Downloaded from hitps:// www.studiestoday.com ~ THE PERIODIC TABLE SYLLABUS Dobereiner's Triads, Newland’s law of Octaves, Mendeleev's contributions; Modern Periodic Law, the Modem Periodic Table. (Groups and periods) * General idea of Dobereiner's triads, Newland’s law of Octaves, Mendeleev's periodic law. * Discovery of Atomic Number and its use as a basis for Modern Periodic law. * Modem Periodic Table (Groups 1 to 18 and periods 1 to 7). * Special reference to Alkali metals (Group 1), Alkaline Earth metals (Group 2) Halogens (Group 17) and Zero Group (Group 18) INTRODUCTION It is a human instinct to classify, ie. to put things of one kind in one group and of another kind in another group. Towards the end of the 18tt and the beginning of the 19% centuries, more and more elements began to be discovered, and their individual properties and compounds had begun to be studied. Soon, the need arose for classifying them so as to make their comparative study easier. 5.1 REASONS FOR OF ELEMENTS: 1, It helps in studying the elements in an organized manner. 2. Ithelps in correlating the properties of elements with the fundamental properties of all states of matter, 3. It helps in defining the relationship of one element with another. CLASSIFICATION In the beginning, attempts were made by chemists to classify elements on the basis of factors such as. density, malleability, ductility, etc., and also to consider whether they were metals or non-metals. But none of these early classifications proved satisfactory because : (i) the number of elements falling in a particular group were so large that it did not serve the purpose of generalization, (ii) some of the characteristics being considered varied under differing conditions. (iii) certain elements showed metallic as well as non-metallic characteristics. Obviously, scientists were in search of characteristics of an element that would never change. It was William Prout who discovered that the atomic mass of an element never differs and that it could therefore, form a truly scientific basis for a satisfactory scheme of classification. 5.2 DOBEREINER’S TRIADS J. W. Dobereiner a German chemist observed that certain elements displayed similar properties and that they could be placed in groups of three elements each. These groups of three elements each were called triads. The three elements of a particular triad had similar chemical properties. In fact, Dobereiner was the first scientist to show the clear relationship between properties of an element and its atomic mass. The atomic mass of the middle element of a triad was approximately equal to the arithmetic mean (average) of the atomic masses of the other two elements of that triad. ——_ Bowntvattetttronrttte67) Yww-studiestotay-com——Downloaded from https:// www.studiestoday.com ‘The following examples will make this point clear, (a) Take three elements, calcium, strontium and barium. These elements have following similarities (All are metal (ii) Each has an oxide that is alkaline in nature; (iii) Each has valency 2. Since these elements have similar chemical properties, they were put together in one group (or family) to form a triad called Dobereiner’s triad. The atomic mass of calcium is 40, strontium is 88 and barium is 137. It is noticed that the middle element, strontium, has atomic mass approximately equal to the average ie., mean value of the atomic masses of calcium and barium. The mean of the atomic mass = 404137 _ 177 y MF a 885. This is nearly the same as the atomic mass of strontium (88). (b) Take three elements chlorine (35'5), bromine (80) and iodine (127); they also form a triad because: (@ all are non-metal: (i) all react with water to form acids (iii) all have valency 1. s of calcium and barium The mean of the atomic masses of Cl and te 355+127 _ 1625 2 the same as the atomic mass of bromine. Reasons for discarding the law of triad () Dobereiner failed to arrange all the then known elements in the form of triads. (ii) The law did not fully apply even within the same family. For example, taking halogens, viz. the first three members, Fluorine (19), Chlorine (35-5) and Bromine (80), it is observed that the mean of the atomic masses of Fluorine and Bromine is 1 (19 + 80) = 49-5, not 35:5. So, Dobereiner’s scheme of classification of elements was not very successful, though it did contain important insights and principles. 5.3 NEWLAND’S LAW OF OCTAVES John Newland (a scientist and a lover of music) arranged elements in ascending order of atomic mass = 81-25, which is approximataly and found that every eighth element had properties similar to the properties of the first element, just as the eighth note of a musical octave is the same as its first note. Based on this observation, Newland gave his law of octaves for classification of elements. According to Newland’s law of octaves, when elements are arranged by increasing atomic mass, the properties of every eighth element starting from any element are a repetition of the properties of the starting element. Western Do | Re | Me | Fa [So] Ia | Ti Masie indian Sa | Re | Ga | Ma | Pe | Daa | Nee Music cies | seins 7 x[ufle|sfeln fo ri[s|[mMfafls|Pp|s | al « |a@] oa |n | mm |r CoamdNi | co | zm | ¥ [tm | As | 8 Br | Rb | sr |ceata| aw | — | — Newland divided the elements into horizontal rows of seven elements each, as shown above [the noble, ie. inert, gases were not known at that time). Merits of Newland’s classification 1. This system worked quite well for the lighter elements. For example, lithium, sodium and potassium were brought together. 2. It relates the properties of the elements to their atomic masses 3. For the first time, it was shown that there is a distinet periodicity in the properties of elements. Newland was honoured in 1887 The Royal Society presented the Davy Medal to Newland in 1887 for his work on classification of elements. Reasons for discarding the law of octaves * This classification did not work with heavier elements, i.e. those lying beyond calcium. As more and more elements were discovered, they could not be fitted into Newland’s Octayes. + Newland adjusted two elements cobalt (Co) and nickel (Ni) in the same slot and these were placed in the same column as fluorine, chlorine and Downloaded trom nttp& Www. studiestoday.comDownloaded from https:// bromine which have very different properties than these elements. + Iron, which resembles cobalt and nickel in properties, has been placed far away from these elements. 5.4 MENDELEEV’S PERIODIC TABLE In 1869, Dmitri Ivanovich Mendeleev, a Russian chemist, arranged all the 63 clements known at that time in increasing order of their atomic mass. Elements with similar properties were put one after the other in the same vertical column (group), with blank spaces where the expected periodicity of the properties was disrupted, i.e., where the properties of an element did not tally with the properties of the clement placed above it. He observed that elements with similar properties occurred at regular intervals. This he called as periodicity of properties of elements. Based on this, he propounded a law that is called Mendeleev’s Periodic Law. Mendeleev’s Periodic Law | Physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses. www.studiestoday.com Periodic table is a chart of elements prepared in such a way that elements with similar properties occur in the same vertical column (or group). It is called periodic because elements with similar properties occur at fixed intervals (or periods); and it is called a table because elements are arranged in tabular form. Essential features of Mendeleev’s periodic table : Mendeleev’s Periodic table contains vertical columns, called ‘groups’ and horizontal rows called ‘periods’. + There are in all eight groups, ie. Group I to Group VIII. Each of these groups from I to VII is divided into two sub-groups : A and B. Group VIII has no sub group. Inert gases were not known at that time. + All elements of a sub-group (or of Group VIII, which has no sub-group) have similar properties and show the same valency, which is equal to the ‘group number (for upto Group IV) or group number subtracted from eight (for Groups V-VI). + In a period, elements gradually change from metallic to a non-metallic character or metallic character decreases as one moves from left to right across the horizontal row. ‘Table 5.1. Mendeleev’s periodic table Groups 1 1 mw v v wt vu vu Orde: Ro | RO R05 RO, | Ri0s RO, | RO, RO, ydride: | RH RH RH, Ry | Ri RH | RH Periods A BA B/ABlA Bla BJA BJA B|_‘Trtsiion L > series 1 HW one 2 u Be 8 c N ° F és | 9012 | to aon | t4o07 13999 13998 3 Ne Me aL Si P s a no | aaa 0 20 _|soom | 20 ssa) 4 Fit series | K ca Se Ti v | Ma|Re GNI same | aoe 496] 290 sas sao] saaa| ssas sts0. sar. Second seis] Cu 2a) oe ae bs se Br esi] 637 on ne___|n 7496 na Fit ies] Rb = Y a Nb Mo Te/Re Rh Pa sa |e wat] om ns 559 98 10.07 291 1064 Second series] Ag ca) Sn so te 1 ors aaa | tase ise | tas 10 12690 6 Fira seis] Ba a HE ™ W Ok PF i290 | mat rast] ao sos was e212 1952 Second seis] Aw Be | T1 » BL 16st} 20059 | 20437 zona | 20898 ‘Mendeleev’s Periodic Table was published in a German journal in 1872. He used letter ‘R’ to represent the clement of that particular group. Hydride of any element of group IV is written as RH,. For example hydride of carbon is CH,. Oxide of any element of the same group is RO» (CO,). i Downloaded from https:// www.studiestoday.comMetis of Menaeleg'@aIg2 ed from hitps:// wy. stdiestaday COM ass 12746 preeeds (1) Grouping of elements. He generalized the study of the elements then known to a study of mere eight groups. (2) Gaps for undiscovered elements. In order to make sure that elements having similar properties fell in the same vertical column or group, Mendeleev left some gaps in his periodic table. These gaps were left for subsequent inclusion of elements not known at that time. Mendeleev correctly thought that such elements would be discovered later. (3) Prediction of properties of undiscovered elements. He predicted the properties of the then unknown elements on the basis of properties of elements lying adjacent to the vacant slots. He actually predicted the properties of some undiscovered elements in 1871. For example : (@) Eka aluminium (means one place below aluminium in the group); its atomic mass and chemical properties are quite similar to those of the element gallium discovered in 1876. (ii) Properties of eka-silicon are the properties of germanium. Property ‘Eka — Gallium | Eka Germanium alumina silicon Avmicmass | 68 | 697 n | 26 Density | S9phe | Sot-eke | ssepte | 5:36 26 Melting point | tow | 302K | High | 121K Valency 3 ‘ 4 4 Fomola ‘of oxide mo, | co, | mo, | co, (4) Incorrect atomic mass corrected. He was able to correct the values of atomic mass of elements like gold and platinum by placing these elements strictly on the basis of similarities in their properties. Defects in Mendeleev’s periodic table (1) Anomalous pairs : ‘The following pairs of elements did not follow Mendeleev's principles : (@ Argon with atomic mass 39-9 preceeds potassium with atomic mass 39-1. Gi) Cobalt with atomic mass 58-9 preceeds nickel with atomic mass 58-6. iodine with atomic mass 126-9. (2) Position of isotopes : Isotopes of an element are atoms of that element having similar chemical properties but different atomic masses. ‘According to Mendeleev’ periodic law, isotopes of an element must be given separate places in the periodic table since they have different atomic masses, But they were not assigned separate places. (3) Grouping of chemically dissimilar elements: Elements such as copper and silver bear no resemblance to alkali metals (lithium, sodium, etc.) but they have been placed together in the first group. (4) Separation of chemically similar elements : Elements that are chemically similar, such as gold and platinum have been placed in separate groups. (5) Electron arrangement : It does not explain the electron arrangement of elements. (6) Position of hydrogen : Hydrogen was not given a fixed position. It was considered in Group IA as well as in Group VIIA because it forms both a positive ion, viz, in HCI, and a negative ion, viz. in NaH. 5.5 ATOMIC NUMBER AS BASIS FOR MODERN PERIODIC LAW The magnitude of positive charge present in the of an atom was determined by Henry in English physicist. Moseley used anodes of different metals in a discharge tube and subjected them to attack by cathode rays. He found, that when cathode rays struck anodes of different metals, the wavelength of the rays produced change. The wavelength of these rays was found to decrease in a regular manner on changing the metal of the anode in order of their position in the periodic table. By this, he concluded that the number of positive charge present in the nucleus of an atom is the most fundamental property of an atom. Downloaded from htips/l Raw studiestoday comDownloaded from http: ‘Tlie senber af aot porte ewanse pretenk re the nucleus of an atom of a particular element is called the atomic number of that element. Some of the positive charge present in the nucleus is due to protons, the number of protons is equal to the atomic number of that element, Thus, Henry Moseley found that atomic number is a better fundamental property of elements compared to atomic mass. This led to the moder periodic law. Modern periodic law : Physical and chemical properties of elements are a periodic function of their atomic numbers. If elements are arranged in order of their increasing atomic number, those with similar properties are repeated after regular intervals, ice. periodicity in the periodic table occurs based on the atomic numbers (number of protons) ct WWW. studiestoday. COM Explanations for anomalies in Mendeleev’s classification of elements Li ‘sition of isotopes Since all isotopes of an element have the same number of protons, their atomic number is also the same. And since all isotopes of an element have the same atomic number, they can be put at the same position in the periodic table. 2. Position of argon and potassium ‘The atomic number of argon is 18 and its mass number is 40 while the atomic number of potassium is 19 and its mass number is 39. Now, according to the Modem periodic law, elements are arranged in increasing order of their atomic number. So argon, with its lower atomic number, should come first, and potassium, with its higher atomic number, should come later. EXCERCISE 5(A) |. What is the need for classification of elements? What was the basis of the earliest attempts made for classification and grouping of elements ? 3. (a) A, Band C are the elements of a Dobereiner’s triad. If the atomic mass of A is 7 and that of C is 39, what should be the atomic mass of B? (b) Why was Dobereiner’s triad discarded ? Explain ‘Newlands law of Octaves.' Why was the law discarded ? 5. Did Dobereiners triads also exist in the columns of ‘Newland’s Octaves ? Compare and find out. (2) Lithium, sodium and potassium elements were putin ‘one group on the basis oftheir similar properties. ‘What are those similar properties? The elements calcium, strontium and barium were pat in one group or family on the basis of their similar properties, ‘What were those similar properties ? What was Mendeleev's basis for classification of ‘elements ? Mendeleev's contribution tothe concept of periodic table Iaid the foundation for the Modern Periodic Table. Give reasons o) @ (b) 8. State Mendeleev’s periodic law. 9. Use Mendeleev's Peridic Table to predict the formula of (a) hydrides of carbon and siticon (b) oxides of potassium, aluminium and barium. Which group of elements was missing from Mendeleev’s .. Why did Mendeleev leave some gaps in his periodic table of elements ? Explain your answer with an example. ‘The atomic number of an element is more important to the chemist than its relative atomic mass. Why ? Consider the following elements : Be, Li, Na, Ca, K, Name the elements of (a) same group (b) same period. (a) Name an element whose properties were predicted ‘on the basis of its position in Mendeleev's periodic table, (b) Name two elements whose atomic weights were corrected on the basis of their positions in Mendeleev’s periodic table. (©) How many elements were known at the time of ‘Mendeleev’s classification of elements ? < Downloaded from https: 19 > // www.studiestoday.com‘THE LONG FORM OF PERIODIC TABLE OF ELEMENTS Downloaded from https:// www.studiestoday.com yh u Ai St lea j Gel fel if ol | 23] | eile] i Bree real zal 7 4 iH ae i 3 : | | ci Hf eet Ee 2 = z22 5/69 gal Radi |e3 sos | 8 & 4 | gfe 3] El sf a z al[eej al ze] i 5 a] Gal al sf =e j| ell ‘ai lee! é| S| z ae} 24] | a] ae Bel z hE 80 Downloaded from https:// www.studiestoday.comDownloaded from https:// www.studiestoday.com ERIODICITY IN THE MODERN PERIODIC (viii) react with water to ‘form metal hydroxides and hydrogen. its are arranged according to increasing All these elements have one electron each in their outermost shell (Refer 5.14), and so they have occur at regular intervals (or peti0WSI7 similar properties. show periodicity (regular repetition), chemical properties show COFFE OEMS DEPORT e r issame number of electron(s) in Consider a group of the periodic table, for — gytermost orbit i.e., recurrence of similar electronic example, the first group of elements. Lithium, — configuration. sodium, potassium, rubidium, caesium and francium, respectively. They have atomic numbers 3, 11, 19, Salient features of the modern periodic table 37, 55 and 87. Vertical columns in the periodic table are called They : groups and the horizontal rows are called periods. (®) are good reducing agents. GROUPS Gi) form unipositive ions. “(The mer periodic ble soe eri (iii) are soft metals. columns, comprising of groups (I to and (iv) are very reactive and are thus found mainly in “uy Noth groups, Tto VII are divided into combined state. sub-groups thereby making a total of eighteen (¥) impart colour to the flame when they burn, groups. (vi) form hydrides with hydrogen. (2) Elements of sub-group A, ie. of IA, ITA, IIIA, (vii) form basic oxides with oxygen. IVA, VA, VIA and VIIA, (Group number 1, 2, ‘According to the recommendation of International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), the | groups are numbered from 1 to 18 replacing the older notation of GROUPS IA., VIIA, VII, IB... VIB and 0. However, for the examination, both notations will be accepted. oa [ua | me [ive [ve | vie |v | vm | aw | mp [ma | wa | va | via | vna | 0 New ‘fete fs fs [se [> [efepefafe fs [fs [ie [of Table 5.2 : Salient features of Period | Type of | Number of | Atomic no. of | No. of period elements. elements ‘shell (s) o 8 1 | Shortest 2 re) 1 | He period 1 2 2 | Short 8 3-10 2 | 0 me Bee Ni OnneronNE Period 3 4 5 6 7 8 a 10 3 | Short 8 Ty 3 [Na Me Alo S| PS G a petiod Ue A218 id ele te 4 | Long 18 19-36 4 | K Br Kr period 0 3536 S| Long 8 31-54 3 | Rb 1 xe period 37 334 6 Longest 2 ‘55-86 6 cs La Hg Rn petiod 55 slo 80 86 7 | Incomplete] 32 7-18 7 | Ae co Was Usd period 87 ee> 178 Downloaded from nets Www studiestoday.comelements or representative elements or the normal elements. These elements have their (3) Elements of Group number 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, _Bhand 12 are known as transition elements. They have their two outermost shells incomplete. (4) Elements in the Zero group (Group number T are called noble gases because owing to their stable electronic configurations, they hardly react with other elements. (Bight electrons in the outermost orbit, except in the case of Helium which has 2 electrons). PERIODS ‘There are seven horizontal rows in the modern periodic table, each called a period, The number of shells na) STs period, asis clear from Table 8.2. (1) Elements with electrons increasing arithmetically in their outermost shell, ie. one by one, till an octet is attained, are placed in the same period. The last element of each period has eight electrons, except the first period He (2 electrons). ‘The first period contains only two elements, (atomic nos. 1 and 2). It is the shortest period. ‘The second and third periods contain eight elements each (atomic nos. 3-10 in the second and atomic nos. 11-18 in the third period). These are short periods. ‘The fourth and fifth periods contain eighteen elements each (atomic nos. 19-36 in the fourth and atomic nos. 37-54 in the fifth period). These are long periods. ‘The sixth period contains 32 elements (atomic nos. 55-86). It is the longest period. The seventh period (atomic nos. 87 and onward) is as yet an incomplete period. In Group IIIB (Group number 3) of the sixth period, there is a set of elements with atomic numbers 57 to 71 (La - Lu), beginning with lanthanum (La-57). These element are known as lanthanides (rare earths). In Group IIIB (Group number 3) of the seventh period, there is a set of elements with atomic numbers 89 to 103 (Th — Lr), beginning with actinium (Ac-89). These elements are known as actinides (radioactive elements). 2) @) @ () (6) (2) (8) Lanthanides and actinides have similar properties because they belong to the same group, Group IIT B. But they are shown at the bottom of the periodic table because they are large in number, and showing them in the main body of the table will distort its shape. . Representative elements a Acastion elements \3Ainer transition elements 4/Tnert gases or noble gases Classification according to s, p, d and f blocks is based on electronic configuration, which you will study in higher classes. 5.7.1 Representative elements (s and p-block elements) : They include all elements of : 1 + Alkali metals — form strong alkalis — ‘with water; Group 2 : Alkaline earth metals — form weaker alkalis compared to TA group elements; Group 13 : Boron family — boron is the first member of the group; Group 14 : Carbon family ~ carbon being the first memt Group 15 : Nitrogen family, nitrogen being the first member; Group 16 : Oxygen family, oxygen being the first member; Group 17 : Halogens, they are salt formers. ‘The alkali metals (Group Tare the most reactive metals that ‘occur. They are known as the alkali metals because they react. vigorously with water to produce hydrogen and an alkali, solution Halogens (Group 17) are most reactive non-metals. They form salts on reacting with metals. Main characteristics of representative element non-metals. There Or include both meyis and normeas. is a regular gradation from metallic to non- metallic character as one moves from left to right across the period. They form electrovalent as well as covalent compounds with’non-metals, — (©) Metallic nature increases, moving down any of => these seven groups. Downloaded trom httfis'?/ www Studiestoday.comDownloaded from pttps: I @ Metals, which arergood=sondeetors of heat and electricity, are present in groups 1 and 2. ‘Non-metals, which are present in groups 16 and 17, are poor conductors of heat and electricity. (©) Some heavier elements, like tin and lead, exhibit variable valencies. 5.7.2. Transition elements (d-block elements) : @) Te is based cn atomic number, which isan tter fundamental property compared ‘They are included i Groups 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, sven better fundamental: property, eof to atomic mass. 10, 11 and 12 : ‘i ‘ sa - (2) Position of an element in the table is related Main characteristics of transition elements : to its electronic configuration. (a) All these elements are metals with high melting and boiling points. (b) They are good conductors of heat and electricity. (c) Some of these elements are attracted towards a magnet. [ost of these elements are used as catalysts. Most of these elements exhibit variable valencjes. Most of these elements form Coloured ions and coloured compounds. ‘Typical elements The third period elements, Na, Mg, Al, Si, P, S and Cl, summarize the properties of their respective groups and are called typical elements. 5.8 MERITS OF THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE (3) It shows regular changes in properties of elements on moving across a period or down a group. Properties that reappear at regular intervals, or in which there is gradual variation, i.e. increase or decrease at regular intervals, are called periodic properties and the phenomenon is known as periodicity of elements. idicity is recurrence of similar “nyiguration. Ina particular group, the number of electrons in the outermost orbit remains the same, i.e. electronic configuration is similar. Valency also remains the same. So elements of the same group have similar (@) They are heavy metals with high melting a roperties, though the number of shells increases boiling points. ‘down a group. (b) They show variable valencies. (4) Modem periodic table is easier to remember, They form coloured ions. understand and reproduce. Actinides are all radioactive by nature. 89 DEFECTS OF THE MODERN PERIODIC TABLE ~ Position of hydrogen is still not satisfactory, as its properties Telate to both Group | and Group 17. It fails to_goa 5.7.3. Inner transition elements ((-block elements) The elements of the Sixt ana SEVENTH periods of Group 3, i.e. the lanthanides and the actinides, are collectively known as inner transition elements. Main characteristics of inner transition elements : 5.7.4. Inert gases COP TI0D Elements of the Zero group, which is the 18" Y vertical column, are known as inert gases or noble gases. ‘They have 8 electrons in their outermost orbits (except He, which has only 2). They do not react with wmodate the inner transition ties with elements of the next group. period lading toa diagonal relation clenfents are called bridge elements, vi Be and Al; B and Si. PERIODIC TABLE GROUPS (1) Numbers of shells and valence electrons : Number of shells increases arithmetically and number of valence electrons remains equal to the number of the group to which the element belongs. Also, number of electron shells in a given element Downloaded from Attss'?/ Www studiestoday.comequals the number OPM PRERAHAR RIES: WANBIUdiestoday.com Consider halogens (Group 17), as shown below. (@) Alkali metals (Group 1) are all very reactive, ~ WAGED TEEGE and degree of reactivity further inereases down of group | equals the period | configuration the group. i number LicNa CI>Br>1 Sana Reactivity decreases falency of an element equals the number of (4) Atomic size : electrons present in its valence shell. Since elements in a particular group have an equal number of electrons in their respective valence shells, valency of all elements in a given group is the same. For example, valency of any alkali metal is 1, as show! in the table below. Element | Group | Electronic | No. of valence 1 configuration | electrons Lithium [Li 21 1 As one moves d oup, size of atoi ithium to caesium. Li, vA . sed Or Tee prove, Sooaaee Ue fear ‘configuration of hydrogen is similar to those of the alkali metals. Both hydrogen and alkali metals have 1 valence electron. However, hydrogen atom is very small in size, and therefore, many of its properties electronic configurations. Because the number of electrons in their respective outermost shells is the same hence, they have very similar physical and chemical properties, which change uniformly down that group. Downloaded from AtipS. Raw studiestoday.com