian lotus, or simply lotus [63]. 6 of 37

4.3. Insights from Seeds

4.3. The maple
Insights fromtree
Seeds(Acer) is adapted to habitats with poor nutrients in temperate cli-
matesThe[65]. Maples
maple treedisperse
(Acer) is their
adaptedseeds by wind,
to habitats updrafts,
with and turbulent
poor nutrients gusts,climates
in temperate like many
[65].
other
Maples disperse their seeds by wind, updrafts, and turbulent gusts, like many other start
pioneer trees [66,67]. In windy conditions, maple seeds disperse quickly and to
pioneer
autorotate within 1 m of detaching from the tree. The wing-shaped seed
trees [66,67]. In windy conditions, maple seeds disperse quickly and start to autorotate within(Figure 5) auto-
rotates because the
1 m of detaching fromheavy nut, The
the tree. andwing-shaped
hence the center
seedof gravity,
(Figure are locatedbecause
5) autorotates at the base [68–
the heavy
71]. Inertial and aerodynamic properties of maple and other rotary seeds interact
nut, and hence the center of gravity, are located at the base [68–71]. Inertial and aerodynamic to create
stable autorotation,
properties of maple which is still
and other poorly
rotary seedsunderstood [68,72,73].
interact to create stableSupposedly,
autorotation,autorotation
which is still
creates
poorly lift to allow [68,72,73].
understood seeds to descend for longer
Supposedly, periods.creates
autorotation Autorotating seeds,
lift to allow despite
seeds their
to descend
small size and slow velocity, generate surprising lift forces according
for longer periods. Autorotating seeds, despite their small size and slow velocity, generateto detailed perfor-
mance studies
surprising [68,69].
lift forces according to detailed performance studies [68,69].

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure5.5.(a)
(a)Maple
Mapleseed
seed(left)
(left)and
andTriplaris
Triplarissamara
samaraseed
seed(right).
(right).(b)
(b)Two
Twomain
mainparts
partsofofaamaple
maple
samara [74,75]. Reprinted with permission from [75], Copyright ©, 2024, Elsevier.
samara [74,75]. Reprinted with permission from [75], Copyright ©, 2024, Elsevier.

Theaerodynamic
The aerodynamic characteristics
characteristicsofofauto-rotating
auto-rotating maple
maple andandTriplaris samara
Triplaris samaraseedsseeds
were
extensively
were investigated
extensively by Lentink
investigated et al. [76].
by Lentink et al.Their study study
[76]. Their revealed that these
revealed thatseeds
these exhibit
seeds
a notable
exhibit capacity
a notable for generating
capacity unexpectedly
for generating high lifthigh
unexpectedly during
lift their
duringdescent. The findings
their descent. The
indicate indicate
findings that the “helicopter” seeds of maple
that the “helicopter” seeds of trees
mapleandtrees
otherand
similar
otherautorotating seeds rely
similar autorotating
on therely
seeds aerodynamic mechanism mechanism
on the aerodynamic of generatingoflift as they descend
generating lift as slowly throughslowly
they descend the air.
However, the specific means by which this lift generation occurs have
through the air. However, the specific means by which this lift generation occurs have remained unclear.
Holden
remained et al. analyzed the flow field around a maple seed as it rotates and draws
unclear.
comparisons
Holden ettoal.wind turbine
analyzed theblades [77]. around
flow field Experimental
a maplemeasurements
seed as it rotates and andhigh-speed
draws
video imaging
comparisons to were
wind used
turbine to determine
blades [77].theExperimental
physical values of a real maple
measurements and seed sample.
high-speed
The power
video imagingcoefficient
were used(CP )toofdetermine
the maple seed was found
the physical to beof0.59,
values comparable
a real maple seed to the range
sample.
from 0.45 to 0.48 for many wind turbines and close to the Betz limit
The power coefficient (CP) of the maple seed was found to be 0.59, comparable to the range of 0.593.
Inspired
from 0.45 to 0.48byfor
themany
studywind by Lentink
turbinesetandal. close
[76], Seidel et al.limit
to the Betz focused in their study on
of 0.593.
designing blades that mimic the shape of maple and triplaris
Inspired by the study by Lentink et al. [76], Seidel et al. focused in theirsamara seeds [78], study
which onare
known to generate extra lift due to their geometrical properties.
designing blades that mimic the shape of maple and triplaris samara seeds [78], which are
known Herrera et al. extra
to generate investigated
lift due the structural
to their designproperties.
geometrical and manufacturing process of a low-
scaleHerrera
bio-inspired wind turbine blade based on the Triplaris
et al. investigated the structural design and manufacturing americana tree seedof
process [79]. The
a low-
bladebio-inspired
scale design waswind derived
turbinefromblade
an analysis
based on ofthe
theTriplaris
seed’s curvature
americanaand treeairfoil along
seed [79]. Theits
wingspan, resulting in a nonconventional HAWT with three blades
blade design was derived from an analysis of the seed’s curvature and airfoil along its (Figure 6).
The blade’s geometry and composite structure showed potential for clean energy
wingspan, resulting in a nonconventional HAWT with three blades (Figure 6).
generation, surpassing commercial wind turbines in terms of CP and energy conversion
factor with a peak CP of 0.55 during testing. The authors mention that this bio-inspired
design is particularly promising for areas with low wind speeds, offering a cost-effective
alternative for electricity generation in developed countries.
Carré et al. [75] present the design and experimental testing of a SWT inspired by
the shape and behavior of maple samaras. The blade angles and the number of propeller
blades were optimized, and a miniature generator with low-friction ceramic bearings was
used for power conversion.
The performance of the 44 mm diameter HAWT was tested under wind speeds ranging
from 1.2 to 8 m/s. The electrical power output, measured in resistive load, ranged from
41 µW to 81.7 mW, resulting in an overall efficiency between 2.6% and 17.8%. The CP
reached 28.4%, which is among the highest rates in terms of efficiency and power density
compared to other miniature wind turbines in the literature.
 The blade’s geometry and composite structure showed potential for clean energy
generation, surpassing commercial wind turbines in terms of CP and energy conversion
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 factor with a peak CP of 0.55 during testing. The authors mention that this bio-inspired
7 of 37
design is particularly promising for areas with low wind speeds, offering a cost-effective
alternative for electricity generation in developed countries.

Figure
Figure 6. 3Dmodel
6. 3D modelofofa bio-inspired
a bio-inspired wind
wind turbine
turbine [78].[78]. Reprinted
Reprinted with with permission
permission fromCopy-
from [78] [78]
Copyright © 2024, Elsevier.
right © 2024, Elsevier.

The samara-based wind energy harvester demonstrates an extended range of airspeeds

Carré et al. [75] present the design and experimental testing of a SWT inspired by the
for energy harvesting, with an operating speed as low as 1.2 m/s. It offers potential
shape and behavior of maple samaras. The blade angles and the number of propeller
applications in areas where regular maintenance is challenging or batteries cannot be used,
blades were optimized, and a miniature generator with low-friction ceramic bearings was
such as difficult-to-access locations, buildings, and houses.
used for power conversion.
The biomimicry principles by drawing inspiration from maple samara seeds’ morphol-
The performance of the 44 mm diameter HAWT was tested under wind speeds rang-
ogy and flight capabilities were explored by Çalışkan et al. [79]. Employing mathematical
ing from 1.2 to 8 m/s. The electrical power output, measured in resistive load, ranged from
modeling, the team translated these natural features into a virtual environment, yielding a
41 μW to 81.7 mW, resulting in an overall efficiency between 2.6% and 17.8%. The CP
biomimetic wing model. The wing exhibited a stall angle range of 40◦ –45◦ , a substantial
reached 28.4%, which is among the highest rates in terms of efficiency and power density
improvement compared to conventional wings. Also, the biomimetic wing design demon-
compared to other miniature wind turbines in the literature.
strated stability across changing wind velocities, with minimal variations in aerodynamic
The samara-based
performance parameters.wind energy harvester demonstrates an extended range of air-
speeds
Chu et al. [80]harvesting,
for energy investigatedwith
the an operating speed
performance as low
of a rigid as 1.2 m/s.
biomimetic It offers
HAWT potential
rotor blade
applications in areas where regular maintenance is challenging or
inspired by the Dryobalanops aromatica seed (Figure 7). They compared the CP , thrust batteries cannot be
used, such as difficult-to-access locations, buildings, and houses.
coefficient (CT ), and blade root bending stresses of the proposed biomimetic wind turbine
with aThe biomimicry
tapered principles
and twisted bladebyfrom
drawing inspiration
Krogstad and Lundfrom maple
[81]. Thesamara seeds’
simulation mor-
results
phology and flight capabilities were explored by Çalışkan et al. [79].
revealed that the biomimetic wind turbine showed a maximum CP of 0.386 at a TSR of Employing mathe-
matical
Biomimetics 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
1.5 and amodeling,
free streamthe team translated
velocity (U ∞) of 10these
m/s.natural features
It exhibited intoself-starting
a better a virtual environment,8 of
ability and38
yielding a biomimetic wing model. The
higher torque compared to the reference turbine. wing exhibited a stall angle range of 40°–45°, a
substantial improvement compared to conventional wings. Also, the biomimetic wing de-
sign demonstrated stability across changing wind velocities, with minimal variations in
aerodynamic performance parameters.
Chu et al. [80] investigated the performance of a rigid biomimetic HAWT rotor blade
inspired by the Dryobalanops aromatica seed (Figure 7). They compared the CP, thrust
coefficient (CT), and blade root bending stresses of the proposed biomimetic wind turbine
with a tapered and twisted blade from Krogstad and Lund [81]. The simulation results
revealed that the biomimetic wind turbine showed a maximum CP of 0.386 at a TSR of 1.5
and a free stream velocity (U ∞) of 10 m/s. It exhibited a better self-starting ability and
higher torque compared to the reference turbine.

Figure 7. 3D models of the proposed biomimetic downwind HAWT inspired by Dryobalanops aro-
Figure 7. 3D models of the proposed biomimetic downwind HAWT inspired by Dryobalanops
matica seed [80]. Reprinted with permission from [80] Copyright © 2024, Elsevier.
aromatica seed [80]. Reprinted with permission from [80] Copyright © 2024, Elsevier.

Chu et
Chu et al.
al. [82]
[82] proposed
proposed aa new
new thin-cambered
thin-cambered bent
bent biomimetic
biomimetic wind
wind turbine
turbine blade
blade
design inspired by the 3D geometry of the wing of a Borneo camphor seed (Figure
design inspired by the 3D geometry of the wing of a Borneo camphor seed (Figure 8). The 8). The
wings of
wings of the
the Borneo
Borneo camphor
camphor seed
seed exhibit
exhibit thinness,
thinness, camber,
camber, and
and bending,
bending, which
which enable
enable
autorotation during propagation and slow down the seed’s falling speed.
autorotation during propagation and slow down the seed’s falling speed. By mimickingBy mimicking
these wing characteristics, they proposed a high-performance biomimetic wind turbine
design that shares a similar rotating mechanism with the Borneo camphor seed.
 Figure 7. 3D models of the proposed biomimetic downwind HAWT inspired by Dryobalanops aro-
matica seed [80]. Reprinted with permission from [80] Copyright © 2024, Elsevier.

Chu et al. [82] proposed a new thin-cambered bent biomimetic wind turbine blade
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 8 ofThe
37
design inspired by the 3D geometry of the wing of a Borneo camphor seed (Figure 8).
wings of the Borneo camphor seed exhibit thinness, camber, and bending, which enable
autorotation during propagation and slow down the seed’s falling speed. By mimicking
these
thesewing
wingcharacteristics,
characteristics, they
theyproposed
proposedaahigh-performance
high-performancebiomimetic
biomimeticwind
windturbine
turbine
design that shares a similar rotating mechanism with the Borneo camphor seed.
design that shares a similar rotating mechanism with the Borneo camphor seed.

Figure8.8.3D-scanned
Figure 3D-scannedmodel
modelof
ofthe
theBorneo
Borneocamphor
camphorseed
seed[82].
[82].

Inanother
In another study
study ChuChu et etal.
al.[83]
[83]conducted
conductedaacomparative
comparativestudy studyby byexamining
examining the the
performance of a bio-inspired flexible-bladed wind turbine (FBWT)
performance of a bio-inspired flexible-bladed wind turbine (FBWT) mimicking the wings mimicking the wings
ofaaBorneo
of Borneocamphor
camphorseed seedagainst
againstaatraditional
traditionalrigid-bladed
rigid-bladed wind
wind turbine
turbine (RBWT)
(RBWT) at at aa
centimeter scale.
centimeter scale. The
The primary
primary objective
objective waswas toto evaluate
evaluate and
and contrast
contrastvarious
various aspects
aspects ofof
these
thesewind
windturbines,
turbines, including
including electrical
electrical power
power output,
output, start-up
start-up behavior,
behavior, blade
blade coning,
coning,
and
andyawing
yawingcharacteristics.
characteristics.
Regarding
Regardingelectrical
electricalpower
poweroutput,
output,thethe FBWT
FBWT consistently
consistently outperformed
outperformed the the RBWT,
RBWT,
yielding a maximum power output of 7.33 mW compared to
yielding a maximum power output of 7.33 mW compared to the RBWT’s 6.52 mW.the RBWT’s 6.52 mW. The FBWT
The
achieved a higheramaximum
FBWT achieved Cp of 0.0870,
higher maximum Cp ofachieved at a TSR at
0.0870, achieved of a3.20
TSR and
of a3.20
wind
and speed
a windof
1.83 m/s,
speed of surpassing the RBWT’s
1.83 m/s, surpassing the0.0576
RBWT’s at a0.0576
TSR ofat3.56 andofa 3.56
a TSR windand speed of 2.04
a wind m/s.of 2.04
speed
m/s.Gaitan-Aroca et al. [84] investigated a biomimetic wind rotor design inspired by the
PetreaGaitan-Aroca
volubilis seed et in
al.terms of its performance
[84] investigated as a HAWT
a biomimetic (Figure
wind rotor 9). The
design biomimetic
inspired by the
wind rotor design exhibited vorticity generation and a predominant
Petrea volubilis seed in terms of its performance as a HAWT (Figure 9). The biomimetic tangential vortex
Biomimetics 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 9 of 38
motion. Thedesign
wind rotor Cp of the biomimetic
exhibited windgeneration
vorticity turbine modeland areached its highest
predominant value which
tangential vortexwas
mo-
higher than that of the benchmark case, while the C
tion. The Cp of the biomimetic wind turbine model Treached its highestat the peak CP for the biomimetic
value which was
wind
higherturbine casesofwas
than that thelower than that
benchmark of while
case, the benchmark
the CT at case.
the peak CP for the biomimetic
wind turbine cases was lower than that of the benchmark case.

(1)
(2)
Figure
Figure9.9. (1)
(1) Petrea volubilis seed,
Petrea volubilis seed,so-called
so-calledQueen’s
Queen’sWreath;
Wreath;(2)(2) wind
wind rotor
rotor test test bench.
bench. (a) Main
(a) Main parts.
parts. (b) Isometric
(b) Isometric view view
[84]. [84].

Venkataraman et al. conducted a numerical investigation on the stand-still character-

istics of a bio-inspired vertical axis wind turbine (VAWT) rotor designed for an urban en-
vironment [85]. The rotor shapes were inspired by the seed pods of two commonly found
trees in India, Mimosa and Bauhinia variegata (Figure 10). The simulations revealed that
a single-bladed helical rotor generated torque of approximately 0.26 Nm at a wind speed
 (1)
(2)
Figure 9. (1) Petrea volubilis seed, so-called Queen’s Wreath; (2) wind rotor test bench. (a) Main
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 parts. (b) Isometric view [84]. 9 of 37

Venkataraman et al. conducted a numerical investigation on the stand-still character-

istics Venkataraman
of a bio-inspired etvertical
al. conducted a numerical
axis wind investigation
turbine (VAWT) on the stand-still
rotor designed charac-
for an urban en-
teristics of [85].
vironment a bio-inspired verticalwere
The rotor shapes axis inspired
wind turbine
by the(VAWT) rotor
seed pods of designed for an found
two commonly urban
environment
trees in India,[85].
MimosaThe rotor shapes were
and Bauhinia inspired
variegata by the10).
(Figure seedThe
pods of two commonly
simulations revealedfound
that
a single-bladed helical rotor generated torque of approximately 0.26 Nm at a wind speeda
trees in India, Mimosa and Bauhinia variegata (Figure 10). The simulations revealed that
single-bladed
of 2 m/s, whichhelical rotorthe
exceeded generated torque of
typical cogging approximately
torque of a 500 W0.26 Nm at amagnet
permanent wind speed
gener-of
2 m/s,
ator. which exceeded the typical cogging torque of a 500 W permanent magnet generator.

(a) (b)
Figure
Figure 10.
10. Seed
Seedpod
podspecimens
specimensof
of(a)
(a)Bauhinia
Bauhinia variegata
variegataand
and (b)
(b) Mimosa
Mimosa [85].
[85].

Ashwindran et
Ashwindran et al.
al.[86]
[86]studied
studiedananunsteady
unsteadynumerical
numericalanalysis
analysison onaanovel
novelbiologically
biologically
inspiredVAWT
inspired VAWTdesigned
designedfor foroffshore
offshore regions
regions of of Malaysia.
Malaysia. TheThe turbine’s
turbine’s bladeblade
shapeshape
was
was derived
derived from from
a a hybrid
hybrid design design inspired
inspired by the by the seed
maple mapleandseed and Epilobium
Epilobium hirsutum hirsutum
(Figure
Biomimetics 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 38
(Figure
11). The 11). Theexhibited
turbine turbine exhibited
favorablefavorable performance
performance at λ λ= =1.3
at λ = 1.3 and and
1.7, λ = 1.7,
yielding CPyielding
= 0.245
CP =C0.245
and and respectively.
P = 0.262, CP = 0.262, respectively.

Figure11.
Figure Proposed
11.Proposed wind
wind turbine
turbine configuration
configuration by Ashwindran
by Ashwindran et (a)
et al.: al.:wind
(a) wind turbine
turbine design,
design, (b)
(b) adapted morphology
adapted morphology [86]. [86].

Table 2 presents a summary of studies inspired by plants and their key features,
Table 2 presents a summary of studies inspired by plants and their key features,
showcasing the research challenges, the advantages of bio-inspired solutions.
showcasing the research challenges, the advantages of bio-inspired solutions.
Table 2. The summary of the research findings inspired by the plant kingdom.
Table 2. The summary of the research findings inspired by the plant kingdom.
Study Study
(Au- (Author) Focus Key Features Advantages Challenges Source of inspiration
Focus Key Features Advantages Challenges Source of inspiration
thor) Accurate measurement
A sustainable energy
A sustainable energy source of energy from tree
source for sensor nodes
Accurate measurement of energy
movements is
for sensor
Investigation nodes in forests;
of energy
in forests; utilizing tree
challenging; efficiency
Investigation of energy from tree
movements which are movements is challeng- The natural and
utilizing
harvesting tree movements
from tree and practicality of energy The natural and con-
McGarry et al. [58]. Wind energy harvesting
harvesting from movement
tree abundant anding; constant
efficiency and practicality of consistent movement of
McGarry et Wind energy harvest- whichfor are
powering
abundantinand con-Offering an harvesting devices need sistent movement
forests; trees in forests of
movement for power- wireless sensor nodes energy harvesting to devices need to
be optimized;
al. [58]. ing alternative
stant in forests; Offering an to solar and trees in forests
ing wireless sensor wind energybe optimized; dependence
in densely dependence on on
variable
vari-
alternative to solar andwooded
wind areas factors like wind speed
nodes able factors likeand
windtree speed and
properties
energy in densely wooded ar-
tree properties
eas
Aesthetic and ecological ad- Low power output relative to size
Exploration of piezoe- vantages compared to tradi- and number of synthetic leaves re- The natural motion of
McCloskey
Wind energy harvest- lectric elements in arti- tional turbines; potential for quired; challenges in impedance plants like cottonwood
et al.
ing ficial plants for wind deployment in residential set- matching and charge production; and cattails
[58,59].
energy harvesting tings due to less noise and material limitations and inefficien-
height restrictions cies in piezoelectric transduction
Analysis of Nelumbo
Higher efficiency in real-life
Nucifera petals' struc- Manufacturing challenges for
Abdelrah- conditions for Lotus-inspired Nelumbo Nucifera (Lo-
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 10 of 37

Table 2. Cont.

Study (Author) Focus Key Features Advantages Challenges Source of inspiration

Low power output
relative to size and
Aesthetic and ecological
number of synthetic
advantages compared to
Exploration of leaves required;
traditional turbines; The natural motion of
piezoelectric elements in challenges in impedance
McCloskey et al. [58,59]. Wind energy harvesting potential for deployment plants like cottonwood
artificial plants for wind matching and charge
in residential settings and cattails
energy harvesting production; material
due to less noise and
limitations and
height restrictions
inefficiencies in
piezoelectric transduction
Analysis of Nelumbo Higher efficiency in
Manufacturing
Nucifera petals’ structure real-life conditions for
challenges for larger
in relation to Betz’s law; Lotus-inspired blades; Nelumbo Nucifera
Abdelrahman et al. [63]. Wind turbine blades turbines; optimization of
comparing standard applicability in small (Lotus)
turbine blades at
NACA 2412 and and medium-scale wind
different angles of attack
Lotus-inspired blades energy projects
Study of lift generation
in autorotating seeds of High lift generation Understanding the
maples and hornbeam; during descent; complex interplay of
analysis of LEV in prolonged airtime inertial and
Aerodynamics of autorotating seeds; compared to aerodynamic properties Maple and
Lentink et al. [76].
Autorotating Plant Seeds comparison of seed nonautorotating seeds; in autorotation; hornbeam seeds
aerodynamics with convergent aerodynamic application of findings
those of hovering solution with to practical designs
insects, bats, and certain animals or technologies
possibly birds
Flow field analysis
around a maple seed;
comparison of maple Scaling from small seed
Maple Seed seed dynamics to wind size to practical wind
High efficiency in Maple seed
Holden et al. [77]. Aerodynamics and turbine blades; physical turbine dimensions;
energy conversion (Acer Negundo)
Wind Turbine Design and geometric structural limitations at
properties measured larger scales
from real maple
seed samples
Ensuring structural
Structural analysis of
integrity at higher wind
vertical axis wind Potential for improved
speeds; balancing
turbine blades inspired efficiency in urban
increased lift with
Small Wind by maple seeds and settings; increased lift Maple seeds and
Seidel et al. [74]. manageable drag;
Turbine Blades triplaris samara seeds; and decreased drag; triplaris samara seeds
adapting complex
exploration of whale suitability for
biological shapes
tubercles for small-scale applications
for practical
design improvement
engineering applications
Improved aerodynamic Complex manufacturing
Design of a low scale characteristics; potential process; balancing
bio-inspired wind for higher energy aerodynamic and
Triplaris Americana
Herrera et al. [78]. Wind turbine blades turbine blade; Structural efficiency at low wind structural requirements;
seed
and aerodynamic speeds; utilization of ensuring consistent
analysis composite materials for quality in composite
enhanced strength material production
Fabrication precision
Expanded range of
limitations; efficiency
Bioinspired design of operable wind speeds;
improvement at low
harvesters that operate high efficiency and CP
wind speeds;
at wind speeds from 1.2 for its size; potential
technological
Carré et al. [75]. Wind energy harvesting to 8 m/s; output power application in powering Maple samaras
advancements needed
from 41 µW to 81.7 mW; Wireless Sensor Nodes
for changing blade
maximum efficiency of (WSNs); small and
angles dynamically;
17.8%; CP up to 28.4% practical for
improvements in
various environments
bearing to reduce losses
Lower maximum CP
Higher torque and better
Comparison with a compared to a
self-starting ability at
conventional tapered conventional turbine;
low wind speeds;
and twisted blade need for additional
reduction in blade root Dryobalanops
Chu et al. [80]. HAWT rotor blade turbine; research on flexible
bending stress; potential aromatica seed
analysis includes CP , CT , blades; managing higher
for cost-effective
torque, and blade root CT and bending
manufacturing due to
bending stresses moments in
simpler blade geometry
structural design
FBWT inspired by Higher power output in Adapting large-scale
biomimicry; FBWT compared to wind turbine designs to
centimeter-scale design RBWT; improved centimeter-scale
suitable for powering self-starting capability; turbines; managing Borneo camphor seed
Chu et al. [82]. Wind turbine blade small devices; flexible blades leading to aerodynamic behavior at (Dryobalanops
Comparing the faster rotation and low Reynolds numbers; aromatica)
performance of a FBWT yawing; effective in designing effective
with a RBWT at a low-Reynolds- airfoils for
centimeter scale number regimes small-scale turbines
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 11 of 37

Table 2. Cont.

Study (Author) Focus Key Features Advantages Challenges Source of inspiration

Higher peak CP
indicating better power
efficiency; better
self-start capability due Optimization of
to higher starting geometry for maximum
torques; lower CT at power output;
Thin, cambered, bent peak power, implying simplification of design Borneo camphor seed
Chu et al. [83]. Wind turbine blade blade design cheaper supporting for cost-effective (Dryobalanops
mimicking nature structures; suitable for manufacturing; aromatica)
low-speed operation, validation of CFD
resulting in less noise results with physical
and environmental wind tunnel tests
impact; potential
cost-effective
manufacturing
Potential for efficient Need for optimization of
kinetic energy blade cross-section and
transformation in wind aerodynamic profiles;
Five-bladed rotor with power generation; complexity in Petrea Volubilis seed
variable pitch angles biomimicry approach computing aerodynamic (also known as Queen’s
Gaitan-Aroca et al. [84]. Wind rotor
based on Petrea may offer unique coefficients due to Wreath or
Volubilis seed aerodynamic benefits; unique rotor design; Machiguá flower)
capability to produce large computational
power at lower resources required for
upstream velocities accurate CFD simulation
Potential for early
Determining the optimal
start-up at low wind
geometric parameters;
speeds (as low as 2 m/s);
ensuring that the rotor’s
suitability for urban
Investigation of the aerodynamic torque
environments with
stand-still characteristics exceeds the cogging
turbulent wind
of a 500 W bio-inspired torque of a typical Mimosa and Bauhinia
Venkataraman et al. [85]. VAWT rotor conditions; potential
VAWT rotor, suitable for generator for Variegata seed
improvement of
urban environments, self-starting capability;
aerodynamics and
inspired by nature adapting bio-inspired
efficiency; helical blade
designs to efficiently
structure may result in
convert wind energy in
smoother and
an urban setting
quieter operation
Managing the wake and
vorticity effects on
Unsteady numerical Optimal performance at turbine performance at
investigation of a certain TSRs; high CP different TSRs; ensuring
bi-inspired VAWT for results; potential for stability and high
offshore regions in efficient offshore wind moment coefficients in maple seed and
Ashwindran et al. [86]. Wind Turbine Blade
Malaysia, with a hybrid energy harvesting due varying wind conditions; epilobium hirsutum
blade design inspired by to minimal adapting the hybrid
maple seed and environmental impact bio-inspired
epilobium hirsutum and low GHG emissions design for practical
offshore wind energy
harvesting applications

5. Insect-Inspired Approaches to Wind Energy

Conventional wind turbines are constrained to operate within a narrow operational
envelope centered around their optimal working point. This inherent limitation poses
challenges when confronted with variable wind conditions, leading to pronounced energy
losses and economic inefficiencies.
With the action of an incoming wind, thin elastic structures, like wings and leaves,
adjust the torque exerted by the fluid pressure when they bend, changing the balance
between external mechanical loads [87–89]. During windy conditions, plants bend to
reduce drag and avoid damage [90–92]. Insects, on the other hand, use this ability to
change the direction of pressure forces to increase thrust without adding energy. In the
same vein, wind turbine blades can also be made flexible.

Wing Structure of Cicada, Bee, Wasp, Mosquito, and Dragonfly

Insect wings provide a blueprint for structures that can improve energy harvesting
efficacy in wind turbines. The potential of inspiration from insects to design a turbine
for enhancing energy generation was explored by Segev et al. [93]. The study presented
two designs inspired by different insects, namely the cicada, bee, wasp, mosquito, and
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 12 of 37

dragonfly, and compared their energy outputs to a traditional control design. Insect wings
serve as a source of inspiration due to their ability to minimize drag and increase efficiency
through instantaneous adjustments during flight. The biomaterial, wing-inspired designs
in this study successfully increased the RPM relative to wind speed, indicating improved
energy efficiency. The turbine inspired by the cicada, bee, and wasp achieved the highest RPM,
followed by the mosquito and fly-inspired design. However, the control design exhibited
greater durability, suggesting the need for further refinement to achieve optimal designs. The
increase in efficiency, however, was accompanied by a reduction in overall strength, as the
insect-inspired designs exhibited breakage under testing conditions. Parameters such as blade
shape, vein design, thickness, and curvature can be manipulated to optimize the designs.
Cognet et al. [94]. introduced a wind turbine design, drawing inspiration from bi-
ological systems such as insect flight and plant adaptation to wind. The experimental
results revealed an increase of approximately 35% in energy yield compared to rigid-bladed
counterparts. Based on experiments with the painted lady butterfly (Vanessa cardui),
computational models were used to analyze the effects of these wing deformations on
aerodynamic performance in a study by Zheng et al. [95]. They investigated the impact of
time-varying wing-twist and camber on the aerodynamic efficiency of butterflies during
forward flight. Compared to most flying insects, Vanessa cardui is large and has broad
wings, with the forewing and hindwing functioning as a single surface (Table 3). The
study reveals that the observed butterfly wing outperforms flat-plate wing models (non-
deforming) in terms of usable force production and lift-to-power ratio, with at least a 29%
and 46% increase, respectively.

Table 3. Different insects’ mass (g), wing length (cm), wing area (cm2 ), aspect ratio (4R2/S), and wing
loading (g/cm2 ) [95].

Wing Length Wing Area Aspect Ratio Wing Loading

Insect Mass (g)
(R) (cm) (S) (cm2 ) (4R2 /S) (g/cm2 )
Vanessa cardui 0.29 3.01 11.4 3.18 0.0254
Schistocerca gregaria 2.08 5.33 29.9 3.80 0.0696
Manduca sexta 1.41 4.96 17.4 5.66 0.0812
Drosophila
0.001 0.239 0.0382 5.98 0.0262
melanogaster

Compared to most other insect and bird species, dragonflies have a unique and
superior flight performance. As well as gliding for long periods of time, they are also
capable of hovering and changing directions quickly. In low wind speeds, dragonflies
are distinguished by their agility and aerodynamics [96]. A pair of individually regulated
forewings and hindwings gives them their fast-flying ability [97]. Their wings, comprising
a complex architecture of membranes and veins, are made of nanocomposite materials,
contributing significantly to their functional properties.
Yossri et al. [96] investigated the potential of bio-inspired designs for SWTs using
models based on bird and insect wing geometries, specifically the albatross, golden eagle,
and dragonfly, with a focus on the performance in low wind speeds (up to 4 m/s) and their
ability to handle aerodynamic stresses.
In their exploration of SWT designs, Yossri et al. investigated the unique structure
of the dragonfly wing, which distinguishes it from the more common smooth or simply
cambered wings of other birds. The dragonfly wing is characterized by a thin, corrugated
cross-sectional pattern, a key feature contributing to the wings’ ultra-lightweight and
stability. The airfoil profile for the dragonfly model was created based on the method
outlined in [98], which involves connecting the maxima and minima along the corrugated
pattern of the wing’s cross-section (Figure 12). In the comparative study of bio-inspired
models, the dragonfly design, with its lower power output of 2.2 W and torque under
0.11 N m, was noted for its structural efficiency, while the golden eagle-inspired turbine
emerged as the most efficient, achieving a 13% CP and generating 4.5 W with 0.21 N m
 cross-sectional pattern, a key feature contributing to the wings’ ultra-lightweight and sta-
bility. The airfoil profile for the dragonfly model was created based on the method out-
lined in [98], which involves connecting the maxima and minima along the corrugated
pattern of the wing’s cross-section (Figure 12). In the comparative study of bio-inspired
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 13 of 37
models, the dragonfly design, with its lower power output of 2.2 W and torque under 0.11
N m, was noted for its structural efficiency, while the golden eagle-inspired turbine
emerged as the most efficient, achieving a 13% CP and generating 4.5 W with 0.21 N m
torque.
torque.Although
Althoughthe thegolden
goldeneagle design
eagle hadhad
design superior aerodynamics,
superior it faced
aerodynamics, higherhigher
it faced stress
levels, unlike the dragonfly design, which effectively reduced stress on the blades.
stress levels, unlike the dragonfly design, which effectively reduced stress on the blades.

Figure 12.
Figure 12. Dragonfly
Dragonfly inspired
inspired blade
bladedesign
designgeometric
geometriccharacteristics
characteristics[96]:
[96]:(a)(a)
geometry
geometryof of
wing as
wing
found
as in in
found nature, (b)(b)
nature, airfoil profile,
airfoil andand
profile, (c) (c)
bio-inspired designed
bio-inspired turbine
designed [96].[96].
turbine Reprinted withwith
Reprinted per-
mission from
permission [96].
from Copyright
[96]. Copyright © 2024, Elsevier.
© 2024, Elsevier.

Prathik et
Prathik et al.
al. [99]
[99] investigated
investigated the
the enhancement
enhancement of of VAWT
VAWT performance
performance through
through bio-
bio-
inspiredblade
inspired bladedesigns
designsinspired
inspiredby
bynatural
naturalstructures
structureslike
likethe
themaple
mapleseed
seedleaf
leafand
andthe
the eagle
eagle
wing, but the most significant advancements were seen with the corrugated dragonfly vein
FX 63-137 foil.
This dragonfly-inspired design outperformed traditional cambered foils and the
standard FX 63-37 model, demonstrating improved efficiency and power output. The
maple-wing combined blade structure, incorporating winglet edge tips and the corrugated
dragonfly vein foil, showed enhanced lift-drag ratios and higher CP .
The significant result of the study was the Corrugated FX foil-embedded maple-wing
blade with added back-edge winglets, which showed a substantial improvement over the
conventional FX-63137 foil blade. This design achieved a 21% increase in power efficiency
and a 39% rise in rotary torque in low-wind-speed conditions (5 m/s and TSR of 4),
according to simulations.
In their study, Mulligan [100] investigated the potential of modifying small wind
turbine blades by focusing on two key modifications: spanwise corrugations, mimicking a
dragonfly’s wing structure, and flexible blades, inspired by the adaptive shape-morphing
of bird and insect wings. The research concludes that these innovative turbine designs,
especially corrugated airfoils, and bamboo laminates, can enhance performance, particu-
larly in areas with limited facilities. Corrugated airfoils effectively delay stall and maintain
lift-to-drag ratios, while bamboo offers a sustainable, accessible alternative to fiberglass,
potentially extending blade lifetimes with comparable performance.
Table 4 highlights key features of studies inspired by insects, summarizing research
challenges and the advantages of bio-inspired solutions.
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 14 of 37

Table 4. The summary of the research findings inspired by insects.

Study (Author) Focus Key Features Advantages Challenges Source of Inspiration

Optimizing the balance
35% increase in energy between blade flexibility
yield; and structural stability;
Passive adaptation to Addressing variability Flapping flight of insects
Developing wind Elastic blades that adapt wind conditions without in wind conditions and and reconfiguration of
Cognet et al. [94].
turbine blades to wind conditions extra energy input; turbine operational plants in response
Enhanced performance regimes; Implementing to wind
range beyond specific the flexible blade design
working regimes. in practical wind
turbine applications.
Biomaterial, Reduced overall
cicada, bee, wasp,
wind turbine wing-inspired designs Improved RPM and strength and durability
Segev et al. [93]. mosquito, and
blade designs for increased RPM energy efficiency compared to
dragonfly wings
and efficiency traditional designs
Increased force
Butterfly wing Analysis of wing-twist Focused on a
Zheng et al. [95,96]. production and Butterfly wings
aerodynamics and camber effects single species.
lift-to-power ratio
Designs based on bird Golden eagle design Dragonflywings, and
designs for small-scale Low power output in
Yossri et al. [96]. and insect most efficient; dragonfly albatross and golden
wind turbines some designs
wing geometries design reduces stress eagle wings
Improved efficiency and Inefficient self-starting,
Corrugated Dragonfly
Prathik et al. [99]. VAWT blade power output, especially mechanical losses, Dragonfly wings
vein FX 63-137 foil
at low wind speeds turbulent wake issues
Modifying wind Spanwise corrugations Delayed stall, reduced Slight reduction in peak
Mulligan [100]. Dragonfly wings
turbine blades and flexible blades peak stresses lift-to-drag ratio

6. Aquatic Inspirations in Wind Energy

The principles derived from the adaptations and designs of aquatic organisms and
creatures have become a compelling source of inspiration for advancing wind energy
technologies. The utilization of biomimetic insights from marine life to enhance the per-
formance and sustainability of wind turbines has been investigated repeatedly to shed
light on the potential transformative impact of this interdisciplinary approach in renewable
energy production.

6.1. Fish Schooling

Migratory birds and fish have demonstrated enhanced endurance when traveling in
groups, benefiting from their precise positioning to harness vortices generated by their
fellow travelers. This natural phenomenon has been explored for its applicability in wind
turbines, particularly favoring the vertical axis configuration [101].
In their study, Tescione et al. [102] utilized stereoscopic particle image velocimetry
(PIV) to analyze the wake and vortices of a two-bladed H-rotor, notably observing the
rapid dissipation of its cycloidal wake just 1.5 rotor diameters downstream. This led
to the formation of larger vortical structures, a phenomenon that underpins the VAWT
fish-schooling configurations in wind energy.
Whittlesey et al. [103] investigated the design of VAWT farms, drawing inspiration
from fish schooling. While HAWTs in wind farms typically suffer reduced power co-
efficients due to close turbine proximity, VAWTs may experience less decrease or even
increases in power coefficients when placed closely, enhancing power output per land
area. Using a potential flow model based on fish schooling vortices, their research revealed
substantial increases in array performance coefficients, surpassing HAWTs by over an order
of magnitude for the same land area.

6.2. Humpback Whales

A specific biomimetic innovation, the tubercles found on the leading edge of humpback
whale flippers, has garnered significant interest from both industry and the public [104–109].
The humpback whale (Megaptera novaeangliae) belongs to the Balaenopteridae fam-
ily, a species of baleen whale. This remarkable mammal has thrived for approximately
55 million years [110]. The whales typically reach lengths of approximately 15.6 m and
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 15 of 37

weigh around 34 tons [111]. For over a decade, it has been observed that the fins of baleen
whales possess remarkable swimming capabilities and maneuverability, enabling them to
capture prey effectively. A distinctive feature found on the leading edge of their flippers is
the presence of large, rounded tubercles, which are unique structures in the natural world.
In 1979, Jurasz and Jurasz first noticed tubercles on the flippers of humpback whales
and the remarkable agility of these large creatures in catching prey [112]. Past practical
observations, including those by Hain et al. [113], have shown that the humpback whale’s
unique feeding action necessitates a high lift force. According to Weihs [114], the lift force
generated is inversely proportional to the whale’s turning radius, indicating that tighter
turns are required to produce the necessary lift force.
Experimental studies using models of these structures have demonstrated that they
cause a delay in the angle of attack of a blade, resulting in an increased maximum lift
and reduced drag. This unique characteristic of tubercles on the leading edges of blades
has potential applications in the design of watercraft, aircraft, ventilation fans, and wind
turbines [105,115–121].
Frank Fish, a marine biologist, first initiated the initial research on the presence of
bumps on the flippers [110,115,122–131]. This research led to the development of numerous
research articles. Subsequently, Watts and Fish obtained a patent for this technology and
established a company called ‘Whale Power’ dedicated to the development of wind turbine
blades [132]. The incorporation of tubercle design on the blades has resulted in a 25%
increase in airflow compared to conventional wind turbine blades, leading to a 20% boost
in energy production [133,134].
Fish et al. reported that tubercles play a role in the humpback whale’s maneuverabil-
ity [127] and designed wind turbine blades with tubercles based on this inspiration [123].
Wind tunnel tests conducted by Fish’s group showed that blades with tubercles exhibited
an increase in the angle of attack, from 11 to 178 degrees, before stalling.
The presence of tubercles on the flipper of the humpback whale also allows for a
decrease in drag, resulting in reduced energy consumption during turning maneuvers.
This finding suggests that wind turbine blades with tubercles could potentially reduce drag
and improve energy efficiency.
According to [115], the addition of leading-edge tubercles on turbine blades has been
shown to increase energy generation [105]. Field trials on a 35 kW, variable-pitch wind
turbine with tubercle blades by WhalePower Corp. showed improved electrical generation,
especially at moderate winds, compared to standard blades. Murray et al. also found
tubercle blades effective in marine tidal turbines at low flows [121], indicating their superior
performance over smooth-edged blades.
As reported by Zhang et al. [135], the addition of tubercles, despite promoting boundary
layer separation under experimental flow conditions, resulted in enhanced power output
compared to unmodified blades, especially for stall-regulated turbines operating in wind
speeds ranging from 10 to 20 m/s. They also investigated the aerodynamic characteristics
of bionic wind turbine blades with sinusoidal leading edge based on a three-dimensional
Reynolds-averaged Navier–Stokes simulation [136]. The impact of a single leading-edge
protuberance (LEP) on a NACA 634-021 airfoil was explored by Cai et al. [137].
Gopinathan et al. [138] conducted computational comparisons between symmetric NACA
0015 and asymmetric NACA 4415 airfoils, both modified with identical leading-edge tubercles.
Their findings revealed that tubercles effectively delay stall occurrence in airfoils.
In a further modification of the tubercled blade design, Ibrahim et al. introduced
tubercles on the trailing edge of wind turbine blades [139]. This approach contributed to
the stabilization of turbine performance by mitigating turbulence in the wake.
The implementation of the tubercle effect serves multiple purposes, including miti-
gating stall, minimizing tip vortex, and altering the flow, thereby decreasing flow-induced
vibrations and noise generation. This noise, characterized by a high-pitched whistle,
has been linked to various applications such as wind turbines, gliders, small aircraft,
and fans [140].
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 16 of 37

Research conducted by Hansen et al. [140,141] demonstrated the potential for suppress-
ing tonal noise by incorporating tubercles into a propeller design. The effective reduction
of tonal noise was observed to be more pronounced with tubercles characterized by larger
amplitudes and smaller wavelengths. Employing numerical simulations to investigate
the interplay between tubercles and airfoil–gust interaction noise, Lau et al. noted an
enhancement in noise reduction when tubercles were present [142]. Likewise, several com-
putational studies, including those by Kim et al., Turner et al., and J. Wang et al. [143–145],
have underscored the role of tubercles in noise reduction by modifying the flow field. J.
Wang et al. specifically reported a noise reduction of 13.1–13.9 dB with minimal impact
on the drag coefficient in a large eddy simulation involving a NACA 0012 foil equipped
with tubercles and trailing-edge serrations [145]. Clair et al. and Polacsek et al. conducted
investigations into the tubercle effect on turbofan blades, revealing a 3–4 dB reduction in
tonal noise without compromising aerodynamic performance [146,147].
Lv et al. [148] investigated the feasibility of reducing infrasound emissions from
existing wind turbine blades using a biomimetic technique. The proposed technique was
inspired by the leading-edge tubercles on the fin of humpback whales, the trailing-edge
profile of bird wings, and the strips on the body surface of beetles. These biomimetic
features are known to reduce vortex shedding and resistance.
The results from both the numerical and experimental studies demonstrated the
successful suppression of shedding vortices behind the blade using semi-cylindrical rings.
As a result, both infrasound and the overall sound pressure level generated by the blade
were significantly reduced.
During an outdoor trial, a wind turbine equipped with nine blades was affixed to a
vehicle to manipulate wind velocities ranging from 1 to 7.5 m per second, evaluating the
tubercles’ efficiency [149]. It was observed that the tubercled blades exhibited a power
increase of 16–30% at wind speeds between 2 and 6.5 m per second. Additionally, Gupta
et al. noted that tubercled blades outperformed their straight counterparts by sustaining
power generation even during stall conditions [150]. In their study, Abate et al. demon-
strated that the strategic placement of tubercles, spanning from 95% of the blade’s span
to the tip, resulted in a calculated 10% rise in annual energy production at a wind speed
of 10 m/s [151].
Van Nierop et al. [152] investigated the aerodynamic properties of bumps on the leading
edge of humpback whale flippers and their effect on stall delay. Through wind tunnel
experiments, they observed that these bumps caused a more gradual stall and an increase
in the stall angle of attack. The aerodynamic effects of leading-edge modifications inspired
by the tubercles on humpback whale pectoral flippers, and their potential to control flow
and improve stall characteristics was studied by Rostamzadeh et al. [153]. However, their
findings suggest that in turbulent flow regimes, the unmodified foil may offer better lift
performance post-stall compared to the tubercled model. In their study, Post et al. [154]
explored the hydrodynamic performance enhancements of the tubercles on the leading-edge
of humpback whales’ pectoral flippers. They demonstrated that sinusoidal leading-edge
wings could mitigate the dramatic lift loss typically caused by stall, instead producing a
gradual decrease in lift and achieving up to 25% higher lift in the post-stall regime.
A parametric study to investigate the effect of leading-edge tubercles on the perfor-
mance of a three-bladed Darrieus VAWT was conducted by Prakash et al. [155] with a focus
on reducing wake formation and enhancing the separation length, inspired by the tubercles
found on whale fins. In addition, Mishra et al. [156] focused on assessing the impact of
leading-edge tubercles on Darrieus-type VAWTs, using computational fluid dynamics and
experimental methods to compare them with standard blade turbines. The main objective
was to establish an experimental setup to contrast the performances of turbines with and
without these tubercles.
Hassan et al. [157] undertook a systematic investigation on the power enhancement
of VAWTs through the utilization of leading-edge tubercles inspired by humpback whale
flippers. The study explores the relative influence of tubercle design variables and their
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 17 of 37

geometric trends on the power performance of VAWTs. The study provides guidelines
for selecting tubercle parameters at different TSRs and emphasizes the importance of
considering both performance enhancement and economic aspects in the design process. In
their study, Fan et al. [158] conducted a comprehensive hydrodynamic analysis of airfoils
with leading-edge tubercles, inspired by humpback whales, at a Reynolds number of
Re = 5 × 105 . The application of leading-edge protuberances on the humpback whale’s
pectoral fin to improve the aerodynamic performance of wind turbines was investigated
by Lin et al. [159]. Dimensional analysis revealed that at a 5-degree pitch angle, the Cp and
the TSR experienced increases of 17.67% and 13.42%, respectively. Additionally, the study
found that these modifications stabilized the wind turbine’s output power and increased the
average power output. Lobo et al. [160] studied the aerodynamic benefits of incorporating
tubercle designs, inspired by humpback whales’ flippers, into wing-like structures such
as wind turbines and marine propellers. The study aimed to assess how tubercles affect
the performance of a finite wing, using a six-digit NACA 634-421 cambered airfoil, similar
to that of a humpback whale’s flipper. Yasuda et al. [161] focused on enhancing the
performance of the NACA0012 wing in the low-Re region, specifically within the range
of 10,000 ≤ Re ≤ 60,000, using a LEP. The study aimed to understand how varying Re
affects the effectiveness of the LEP. The conclusions drawn from this research indicate that
airfoils equipped with LEP offer a robust and passive method of separation control in low
Re environments, regardless of variations in Re and angles of attack. The results suggest
that LEPs could be highly effective as separation control tools in low-speed and small-
sized fluid machines, as well as in fluid machines that experience environmental changes
during operation.
Mckegney et al. [162] investigated the aerodynamics of a NACA-0021 airfoil with
leading-edge tubercles, inspired by biomimetics and humpback whale flippers, to po-
tentially enhance blade design. Tested in low-speed wind tunnel, the study compared
this tubercle airfoil’s lift and stall angle with a standard airfoil, revealing a possible 115%
increase in post-stall lift and indicating reduced drag.
A summary of studies inspired by marine life with a focus on key features, research
challenges, and the benefits of bio-inspired solutions are presented in Table 5.

Table 5. The summary of the research findings inspired by the aquatic life.

Study (Author) Focus Key Features Advantages Challenges Source of Inspiration

Complexity in capturing
and analyzing the
unsteady,
Stereoscopic PIV to Swift recovery of the
three-dimensional flow
wake and vortices in examine wake and rotor’s wake,
Tescione et al. [102]. field; Technical Fish schooling
wind turbines vortices of a substantial vortical
challenges in setting up
two-bladed H-rotor. structures downstream.
and conducting
stereoscopic
PIV measurements
Suggests potential Accurately capturing
increases in power complex aerodynamics
output for VAWTs and vortex interactions
Potential flow model to compared to HAWTs in in VAWT arrays;
assess VAWT spatial a given area; ensuring model
Whittlesey et al. [103]. VAWT farm design. Fish schooling
arrangement impacts demonstrates that accuracy with limited
on performance. VAWT arrays may have field data; addressing
smaller spacing three-dimensional
without substantial effects, turbulence, and
performance decrease. vortex shedding
Complexity in
Morphological Analysis;
Tubercles on blade Hydrodynamic
Enhanced performance
leading edges to Modeling and fluid humpback
Fish et al. [127]. wind turbine blades at low wind speeds,
increase attack angle dynamics complexities; whale flippers
delay in stall angle.
and reduce drag Applying biological
insights to engineering
has its challenges
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 18 of 37

Table 5. Cont.

Study (Author) Focus Key Features Advantages Challenges Source of Inspiration

Managing the
complexity of blade
Utilization of small flat
design with active
delta wings as control Enhanced power output
control elements;
units on wind turbine at high-speed inflows;
ensuring stable
blades, replacing reduction of shaft-torque
aerodynamic humpback
Zhang et al. [135]. wind-turbine blades uncontrollable fluctuation from 27.8%
performance under whale flippers
leading-edge tubercles; to 8.9%; maintenance of
varying conditions;
active control to adjust power output under
addressing early
to various design conditions
boundary-layer
inflow conditions
separation at blade’s
suction side
Improved shaft torque
Investigation of the Early boundary-layer
at high wind speeds;
aerodynamic separation under design
enhanced aerodynamic
characteristics of bionic conditions; reduction in humpback
Zhang et al. [136]. wind-turbine blades performance as the
wind turbine blades shaft torque for whale flippers
blade enters stall; better
with sinusoidal wavy-blade cases at
power output in the
leading edge design wind speeds
outboard segment
Understanding and
Provides insights into
accurately predicting the
the complex effects of
nuanced flow
leading-edge
Exploring the impact of mechanisms induced by
modifications on airfoil humpback
Cai et al. [137]. wind-turbine blades a single LEP on a NACA protuberances;
performance; high whale flippers
634-021 airfoil complexity in
consistency between
integrating experimental
theoretical models and
observations with
experimental results
theoretical models
Achieving optimal
design configurations
Enhanced power at that balance improved
lower wind speeds; performance against
Stabilization of turbine
better performance in manufacturing
performance by humpback
Ibrahim et al. [139]. wind turbine blades severe wind conditions; complexities and cost;
mitigating turbulence in whale flippers
more stability under understanding the
the wake.
unsteady and higher precise aerodynamic
wind velocities mechanisms
behind the advantages
of these designs
Introduction of
Determining optimal
sinusoidal modifications Elimination of tonal
configurations of
(tubercles) to the airfoil’s noise at certain angles of
tubercle amplitude and
leading edge; focus on attack; reduction in
spacing for effective
Study of the effect of the reduction of tonal overall broadband noise
noise reduction; humpback
Hansen et al. [140,141]. leading-edge tubercles noise and overall surrounding peak tonal
balancing noise whale flippers
on airfoil flow and noise broadband noise; noise frequencies;
reduction with
exploration of the effects possible enhanced
maintaining or
of varying the amplitude aerodynamic
improving aerodynamic
and spacing of tubercles performance
efficiency
on noise reduction
Use of semi-cylindrical
rings wrapped on the Non-invasive
blade; targeted modification to existing Optimal configuration
suppression of shedding blades; cost-effective of semi-cylindrical rings;
Reducing infrasound
vortices behind the and easy to implement; avoiding negative humpback
Lv et al. [148]. emissions from wind
blade; focus on reducing reduction of infrasound impacts on blade whale flippers
turbine blades.
both infrasound and emissions; potential performance and
overall sound pressure improvement in wind turbine efficiency
level; improvement in turbine efficiency
the CP of wind turbines
Study different blade
designs using NACA
4412 airfoil; comparative Balancing efficiency and
aerodynamic Increased electrical
analysis of straight design complexity;
performance of generation, particularly humpback
Gupta et al. [150]. swept blade, winglet, ensuring reliability and
innovative wind turbine at moderate whale flippers
tubercle, and slotted durability of innovative
blade designs wind speeds.
blades; emphasis on blade designs
enhancing power
generation efficiency
Analysis of the effects of
leading-edge bumps on Translating complex
stall delay; development Increase in stall angle by biological adaptations
of an aerodynamic up to 40% without into practical
model to explain the compromising lift or engineering designs; humpback
Van Nierop et al. [152]. Wind turbine blades
observed increase in drag; gradual onset of addressing potential whale flippers
stall angle; study of lift stall, enhancing discrepancies in
curve behavior control properties experimental results and
with varying theoretical models
bump amplitude
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 19 of 37

Table 5. Cont.

Study (Author) Focus Key Features Advantages Challenges Source of Inspiration

NACA0018 blade
modification with
leading-edge tubercles Managing the
Tubercle profile
for a Darrieus VAWT; complexity of modeling
increases separation
aerodynamic analysis to and computational
length and decreases
assess tubercle impact analysis for
wake region, potentially humpback
Prakash et al. [157]. Wind turbine blades on separation length tubercle-enhanced
reducing drag; whale flippers
and wake reduction; blades.; need to evaluate
improvement in
examination of various additional parameters
flow reattachment
tubercle design like torque for more
on the blade
configurations decisive conclusions
for enhanced
blade efficiency
Enhancing power
DoE approach and RSM Enhanced power
performance Conflicting findings in humpback
Hassan et al. [143]. to assess power performance under
of VAWTs with the literature. whale flippers
performance. off-design conditions.
leading-edge tubercles.
Potential challenges in
Cp increased by 17.67%;
adapting biological
TSR increased by
Improving wind turbine Investigations of structures to
13.42%; reduced power humpback whale
Lin et al. [159]. performance using a modified airfoils and engineering designs;
output variation; flippers
biomimetic approach turbine blades ensuring consistent
enhanced stability in
performance under
power generation
varying wind conditions
Examining a reference
airfoil and two modified
airfoils with
Enhanced lift coefficient Complexity in
leading-edge tubercles;
after stall in modified understanding the flow
utilizing nonlinear shear
Examining the impact of airfoils; smoother and control mechanism of
transformation for humpback whale
Fan et al. [158]. leading-edge tubercles more stable stall process; leading-edge tubercles;
tubercle design; flippers
on airfoil performance improved momentum challenges in optimal
analyzing lift and drag
exchange in trailing design and application
coefficients, lift-to-drag
edge boundary layer of tubercles
ratios; investigating
CRVPs for
momentum exchange
Investigating the effect Enhanced post-stall lift
Balancing pre-stall and
of tubercles on wind by 115% indicating
post-stall performance
turbine blade reduced induced drag in
improvements; humpback whale
Mckegney et al. [162]. wind turbine blades aerodynamics with a post-stall; potential for
optimizing amplitude flippers
focus on post-stall lift increased efficiency in
and wavelength ratios
enhancement and wind turbine
for tubercles
induced drag reduction applications

7. Insights and Innovations from Feathered Inspiration

Birds’ wingtip feathers are bent up and separated (like fingers of spreading). This
illustrates nature’s solution to reducing drag and enhancing lift [163].
Birds’ wings and wind turbine blades share similar functions [164–166], and bionic re-
search has revealed that airfoils inspired by birds, such as the seagull airfoil and those based
on the leading edge of long-eared owl wings, exhibit superior aerodynamic
performance [167,168]. Birds’ wing leading-edge (LE) profiles have sparked significant
interest in aerospace engineering. These wings exhibit flexibility and can adjust their angle
of attack during flight maneuvers, but their leading edges typically maintain a consistent
spanwise distribution. In cases where bird wings flex during flight, they often feature a
swept-back angle, as observed in Videler et al.’s research [169]. This configuration creates a
stable LEV, enhancing lift and influencing the bird’s flight dynamics [170]. While engineer-
ing adaptations inspired by bird flex wings have been applied to flight wings [171], their
integration into wind turbine blade design has been limited.
Following World War I, the French aeronautical engineer G.J.M. Darrieus introduced a
VAWT that featured airfoil-shaped blades. His innovative design was granted patents in
France in 1925 and in the United States in 1931, drawing inspiration from the aerodynamics
of birds’ wings, emphasizing biomimicry in his approach: “It is thus possible to give
these blades a streamline section analogous to that of the wings of birds, that is to say,
offering the minimum resistance to forward movement and capable of converting into
mechanical energy the maximum available amount of energy of the fluid by means of the
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 20 of 37

useful component of the traverse thrust which this section undergoes” [172]. The patent
covered two major configurations: curved and straight blades which have evolved into
several variations [101].
Ikeda et al. [173] proposed a biomimetic blade design for SWTs, inspired by the robust
aerodynamic force production and stable flight of bird wings (Figure 13). The aim was to
enhance the robustness of aerodynamic performance by achieving a high integral C21
Biomimetics 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW p across
of 38
a wide range of tip-speed ratios.

Figure13.
Figure 13.Flexed
Flexed wings
wings of
of flying
flying birds
birds in
in flight.
flight. (A)
(A)Brown
Brownbooby,
booby,Sula
Sulaleucogaster.
leucogaster.(B)
(B)Black-footed
Black-footed
albatross, Diomedea nigripes. (C) Common gull, Larus canus. (D) Red-throated Diver,
albatross, Diomedea nigripes. (C) Common gull, Larus canus. (D) Red-throated Diver, Gavia Gavia stel-
stellate.
late. Photos by courtesy of Yoshiya Odaya (Abiko City Museum of Birds) [173]. Reprinted with per-
Photos by courtesy of Yoshiya Odaya (Abiko City Museum of Birds) [173]. Reprinted with permission
mission from [173]. Copyright © 2024, Elsevier.
from [173]. Copyright © 2024, Elsevier.
Reddy et al. [176] extensively investigated on the design optimization of wind turbine
Bird’s extended feathers, also known as winglets, are another example of bio-inspiration
blades with bladelets, aiming to enhance the power output of horizontal-axis wind tur-
sources [174]. Winglets are recognized for their ability to generate lift and minimize the
bines.
formation of large vortices [174,175].
The findings of the study demonstrated that incorporating bladelets on wind turbine
Reddy et al. [176] extensively investigated on the design optimization of wind turbine
blades can lead to an increase in the coefficient of power at off-design conditions while
blades with bladelets, aiming to enhance the power output of horizontal-axis wind turbines.
minimizing the penalty on thrust force.
The findings of the study demonstrated that incorporating bladelets on wind turbine
Prathik et al. [99] conducted a design analysis of a VAWT blade using biomimicry
blades can lead to an increase in the coefficient of power at off-design conditions while
techniques. The study aimed to enhance the turbine’s performance and efficiency by in-
minimizing the penalty on thrust force.
corporating modified turbine blades inspired by biological features such as the eagle
Prathik et al. [99] conducted a design analysis of a VAWT blade using biomimicry
wing, maple seed leaf, and corrugated dragonfly vein.
techniques. The study aimed to enhance the turbine’s performance and efficiency by
incorporating modified turbine blades inspired by biological features such as the eagle
Owl, Guillemot, Seagull, Albatros, Stork, and Golden Eagle
wing, maple seed leaf, and corrugated dragonfly vein.
The aerodynamic prowess exhibited by many owl species during flight and hunting
can largely
Owl, Guillemot, be attributed to theirStork,
Seagull, Albatros, unique and airfoil
Golden design.
Eagle Owls require a significant amount
of lift to glide silently and evade detection
The aerodynamic prowess exhibited by many owl by their prey.species
As a result,
during the airfoil
flight andstructure
hunting
of owl wings has been extracted and applied in the design of wind
can largely be attributed to their unique airfoil design. Owls require a significant amount turbine blades to en-
hance their performance [177].
of lift to glide silently and evade detection by their prey. As a result, the airfoil structure of
Graham
owl wings has [178]
been conducted
extracted and a comprehensive
applied in the design analysisofof owlturbine
wind wings, blades
highlighting the
to enhance
distinctive characteristics
their performance [177]. exhibited by these avian creatures. The study revealed several
remarkable
Grahamfeatures of owl feathers,
[178] conducted including aanalysis
a comprehensive comb-like structure
of owl wings, along the leading
highlighting the
distinctive characteristics exhibited by these avian creatures. The study revealed on
edge, a fringe-like arrangement along the trailing edge, and soft down feathers the
several
wings and features
remarkable legs. These unique
of owl feather
feathers, structures
including enable owls
a comb-like to glide
structure and the
along fly silently, set-
leading edge,
ting them apart from other birds [177]. Ito [179] studied the
a fringe-like arrangement along the trailing edge, and soft down feathers on the wings andaerodynamic influence of
leading-edge serrations on an airfoil at low Reynolds numbers.
legs. These unique feather structures enable owls to glide and fly silently, setting them The researchers focused
on thefrom
apart distinct
other fine serrations
birds [177]. Itoobserved on the leading
[179] studied edge of owlinfluence
the aerodynamic wings, which contribute
of leading-edge
serrations on an airfoil at low Reynolds numbers. The researchers focused on theauthors
to the reduction of flapping sound. In addition to their sound-damping effect, the distinct
explored
fine the impact
serrations observed of on
these
the serrations
leading edge on ofthe
owlaerodynamic
wings, which characteristics
contribute to of thethe wing.
reduction
of flapping sound. In addition to their sound-damping effect, the authors exploredlift
The authors reported that the presence of serrations enabled the airfoil to maintain the
force atof
impact larger
theseangles of attack
serrations compared
on the aerodynamicto the prototype wing, of
characteristics particularly
the wing.atThe lowauthors
Reyn-
olds numbers.
reported that the presence of serrations enabled the airfoil to maintain lift force at larger
anglesRao et al. investigated
of attack compared tothe theintricate
prototypeinterplay
wing, of aerodynamics
particularly at lowand acoustics,
Reynolds particu-
numbers.
larlyRao
concerning owl-inspired
et al. investigated thewing features,
intricate prominently
interplay leading-edge
of aerodynamics and serrations
acoustics, [180].
partic-
Taking inspiration from the natural phenomenon of owls achieving
ularly concerning owl-inspired wing features, prominently leading-edge serrations [180]. near-silent flight due
to their unique wing morphologies, this multidisciplinary study
Taking inspiration from the natural phenomenon of owls achieving near-silent flight due integrated cutting-edge
techniques,
to their unique encompassing
wing morphologies,Large-Eddy Simulations (LES),study
this multidisciplinary Particle-Image
integrated Velocimetry
cutting-edge
techniques, encompassing Large-Eddy Simulations (LES), Particle-Image Rao
(PIV), and controlled wind tunnel experiments. In another study [181], et al. investi-
Velocimetry (PIV),
gated the aerodynamic performance and noise reduction capabilities of owl-inspired lead-
ing-edge (LE) serrations in airfoil designs. The research underscores that the effectiveness
of LE serrations in flow control and noise reduction depends on how they influence LE
vortex breakdown and laminar-turbulent transition, which varies between low and high
Res.
A bionic approach was employed in a study by Tian et al. [168] to design wind tur-
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 21 of 37

and controlled wind tunnel experiments. In another study [181], Rao et al. investigated the
aerodynamic performance and noise reduction capabilities of owl-inspired leading-edge
(LE) serrations in airfoil designs. The research underscores that the effectiveness of LE
serrations in flow control and noise reduction depends on how they influence LE vortex
breakdown and laminar-turbulent transition, which varies between low and high Res.
A bionic approach was employed in a study by Tian et al. [168] to design wind
turbine blade airfoils based on the morphology of the long-eared owl’s wings. The study
showed that a bionic airfoil inspired by the long-eared owl’s wing significantly enhanced
lift coefficient and stalling performance in wind turbine blades. Tests indicated that this
bionic blade achieved an efficiency increase from 12% to 44% over standard blades, due to
a larger pressure difference generating stronger lift. Bodling et al. conducted a numerical
investigation on the aerodynamic and aeroacoustics performance of airfoil geometries
inspired by the down coat of the night owl [182]. The study aimed to understand the
mechanisms behind the observed noise reduction at the trailing edge of such bio-inspired
designs. The study concluded that the owl-inspired airfoil with inlets showed promising
potential for noise reduction. The investigation by Chen et al. [177] focused on the bionic
coupling design and aerodynamic analysis of HAWT blades. The study aimed to optimize
the design of wind turbine blades by drawing inspiration from the flight characteristics
of owls.
The resulting bionic-coupled wind turbine blades exhibited higher lift, torque, and
power generation compared to the standard blades, as the authors stated.
In their research, Zhao et al. [183] developed an optimal design method for airfoil
geometries, drawing inspiration from the silent flight mechanisms of owl wings, specif-
ically focusing on trailing-edge serrations as a means of controlling aerodynamic noise
in wind turbine blades. While previous studies have indicated that adding serrations
could negatively impact an airfoil’s overall aerodynamic performance, the study aimed
to balance these effects by integrating the fundamental parameters of serrations into the
design process. The aerodynamic performance of biomimetic turbine blades inspired by
wings of the Common Guillemot species (Uria aalge) in the context of ocean current power
generation was investigated by Montoya et al. [184].
Hua et al. [167] conducted a comparative analysis of the aerodynamic performance of
the seagull and NACA 4412 airfoils for SWTs operating under low-Reynolds conditions. In
another study, Hua et al. [185] investigated the design and performance analysis of bionic
wind turbine blades. Drawing inspiration from the excellent aerodynamic performance
of seagull wings, three types of bionic blades were designed using bionic wing types and
configurations, based on the blade element theory of wind turbine blade design.
Experimental wind blow tests corroborated these findings, revealing that the bionic
blades achieved lower starting wind speeds and higher rotational speeds compared to the
standard blades. Specifically, the bionic blade with a total improved airfoil exhibited an 8%
increase in rotational speed, the bionic blade with a partially improved airfoil displayed
a 10.2% increase, and the configuration improved blade demonstrated a 6% increase, all
relative to the standard blade, at the same wind speed. In their research, Qiao et al. [186]
delved into the aerodynamic performance of airfoils based on the seagull’s wing design,
particularly focusing on applications for SWTs operating under low-Reynolds conditions
where air viscosity significantly impacts blade performance. The research concluded that
the seagull airfoil is particularly well suited for the blade tips of SWTs.
Albatross and stork, renowned for their migratory feats and graceful flight over open
seas, serve as natural inspirations for the design of HAWTs tailored for low wind velocity
applications. Robles et al. [187] investigated the aerodynamic design and performance of
HAWTs featuring airfoils inspired by these avian marvels. In the context of wind power as
a renewable energy source, capable of reducing carbon emissions and offering cost-effective
electricity generation, this the emphasized its potential to attain efficiency levels close
to 50%. While the investigation operated on a micro-scale, the authors highlighted the
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 22 of 37

viability of albatross and stork blade designs for modern wind turbines, particularly in
achieving Cp exceeding 0.4 or 40% efficiency at higher TSRs.
Yossri et al.’s research [96] included a focus on the golden eagle’s wing geometry
for SWT design. The golden eagle is known for its exceptional flight abilities, including
hovering, perching, rapid flight, and high maneuverability during hunting, as described
in [188]. These capabilities are attributed to its adaptive airfoil shape, allowing for swift
Biomimetics 2024, 9, x FOR PEER REVIEW
changes and control of aerodynamic loads to suit various flight needs. The golden eagle’s 23 of 38
wings, typically forming an obtuse angled “V” in flight with distinctive trailing edges
resembling secondary feathers [188], inspired the turbine blade design. The golden eagle-
inspired
inspireddesign,
design,asas presented
presented in Figure 14,
in Figure 14, aimed
aimedtotoprovide
provideflexibility
flexibilityand
andadaptability
adaptability
in
inturbine
turbine performance under varying wind conditions. The study [188,189]
performance under varying wind conditions. The study [188,189] provided provided
de-
detailed winggeometries
tailed wing geometriesandanddistributions,
distributions, contributing
contributing to
to aa more
more efficient
efficient and
andadaptable
adaptable
turbine design.
turbine design.

Figure14.
Figure 14.(a)
(a)Geometry
Geometryofofwing
wingas
asfound
foundininnature,
nature,(b)
(b)airfoil
airfoilprofile,
profile,and
and(c)
(c)bio-inspired
bio-inspireddesigned
designed
turbine [96]. Reprinted with permission from [96]. Copyright © 2024, Elsevier.
turbine [96]. Reprinted with permission from [96]. Copyright © 2024, Elsevier.

Thealbatross,
The albatross,another
anotherfocusfocusof ofYossri
Yossrietetal.’s
al.’sstudy,
study,intrigued
intriguedresearchers
researcherswith withits
its
uniqueflight
unique flightperformance,
performance,particularly
particularlyin indynamic
dynamicsoaring.
soaring.Unlike
Unlikeother
other birds
birdsandandengi-
engi-
neeredflying
neered flyingvehicles,
vehicles,albatrosses
albatrossesgaingainairspeed
airspeedand andheight
heightwhile
whilegliding
glidinginto
intothe
thewind,
wind,
achievingspeeds
achieving speeds greater
greater thanthan
thethe
windwind itself.
itself. Studies
Studies havehave
shown shown that albatrosses
that albatrosses can
can reach
reach speeds
speeds of 30 km/hof 30 km/h
in wind in wind
speeds speeds not exceeding
not exceeding 13 km/h
13 km/h [96].[96].
ThisThis ability
ability to gener-
to generate
ate high
high aerodynamic
aerodynamic lift the
lift made made the albatross
albatross an attractive
an attractive model for model for increasing
increasing the lift
the lift potential
ofpotential of SWTs. Albatross
SWTs. Albatross wings, characterized
wings, characterized by a prominent
by a prominent mid-span mid-span flexion
flexion and and a
a wider
wider trailing
trailing edge compared
edge compared to the golden
to the golden eagle, inspired
eagle, inspired the turbine
the turbine blade design
blade design pre-
presented
insented
Figurein15. The emphasis
Figure on wing on
15. The emphasis flexion
winghas been has
flexion linked
beento linked
increased aerodynamic
to increased lift
aerody-
innamic
numerous studies [173,190].
lift in numerous The albatross
studies [173,190]. The wing geometry,
albatross therefore,therefore,
wing geometry, offered a offered
novel
approach to SWT to
a novel approach design, focusing
SWT design, on maximizing
focusing on maximizinglift and
liftaerodynamic
and aerodynamic efficiency. In
efficiency.
conclusion, Yossri et al.’s study demonstrated the potential of bioinspired
In conclusion, Yossri et al.’s study demonstrated the potential of bioinspired SWT designs, SWT designs,
particularly
particularlythose
thoseinspired
inspiredby bythe
thegolden
goldeneagle
eagleandandthe
thealbatross,
albatross,for forefficient
efficientoperation
operationatat
low
lowwind
windspeeds
speedsand
andTSRs.
TSRs.
 sented in Figure 15. The emphasis on wing flexion has been linked to increased aerody-
namic lift in numerous studies [173,190]. The albatross wing geometry, therefore, offered
a novel approach to SWT design, focusing on maximizing lift and aerodynamic efficiency.
In conclusion, Yossri et al.’s study demonstrated the potential of bioinspired SWT designs,
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 23 of 37
particularly those inspired by the golden eagle and the albatross, for efficient operation at
low wind speeds and TSRs.

Figure15.
Figure 15.(a)
(a)Geometry
Geometryof
ofwing
wingas
asfound
foundin
innature,
nature,(b)
(b)airfoil
airfoilprofile,
profile,and
and(c)
(c)bio-inspired
bio-inspireddesigned
designed
turbine [95].
turbine [95].

Table 6 presents the essence of studies inspired by birds, which emphasizes the key
features, research challenges, and the advantages of bio-inspired solutions.

Table 6. The summary of the research findings inspired by birds.

Study (Author) Focus Key Features Advantages Challenges Source of inspiration

Adapting
bird-inspired airfoil
designs to effectively
Higher lift coefficient;
function in wind
wind turbine blades Greater scope of
Seagull inspired turbine applications;
Liu et al. [154]. for small scale working angle of Seagull wings
airfoil design Ensuring efficient
wind turbines incidence; Higher
performance across a
lift-drag ratio
range of
operational
conditions.
Superior lift
coefficient and Effectively
Airfoil design based stalling performance; replication of the
Airfoils for wind Long-eared
Tian et al. [168]. on Long-eared Better pressure aerodynamic
turbine blade Owl Wings
Owl’s wing difference between advantages seen
upper and in nature.
lower surfaces.
Adapting blade
Introduction of design to broad
bird-inspired flexed High integral CP tip-speed ratios,
Blade design
Ikeda et al. [173]. wing morphology; across Ensuring robust Bird Wings
for SWTs
Robustness tip-speed ratios aerodynamic
Index (Ri) proposal performance under
variable conditions
3D flow-field Increase in coefficient Complexity in
analysis, of power at optimizing bladelet
Wind turbine blades
Reddy et al. [176]. Multiobjective off-design conditions, geometry, Balancing Bird’s winglets
with bladelets
constrained shape Minimized penalty multiple objectives
design optimization on thrust force in design
Analysis of
biostructure blades,
Enhanced lift-drag Design complexities
Simulation of low Maple Seed Leaf,
Prathik et al. [99]. VAWT Blade Design ratio, higher in mimicking
wind speeds, Eagle Wing
coefficient of power biological structures
Comparison with
traditional foils
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 24 of 37

Table 6. Cont.

Study (Author) Focus Key Features Advantages Challenges Source of inspiration

Bionic coupling
HAWT Blades Increased lift, torque, Refinement of
Chen et al. [177,179]. design, Owl Wings
Design power generation design parameters
non-smooth LE
Aerodynamics of Leading-edge Maintenance of lift Focused on low
Ito [179]. Owl Wings
Serrations serrations impact force at larger AoAs Reynolds numbers
Passive control Trade-off between
LEserrations for mechanism, reduced noise reduction and
Aeroacoustic Control
Rao et al. [180]. noise reduction over noise; improved aerodynamics, Owl Wings
and Noise Reduction
a broad Re range lift-to-drag ratio, effectiveness varies
noise reduction with Re
Understanding noise
Aeroacoustic Noise reduction at Reduction in
Bodling et al. [182]. reduction Owl’s Down Coat
Performance trailing edge high-frequency noise
mechanisms
Enhanced Balancing noise Owl Wings
Optimal design of
Zhao et al. [183,184]. Airfoil Design aerodynamics and control with (Trailing-Edge
serrated airfoils
noise reduction performance Serrations)
Sub-optimal blade
Biomimetic Inspired by Higher lift-to- Common
Montoya et al. [184]. settings, limited
Turbine Blades bird wings drag coefficients Guillemot Species
velocity range
Increased blade
Design of three types torque; Favorable Balancing the
of bionic blades aerodynamic biomimetic
Bionic Wind
Hua et al. [167] inspired by seagull performance; Lower design with Seagull Wings
Turbine Blades
wings, Blade starting wind aerodynamic
element theory speeds; Higher efficiency
rotational speeds
Bionic design of Adapting bionic
wind turbine blades, Higher lift coefficient designs to practical
Numerical and better stalling engineering
simulation of performance; applications,
small wind
Qiao et al. [186] aerodynamic Suitability for Ensuring structural Seagull’s Wing
turbine blades
performance, small-power wind integrity while
Comparison with generators; Potential optimizing
traditional airfoil increase in efficiency aerodynamic
(NACA 4412) performance
Balancing
bio-inspired design
Potential for
with engineering
improved
constraints; Ensuring
Airfoils inspired by aerodynamic
structural integrity
HAWT Design with Albatross and Stork, efficiency in low
Robles et al. [187]. and long-term Albatross and Stork
bio-inspired airfoils Low wind velocity wind conditions;
durability;
optimization Increased power
Optimizing
output at lower
performance across
wind speeds
varied wind
conditions
Blade designs for High power output
Golden eagle and Structural integrity Albatross, golden
low-speed and torque, effective
Yossri et al. [96]. albatross-inspired and manufacturing eagle, dragonfly
small-scale wind in low-wind
blade designs complexity wing geometries
turbines conditions

8. Natural Composite Materials

In the design of wind turbine systems, the selection of materials is a critical factor.
The properties of materials used in constructing wind turbines significantly influence
their efficiency, durability, and overall performance [191]. These materials must withstand
diverse environmental conditions, manage mechanical stresses, and contribute to the
aerodynamic efficiency of the turbines. Consequently, advanced composites, metals, and
innovative alloys are often chosen for their strength, lightweight nature, and resistance
to wear and corrosion. Materials found in nature with unique properties have paved the
way for biomimetic materials—synthetic counterparts emulating these characteristics. For
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 25 of 37

instance, spider silk, known for its strength and lightness, has led to the development of
synthetic spider silk for textiles and biomedical devices [192]. Nacre, found in mollusk
shells, has inspired synthetic nacre for protective coatings and biomedical implants due to
its toughness [193]. Additionally, the study of natural fibers such as bamboo, flax, and hemp
has influenced the development of sustainable and eco-friendly composites. These materials
offer advantages in terms of low weight, high strength, and biodegradability, making them
ideal for applications in the construction, automotive, and aerospace industries.
Biomaterials like bone, strong, lightweight, and self-repairing, have inspired synthetic
bone grafts and implants [192]. Engineers have developed synthetic composites inspired
by the hierarchical structure of bone, incorporating materials like polymers and ceramics to
create lightweight, yet strong, materials for various applications, including aerospace and
medical implants.

Insights from Bone Structures and Nacre

Aage et al. [194] presented a computational morphogenesis tool that allows for the
design of structures with giga-voxel resolution, enabling unprecedented insights into
optimal material distribution. The tool was applied to the design of a full-scale airplane
wing, resulting in an optimized wing structure that exhibits remarkable similarity to
naturally occurring bone structures found in bird beaks. The results highlighted the
potential of computational morphogenesis for achieving optimal designs with enhanced
structural performance and reduced environmental impact.
The study presented by Kaminski et al. [195] focused on the development and ground
testing of a 1% scaled wind turbine blade.
The researchers used additive manufacturing and a bio-inspired structural design
approach to optimize the blade’s mass and stiffness. The design was influenced by the
efficient internal structure of bone, which adapts and grows according to applied loads,
following Wolff’s law. By incorporating lightweight bio-inspired morphology and car-
bon fiber reinforcements, the final blade design achieved significant gravo-elastic scaling
performance. The use of additive manufacturing, bio-inspired designs, and carbon fiber
reinforcements enables the production of lightweight yet structurally efficient blades.
Nacre, also known as mother-of-pearl, is renowned for its remarkable mechanical
properties, notably its exceptional toughness. Consequently, it has emerged as a compelling
model for the enhancement of tough synthetic ceramics [196–199]. Notably, abalone nacre
exhibits a work of fracture approximately 3000 times greater than that of an individual
crystal of the pure mineral [200]. Extensive prior research has elucidated that the distinc-
tive microarchitecture of nacre primarily governs its mechanisms of strengthening and
toughening [201–204].
Mishnaevsky et al. investigated a new concept for developing sustainable wind
turbine blades, focusing on bio-inspired design with engineered adhesives. Their study
addressed two primary challenges in the wind energy sector: the need to enhance the
durability of wind turbine blades, which often degrade over several decades, and the
growing demand for recyclability and sustainability in blade design.
The authors highlighted that most common wind turbine blade degradation mech-
anisms are rooted in interface degradation, including issues like coating detachment,
buckling, and adhesive joint degradation. To address these challenges, the proposed con-
cept involves the development of bio-inspired dual-mechanism-based interface adhesives,
combining the mechanical interlocking of fibers and chemical adhesion. The study con-
cluded that such adhesives could lead to wind turbine blades with longer lifetimes, reduced
maintenance requirements, and improved recyclability, addressing key challenges in the
field of wind energy.
Table 7 underlines key features of studies inspired by natural composites, summarizing
research challenges and the advantages of bio-inspired solutions.
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 26 of 37

Table 7. The summary of the research findings inspired by natural composites.

Source of
Study (Author) Focus Key Features Advantages Challenges
Inspiration
Bio-inspired Extended blade Preventing blade
Biological
design, engineered lifetime, reliability, degradation and
composites like
Mishnaevsky, Jr., Sustainable Wind adhesives; and sustainability; failure;
nacre, shells,
et al. [205]. Turbine Blades interface control strong and development of
skulls/teeth/bones,
for durability and detachable sustainable,
timber/bamboo
recyclability adhesives recyclable blades
Bio-Inspired
Structural Desig;
Additive
Scaling
Manufacturing; Cost-Effectiveness;
Complexity,
Kaminski et al. down scaling the Innovative Design The internal
Wind turbine blade Material and
[195]. blade while Capability; High structure of bones
Manufacturing
maintaining key Fidelity Modeling
Constraints
dynamic and
structural
properties

9. Fibonacci Sequence: Implications for Wind Energy Innovation

The Fibonacci sequence and the golden ratio are intricately linked in the construction
of geometric patterns, particularly the golden rectangle and spiral. In essence, the behavior
of the Fibonacci sequence is often described as quadratic recursion [206]. This sequence can
be generated for any integer n ≥ 2, where each number formed is the sum of the preceding
two numbers (Fn = Fn + 1 + Fn − 1). The Fibonacci sequence frequently manifests in
geometry and patterns observed in nature, such as the arrangement of sunflower florets, the
spiral of a pinecone, the structure of a nautilus shell, and more. The Fibonacci spiral, also
known as the logarithmic spiral, emerges through the growth factor related to the golden
ratio. The Fibonacci sequence finds extensive applications across various fields of study,
showcasing asymptotic behavior that can be described through linear recurrence [207].
El-Sheikh [208] explored a novel wind turbine blade design aimed at addressing
the challenges associated with transporting large-scale wind turbines. These challenges
primarily stem from road design, terrain conditions, and logistical constraints when moving
blades to windy sites. Drawing inspiration from nature’s finger and the Fibonacci sequence,
the study introduced a blade with the capability to fold, enhancing maneuverability and
simplifying transportation routes while reducing costs.
The mathematical interpretation of Savonius wind turbine blade geometry, specifically
focusing on its semicircle shape, was investigated by Ashwindran et al. [209]. The study
√
delved into the 2 conjecture as it relates to circle construction, along with its connections
√ √ √
to the Fibonacci and Pythagoras spirals concerning 2, 2 + 1, and 2 + 2. The research
√
demonstrated that the 2 conjecture can effectively determine the geometric properties
of circles and spirals. The results highlighted an enhancement in Cm for the proposed
blade shape, showcasing a 7.2% improvement at λ = 0.59 and a 4% increase at λ = 0.94
when compared to conventional Savonius wind turbines (SWT). Damota et al. researched
the performance of a nature-inspired shape for a VAWT [38,210]. The study focused on
improving the efficiency of a Savonius-type turbine by utilizing a blade profile based
on the Fibonacci spiral. They introduced the Fibonacci shape to explore the impact of
various parameters such as the number of blades, aspect ratio, overlap, separation gap,
and twist angle. In another study, the authors aimed to investigate the influence of these
parameters on the performance of the blade profile. Remarkable improvements exceeding
30% in average power were achieved by optimizing these parameters. The average CP
and CT were improved by 14.1% and 13.5%, respectively, with the Fibonacci blade profile.
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 27 of 37

The findings highlight the potential of the Fibonacci-inspired design for enhancing the
performance of VAWTs.
Some authors of this study have suggested a bio-inspired shape for marine propul-
sors in their previous works, showing improvements in the performance of conventional
propellers in specific applications [211–214].
The key features of studies inspired by the Fibonacci sequence, the research challenges,
and the advantages of bio-inspired solutions are summarized in Table 8.

Table 8. The summary of the research findings inspired by Fibonacci sequence.

Study (Author) Focus Key Features Advantages Challenges Source of Inspiration

Maintaining
structural integrity
Design Inspiration;
and performance
Blade foldability for Enhanced
while incorporating
easier transport; Maneuverability;
folding joints;
Modifications to Reduced Simplifies
Manufacturing Fibonacci sequence
blade Skin and Spar; route scenario and
El-Sheikh [208]. Wind turbine blade Complexity; and the natural
Flexure hinge design reduces
Managing stress finger’s ability to fold
for folding ability; transportation cost;
distribution,
Utilizes corrugated Applicability to
especially at the
shape in flexure Large Blades
flexure hinges during
zones.
folding and
operation
Ensuring the
√ Improved moment accuracy and
Exploration of 2
coefficient; the utility reliability of
conjecture in circle
of irrational numbers mathematical
and Fibonacci spiral Fibonacci sequence
Ashwindran et al. in the design of conjectures in
Wind turbine blade construction; and nature’s
[209]. complex geometries; practical applications;
Adapting the geometrical patterns
Potential for multiple Managing the
conjecture for blade
blade curvature complexity of CFD
design in DIWT.
combinations. simulations for blade
design.
Fibonacci
spiral-based blade
profile; comparison Determining the
with traditional optimal combination
semi-circular Improvement in of turbine design
Wind turbine blade; Savonius blade average CP ; parameters; Aligning
Damota et al.
improvement of profile; analysis of improvement in the turbine design Fibonacci sequence
[38,210].
efficiency in VAWT various parameters average CT compared with practical and
like number of to Savonius profile economic feasibility
blades, aspect ratio, in urban
overlap, separation environments.
gap, and twist angle
for optimization.

10. Discussion
It is evident from the reviewed research that biomimetics has played a significant role
in addressing various challenges and optimizing the performance of wind turbines. The
sources of inspiration can be categorized into different biological realms, each offering
unique insights and solutions (Table 9).
One of the prominent sources of inspiration is the humpback whale tubercles, which
have been extensively studied. The tubercles on humpback whale flippers have been
a noteworthy source of inspiration, extensively influencing engineers to enhance wind
turbine blade efficiency, performance, and noise reduction.
Birds, specifically the wings of owls, have inspired research in aerodynamics and
silent flight. These studies have implications particularly in the context of noise reduction
in wind turbines. These studies have shown the potential of biomimetic design to mitigate
the noise generated by wind turbines, contributing to reduced environmental impact and
enhanced acceptability.
 bilityFurthermore,
which and
has longevity
been used of
the wind turbines.
toapplication
develop of biomimetics
adhesives for of
wind extends
turbine tostructures.
natural composites
This like nacre,
approach lev-
erages
which
erages the
has remarkable
been
thestudy used
remarkable tomechanical
develop
mechanical properties
adhesives
propertiesfor of natural
wind turbine
natural composites
structures.
composites to enhance
toThis the
approach
enhance the dura-
lev-
dura-
which
erages Thehas
the been also
used
remarkable discusses
to develop
mechanicalresearch
adhesives inspired
properties for wind
of by bone
turbine
natural structure,
structures.
composites emphasizing
to This approach
enhance the the po-
lev-
dura-
bility
bility and
erages the
and longevity
remarkable
longevity of wind
wind turbines.
mechanical
ofmaterials
turbines.properties ofdesigns
naturalto composites to challenges
enhance the dura-
Figure 1. Divers
tential
erages
bilityThe of
the bio-inspired
andstudy remarkable
longevity of mechanical and
wind turbines.
turbines. structural
properties of natural address
composites theto enhance of
the wind
dura-
bility and
The longevity
study also
alsoof discusses
wind
discusses research
research inspired
inspired by by bone
bone structure,
structure, emphasizing
emphasizing the the po-
po-
turbine
bilityThe
and construction
longevity
study also and
of maintenance.
wind
discusses turbines.
research inspireddesigns
by bone
bone structure, emphasizing the po-
tential
The
tential of bio-inspired
study
of study also
bio-inspired materials
discusses
materials and
research
and structural
inspired
structural by
designs toto address
structure,
address the challenges
emphasizing
the challenges of
the
of wind
3. Sources of I
po-
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Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90
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and structural
structural concept
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to address
address by
structure, natural
theemphasizingpatterns,
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of windhas
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tential
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construction and
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28 of 37In this stu
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The
turbineThe Fibonacci
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Fibonacci sequence,
and
sequence, aa mathematical
mathematical concept
concept inspired
inspired by natural
bynature
natural patterns,
patterns, has
inspired
has advan
blade
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The and configurations,
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Fibonacci and maintenance.
sequence, a showcasing the
mathematical interdisciplinary
concept inspired by naturalof patterns,
biomimetics. has
also found
The
also found its way
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its way into wind
sequence, energy
a
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research. This sequence
concept has
inspired
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by
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utilized to optimize
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to optimize has
represented
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its
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This inspired
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and
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design
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Sources of I
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study is represented
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Noise reduction Table 1. Symbo
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the wind
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and
both
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longevity
biology
industry. andof wind
wind turbines.
energy engineering, and the unique challenges posed by
versed
the wind in energy
both biology industry. and wind energy engineering, and the unique challenges posed by
the The study
wind energy also discusses research inspired by bone structure, emphasizing the potential
industry.
the wind energy industry.
of bio-inspired materials and structural designs to address the challenges of wind turbine
construction and maintenance.
The Fibonacci sequence, a mathematical concept inspired by natural patterns, has also
found its way into wind energy research. This sequence has been utilized to optimize blade
shapes and configurations, showcasing the interdisciplinary nature of biomimetics.
Despite the broad range of applicability of biomimetics in various fields of engineering
and science, the application of biomimetics in wind energy system design has remained
limited in both scope and quantity. These limitations manifest in two key aspects: the
restricted variety of biological sources explored for inspiration and the relatively low
number of research endeavors dedicated to the application of biomimetics in wind energy.
Firstly, when examining the range of biological sources that have informed biomimetic
designs for wind energy systems, it becomes apparent that this diversity is somewhat lacking.
While some promising inspirations have been drawn from sources such as the humpback
whale tubercles, seeds, birds’ and insects’ wings, and mathematical concepts like the Fibonacci
sequence, the overall pool of biological sources remains relatively constrained. Factors con-
tributing to this limitation could include the intricacies of translating biological principles into
practical engineering solutions, the availability of experts versed in both biology and wind
energy engineering, and the unique challenges posed by the wind energy industry.
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 29 of 37

Secondly, despite the potential benefits and innovative solutions that biomimetics
can offer to enhance wind energy systems, the number of research projects dedicated
to this specific domain is noticeably low. This scarcity of research efforts is somewhat
surprising given the increasing demand for sustainable and efficient energy solutions and
the numerous challenges faced by the wind energy sector. The limited attention afforded to
biomimetic approaches in this context may be attributed to factors such as the complexity
of interdisciplinary collaboration between biologists and wind energy engineers, the costs
and resources associated with conducting experimental investigations, and the overall
awareness and prioritization of biomimetics within the wind energy research community.
In conclusion, while the application of biomimetics holds significant promise for advanc-
ing wind energy system design, the current landscape reveals both a restricted variety of
biological inspirations and a lack of research initiatives in this field. Addressing these issues
may unlock untapped potential for harnessing the remarkable efficiencies and innovations
found in nature to bolster the performance and sustainability of wind energy systems.

11. Conclusions
The synthesis of biomimetics and wind energy represents a promising frontier in the
pursuit of sustainable and efficient renewable energy solutions. This review has provided
an examination of the diverse research endeavors that have harnessed biomimetic principles
to enhance the design, performance, and ecological impact of wind energy systems.
Through a systematic survey of the existing literature, it has become evident that
biomimetics offers multifaceted advantages in the wind energy domain. Humpback whale
tubercles, subject to extensive study, are utilized to enhance wind turbine blade efficiency
and mitigate noise.
Owl wing aerodynamics are drawn upon for the development of silent flight tech-
nology in wind turbines, resulting in the reduction of noise pollution and environmental
impact. Botanical inspiration from seeds informs the design of advanced blades, con-
tributing to improved aerodynamics and enhanced energy capture. Several researches
have been conducted to enhance blade performance, drawing inspiration from the in-
tricate microstructures found in insect wings. Natural composites, including nacre, are
employed in the development of robust adhesives, thereby extending the longevity of wind
turbines. Bio-inspired structural designs have been explored to address construction and
maintenance challenges in wind turbine systems. Furthermore, mathematical concepts
such as the Fibonacci sequence are employed to optimize blade shapes, highlighting the
multidisciplinary approach of biomimetics in wind energy research.
In conclusion, as we navigate the promising frontier of biomimetics and its integration
with wind energy, a future direction that emphasizes the role of biomimetics in sustainable
designs is foreseen. Biomimetics has already demonstrated its potential to enhance designs
for greater sustainability and environmentally friendly outcomes across various domains.
Looking ahead, it becomes increasingly vital to explore the applicability of biomimetic
principles in finding innovative solutions for managing decommissioned wind turbines.
Exploring what nature offers for repurposing, recycling, or reusing these turbines aligns
with the principles of ecological responsibility and sustainability at the heart of green
energy initiatives.
With biomimetics illuminating the path forward, we find ourselves at the threshold of
a fresh beginning in wind energy, where innovation converges with environmental respon-
sibility to propel us toward a cleaner and more harmonious future. In this collaborative
endeavor, the echoes of nature’s wisdom resonate through the turbines, whispering the
promise of a greener tomorrow.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, methodology, investigation, writing—review and editing,

F.O.; supervision, review and editing, A.S. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Biomimetics 2024, 9, 90 30 of 37

Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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