Empowerment Technology - Tim Berners-Lee (father of www)

Lesson 1: Information and Communication Technology 2.Web 1.0

- term coined to differentiate the first stage if www in
Evolution of Communication comparison with the present stage of internet technology
- communication has improved and evolve to facilitate our - web pages were static and were called read only web
daily activities - only feedback mechanism was through private emails

2‌ 1st century - utilizes technology to disseminate 3. Web 2.0

information to a wider audience - 2004 (first used)
- internet technology became more and more interactive
What is ICT? - became more available to anyone
I- information - users can now interact, contribute, and create their own
C- communication internet space and content (explosion of information and
T- technology social media)

INFORMATION 4. Web 3.0

- refers to knowledge obtained from reading, investigation, - read-write-execute web (as for tim berners-lee)
study, or research - semantic web or data driven web content and response
- processed data - context if search is processed by programming language
- aids decision making to help the user by presenting options of what the person is
- can be visualized as commodity interested in
- involves a sender and a receiver
- things that are capable of causing the human mind to ‌ NLINE PLATFORMS IN ICT - it makes it easier for
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change its opinion about the current state of the world users to interact, to collect, and use data from the user's
interactions for their own particular needs
COMMUNICATION
- refers to the transfer or exchange of information from 1. Social Media
person to person or from one place to another - collection of internet-based communication tools and
commuted assisted channels dedicated to allow users to
TECHNOLOGY interact, communicate, and share information in a virtual
- refers to the use of scientific knowledge to invent tools community and network
that assist human beings in their efforts to overcome
environmental hazards and impediments to comfort a. FACEBOOK - a popular free social networking site
- computer, telephone, cell phone, GSM handsets, with more than a billion users around the globe that allows
television, radio, etc. its users to create profiles, upload photos and videos, create
and join groups, react to friend's posts, creative events,
ICT (INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION send messages, amd keeping in touch with close friends
TECHNOLOGY) and relatives
- the acquisition, analysis, manipulation, storage, and
distribution of information b. TWITTER - allows users to microblog or broadcast
- design and provision of equipment and software short messages called "tweets"
- used to encompass all rapidly emerging, evolving, and
converging computer, software, networking, c. INSTAGRAM - an online photo-sharing application and
telecommunications, internet, programming, and social network platform that allows its users to edit and
information systems technologies upload photos and shot videos through mobile app

Components of ICT (‌STATE OF ICT) d. SNAPCHAT - mobile messaging service that sends a
photo or video to someone that lasts only up to 10 seconds
1. World Wide Web before it disappears
- an information space where documents and other web
resources are identified by URLs (uniform resource 2. Search Engine
locators), which are interlinked by hypertext links, and can - a software system that is designed to search information
be accessed via internet on the www
- search results generally presented in line of results Online Safety/Internet Safety
referred to as search engine results page (SERPs) - is the knowledge of maximizing the user's personal safety
- information may be mix of web pages, images, and other against security risks to private information and property
types of files associated with using the internet, and the self-protection
from computer crime in general
3. Payment System
- any system used to settle financial transactions through WHAT IS ONLINE SECURITY?
faster of monetary value, and includes the institutions,
instruments, people, rules, procedures, standards, and Online Security
technologies - an extensive term encompassing a series of steps that
companies and individuals take to guard all networks and
4. Communication Services computers connected to the internet
- outsourced enterprise communications solutions that can - whether it's a personal email message or an online
be leased from a single vendor or provider purchase, data sent over the internet can compromise your
‌Communications Service Provider (CSP) - transports online safety
information electronically and can encompass public and
private companies in telecom, internet, cable, satellite, and WHAT IS ONLINE ETIQUETTE?
managed services business
Online Etiquette
5. Advertising Platforms - is the correct or acceptable way of communicating or
- allows users to create and manage advertising campaigns, behaving on the internet
generates reports, and retrieve information about the ads,
campaigns, and organizations that are associated with an ‌ nline Safety and Security - even though computers have
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account become a constant feature of modern technology, many
people still don't realize the enormous risks that come from
6. Creative Content Outlets constant interaction with technology.
- content that needs to be translated creatively
DANGERS IN THE INTERNET
a. Presentation Tools (prezi, zoho shows, ms powerpoint)
b. Newsletter, ICT Content Platforms (dropbox, tumblr, 1. Email Spam
wix) - junk mail
c. Photo Editing Tools (picasa, adobe photoshop, gimp) - usually unsolicited commercial email sent from an
d. Video Editing Tools (sony vegas pro, windows movie unknown source with identical message sent to multiple
maker, adobe premiere pro) recipients
e. Photo Uploading and Hosting Tools (dropbox, flickr) - usually not dangerous but can be time and space
f. Online Collaborative Tools ( google drive, viber, consuming
facebook)
g. Cloud Computing (dropbox, google drive, microsoft one 2. Email Spoofing
drive) - deceitful email practice in which the sender address is
h. Blog Tools (blogger, wordpress, live journal) changed, so that it would appear to have come from a
i. Mapping Tools (google maps, waze, wikimapia) different source which is usually someone you know
j. Music Production (sony vegas pro, audacity, virtual dj) - usually used by spammers to hide the origin of the spam
k. Survey and Forms (google forms)
l. ICT Projects and Content Publishing and Uploading 3. Phishing
Platforms (wordpress, ms office project server, file - practice of trying get confidential information such as
manager) password and usernames, and credit card details by making
m. Web Design Platforms (wix, weebly, adobe it appear as if it comes from a trustworthy source
dreamweaver) - usually done through emails or emails or using popular
n. Web Management Platforms (drupal, wordpress, joomla) entity
- not malware or anything but a method to get personal
Lesson 2: Online Safety, Security, Ethics, and Etiquette information

WHAT IS ONLINE SAFETY? 4. Spyware

- computer program that is installed covertly on a personal - usually automated
computer to collect information or even take control over
the computer without the knowledge of the user PROS:
- it can monitor and collect information about the user's • easy to produce hundreds of letters
internet habits and practices
- can also affect the performance and setting of the CONS:
computer • these letters are not personalized to person they are being
- type of malware that was installed in a computer that sent to
collects your information without you knowing • the data base would need constant maintenance to ensure
that it is up to date
5. Computer Worm
- dangerous computer program that replicates itself through Label Generation - MS Word is able to print out whatever
a network your requirements you have for the label, whether it be
- some worms delete files, others disrupt the network single label, tons of identical labels, or piles of different
function labels
- usually spread through email and running of attachments
from suspicious sources TWO COMPONENTS OF MAIL MERGE
- spreads by exploiting weaknesses in operating system
- self replicating malware 1. Form Document
- contains the main body of the message we want to convey
6. Trojan Horse or send
- malware fronting to perform a good task, but covertly - place holders, also known as data fields or merge fields
persorms undesirable function with the intention of (marks the position on your form document when
entering the computer without the user's consent individual data or information will be inserted
- can disable the computer's defenses, opening it to
unauthorized entry 2. List or Data File
- can erase data and corrupt files - where the individual information or data that needs to be
plugged in (merged) to form a document
7. Computer Virus - placed and maintained
- program that duplicates itself and then infects the
computer INTEGRATING IMAGES AND EXTERNAL
- spreads like a biological virus MATERIALS
- can be transferred by the use of removable storage media • improves the impression to the document
devices
- damages may be mild to severe IMAGE PLACEMENT
- cannot be spread without human action • inserting an image or any other material in your document
is quite easy, especially if the material already exist in your
8. Computer Hacking local storage device
- a person who is able to enter and control other people's
computer without authorization 1. In Line with Text
- usually vandalized the victims' website, steal personal - default setting for images that are inserted or integrated in
information, obtain intellectual property, and performs the document
credit card fraud - treats your image as a text font with the bottom side is
- firewalls are able to prevent entry by hackers totally aligned with the text line
- used when you need to place your image at beginning of
Lesson 3-4: Applied Productivity Tools with Advanced the paragraph
Applied Techniques - distorts the overall appearance and arrangement of the
text when placed between text in a paragraph or sentence
A. ADVANCED WORD PROCESSING SKILLS
2. Square
Mail Merge - allows the image to be placed within the paragraph with
- adding personalized information into letters and text going around the image in a square pattern like a frame
envelopes when they are being distributed and is done
through a database. 3. Tight
- almost the same as the square setting but here the text h. Keyboard Shortcuts - allows you to do things with your
hugs or conforms to the general shape of the image keyboard instead of your mouse to increase your speed
- allows to get a more creative effect on your document
- achieve when it is a gif or png file i. Print - teaches you how to print a worksheet and how to
change some important print settings in excel
4. Through
- text on your document to flow even tighter, taking the j. Share - learn how to share excel data with word
contours and shape of the image documents and other files
- gif and png
k. Protect - encrypt an excel file with a password so that it
5. Top and Bottom requires a password to open it
- pushes the text away vertically the top and/or the bottom
of the image so that the image occupies a whole text line on Functions of Excel
its own
a. Count and Sum - most used functions. you can count
6. Behind Text and sum based on one criteria or multiple
- allows the image to be dragged and placed anywhere on
your document but with all the text floating in front of it b. Logical - learn how to use excel's logical function such
- effectively makes your image look like a background as the if, and, and or function

7. In Front of Text c. Cell References - very important. understand the

- this setting allows the image to be placed right on top of difference between relative, absolute, and mixed reference
the text
- it will be covered by the image d. Date & Time - to enter a date in excel, use the "/" or "-'
characters. to enter a time, use the ":" (colon). you can also
B. ADVANCED SPREADSHEET SKILLS enter a date and a time in one cell

Basics of Excel e. Text - excel has many functions to offer when it comes
to manipulating text strings
a. Ribbon - tabs on the ribbon are: file, home, insert, page
layout, formulas, data, review, and view. excel selects the f. Lookup & Reference - learn about excel's lookup &
ribbon's home tab when you open a workbook reference functions such as the VLOOKUP, HLOOKUP,
MATCH, INDEX, and CHOOSE function
b. Workbook - excel file. when you start excel, clink blank
workbook to create an excel workbook from scratch g. Financial - this chapter illustrates excel's most popular
financial functions
c. Worksheets - collection of cells where you keep and
manipulate data. each excel can contain multiple h. Statistical - an overview of some very useful statistical
worksheets functions in excel

d. Format Cells - when we format cells in excel, we i. Round - this chapter illustrates three functions to round
change appearance of a number without changing the numbers in excel. the ROUND, ROUNDUP, and
number itself ROUNDDOWN function

e. Find & Select - learn how to use excel's find, replace, j. Formula Errors - this chapter teaches you how to deal
and go to special feature with some common formula errors in excel

f. Templates - instead of creating an excel workbook from k. Array Formulas - this chapter helps you understand
scratch, you can create a workbook based on a template. array formulas in excel. single cell array formulas perform
multiple calculations in one cells
g. Data Validation - use data validation in excel to make
sure that users enter certain values into a cell COUNT
- count the number of cells that contain function
COUNTIF 4. locate and select the presentation file that contains the
- count cells based on criteria slide that you want to link to
5. click bookmark, and then click the title of the slide that
COUNTIFS you want to link to
- count cells based on multiple criteria
C. Link to an Email Address
SUMIF
- sum cells based on one criteria 1. in normal view, select the text, shape, or picture that you
want to use as a hyperlink
SUMIFS 2. on the insert tab, in the links group, click hyperlink
- sum cells based on multiple criteria 3. under link to, click email address
4. in the email address box, type the email address that you
IF FUNCTION want to link to or in the recently used email address box,
- checks whether a condition is met, and returns one value click an email address
if true and another value if false 5. in the subject box, type the subject of the email message

AND FUNCTION Lesson 5-6: Imaging Design for the Online Environment
- returns true if all conditions are true and returns false if
any of the conditions are false BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GRAPHIC AND LAYOUT

C. ADVANCE PRESENTATION SKILLS Balance

- even distribution of visual weight of objects, texture,
Add a Hyperlink to a Slide colors, and space on the screen
- to do a wide variety of things - gives a layout uts form and stability
- can use links to quickly get to a different place in your - can be symmetrical or asymmetrical
presentation, open a different presentation, go to the web, - symmetry (evenly balanced)
open a new file, or begin a message to an email address - asymmetry (contrast to even out both sides)

STEPS Emphasis
- an area in a design that differs in style to attract the
A. Linking to a Slide in the Same Presentation viewer's attention

1. In the normal view, select the text, shape, or picture that Movement
you want to use as a hyperlink. on the insert tab, in the - visual elements that guide the viewer's eyes around the
links group, click hyperlink screen
2. In the insert hyperlink dialog box, under link to, click
place in this document Rhythm
- the repeating elements in an image or layout to create
• To link to a slide in the current presentation, under select unity and organization
a place in this document, click the slide that represents the
hyperlink destination Alignment
• to link a custom show (a select group of slides) in the - properly will clean up a design and remove sloppiness and
current presentation, under select a place in this document, messiness that occur when elements are placed randomly
under custom shows, click the custom show that represents - helps create a sharp, ordered appearance by ensuring the
the hyperlink destination. then, select the show and return elements have a pleasing connection with each other
check box
Hierarchy
B. Linking to a Slide in a Different Presentation - when you have multiple elements in a design, you identify
the most important details and give emphasis to them
1. in normal view, select the text, shape, or picture that you - can be done in a number of ways like bigger fonts and
want to use as a hyperlink bolder colors
2. on the insert tab, in the links group, click hyperlink
3. under link to, click existing file or web page Contrast
- happens when two design elements are in opposition to ONLINE IMAGE FILE FORMATS
each other, like black and white, thick and thin, modern and
traditional, etc. Joint Photographics Experts Group (JPEG OR JPG)
- is what helps to guide the viewer's eyes to the most - real life photographs
important parts of your design and helps organize the - high compression
information in an easily digestible manner - does not support transparency and animation

Proportion Graphics Interchange Format (GIF)

- visual elements create a sense of unity where they relate - computer-generated graphics
well with one another - supported by transparency and animation

Proximity Portable Network Graphics (PNG)

- is helpful in creating organization page, since similar or - screenshots
related elements should be grouped together to create a - high compatibility
relationship between them - supports transparency
- cluster the elements together in a way that helps to - does not support animation
declutter the overall design
PRINCIPLES AND BASIC TECHNIQUES OF
Color IMAGE MANIPULATION
- significant part of design and should be considered
carefully each time you start a new design 1. Choose the right file format
- largely responsible for dictating the mood of the 2. Choose the right image size
design–each color has something a little different to say 3. Caption it
- green (non-profits or environment)
- red (anger) IMAGE MANIPULATION USING GIMP
- blue (calming and passive)
- yellow (happiness) GIMP
- has a diverse assortment of tools that let you perform a
Space large variety of task
- parts of your design that you choose to leave blank are - tools can be thought of as falling into five categories:
just as important as the ones you're filling with colors, text,
and images 1. Selection Tools - specify or modify the portion of the
- negative space creates shape and can help highlight the image that will be affected by subsequent actions
most important pieces of information in your design 2. Paint Tools or Brush Tools - alter the colors in some
- never underestimate the power of simplicity part of the image
3. Transform Tools - alters the geometry of the image
Variety 4. Color Tools - alter the distribution of colors across the
- this uses several visual design elements to draw viewer's entire image
attention 5. Other Tools - don't fall into the other four categories

WHAT IS AN INFOGRAPHIC? SELECTION TOOLS:

- it us the combination of text and images • rectangle - select square or rectangular regions.
- also known as information graphics axis-aligned (R)
- graphic visual representations of information, data, pr • ellipse - select circular or horizontal/vertical elliptic
knowledge intended to present information quickly and regions. notice that there's no ellipse drawing tool such as,
clearly only selecting (E)
• free (lasso) - free-form selecting (F)
CREATING AN INFOGRAPHIC USING • fuzzy (magic wand) - select by color in continuous
PIKTOCHART regions (U)
• by color - select by color without any limit to continuous
• an easy-to-use infographic maker app regions (Shift + O)
• has a simple yet professional interface that would make it • scissors - create paths to select shapes (I)
easy to make everything you need to do
• foreground - select a region containing foreground INTERESTING, UPLOADING, AND SHARING
objects PHOTOS OVER THE INTERNET
- with social media, sharing photos is easier to do in the net
BRUSH TOOLS: right now
- it is recommended to keep the social media photos you
• bucket fill - fills areas with a color or pattern (Shift + B) have and the photos you have over the internet separated
• blend (gradient) - fill an area with a gradient (L)
• pencil - draw exact pixel-edged lines; that is, not IMGUR - an online image sharing community and image
anti-aliased (N) host founded by Alan Schaaf
• paintbrush - paints soft or fuzzy edged lines; that is, the
pixels are anti-aliased and/or feathered (P) Lesson 7-8: Online Platform as Tools for ICT Content
• eraser - erase pixels from layer (Shift + E) Development
• airbrush - paint tool with a softer pressure (A)
• ink - paint anti-aliased with a simulation of a nib (K) Online Platform
• clone - copy pixels from one part of an image to another - an online marketplace that places one party in touch with
(C) another, such as buyers and sellers
• heal - heal image irregularities (H)
• perspective clone - clone from an image source after WHAT ARE ONLINE PLATFORMS AND WHY
applying perspective transformation THEY ARE IMPORTANT?
• convolve (blur/sharpen) - blur or sharpen an image
(Shift + U) Online Platforms
• smudge - mix adjacent pixels; with a direction (S) - cover a wide range of activities including online
• dodge/burn - lighten or darken an image's shadows, mid advertising platforms, marketplaces, search engines, social
tones or highlights (Shift + D) media and creative content outlets, application distribution
platforms, communications services, payment systems, and
TRANSFORM TOOLS: platforms for the collaborative economy

• move - move selections and layers (M) • they share key characteristics including the use of
• align - align or arrange layers and/or other objects (Q) information and communication technologies to facilitate
• crop - crop or clip all the image (Shift + C) interactions (including commercial transactions) between
• rotate - rotate the active layer, selection or path (Shift + users, collection and use of data about these interactions,
R) and network effects which make the use of platforms with
• scale - scale the active layer, selection or part (Shift + T) most users are most valuable to other users
• shear - tilt part of the image to some direction (Shift + S) • Online platforms are strong drivers of innovation and play
• perspective - imitate 3-dimensional shift of an image an important role in Europe's digital society and economy.
(Shift + P) they increase consumer choice, improve efficiency and
• flip - flip selections and layers (Shift + F) competitiveness of industry and can enhance civil
participation in society
OTHER TOOLS:
WHAT IS THE WEB?
• path - allows selecting and modifying paths (B) - is a whole bunch of interconnected computers talking to
• color picker - select the color from anywhere in open one another
images for further drawing (O) - the computers in the web are typically connected by
• magnify (zoom) - alter the zoom level in the program (Z) phones lines, digital satellite signals, cables, and other
• measure - shows distance and angles (Shift + M) types of data-transfer mechanisms
• text - place text layers into your image - data transfer mechanism (is a way to move information
from point a to point b and point c and so on)
3D MODELING USING GOOGLE SKETCH UP - the computers that make up the web can be connected all
- sketchup, formerly google sketchup, is a 3x modeling the time, or they can be connected only periodically.
computer program for a wide range of drawing applications - servers (are computers that have special software
such as architectural, interior design, landscape installed)
architecture, civil and mechanical engineering, film and
video game design WHAT IS THE FUNCTION OF SERVER
SOFTWARE /PROGRAMS?
- server software is created to serve web pages and websites
- has a bunch of websites loaded on it and just waits for
people (via web browsers) to request or ask for particular
page

WYSIWYG (What You See Is What You Get)

- is an editor or program that allows a developer to see what
the end result will look like while the interface or document
is being created
- WYSIWYG editor can be contrasted with more traditional
editors that require the developer to enter descriptive codes
(or markup) and do not permit an immediate way to see the
results of the markup.
- the first true WYSIWYG editor was a word processing
program called bravo (invented by charles simonyi at the
xerox palo alto research center in 1970s)
- it became the basis for simonyi's work at microsoft and
evolved into two other WYSIWYG applications called
word and excel
 Business Ethics and Social Responsibility ‌ ntrepreneurship - the capacity and willingness to
E
develop organize and manage a business venture along with
Lesson 1: Nature of Business any of its risks in order to make a profit (business
dictionary)
NATURE OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATION
Entrepreneurial Spirit
Business - characterized by innovation and risk-taking, and is an
- maze that is probably inescapable essential part of a nation's ability to succeed in an ever
- become a necessary facet of modern living and of changing and increasingly competitive global marketplace
contemporary society
BUSINESS PERSON
WHAT IS BUSINESS? ● ‌Business Aspect- how can activities be arranged
and organized in such a way that guarantees
‌ erriam-Webster
M profit
- activity of making, buying, or selling goods or providing ● ‌mere imitators (imitation - part of the dynamics
services in exchange of money of a healthy market)
- work that is part of the job ● ‌waits and copies for the innovations
- the amount of activity that is done by a store, company, ● ‌plays safe
factory, etc. ● ‌contented with the tested model and formula
● ‌motivated by financial reward
‌ nline Etymology Dictionary
O ● ‌business professionals
- bisignes— old english: care, anxiety, occupation ● ‌managers, employees, business agents
- bisig (adjective): careful, anxious, occupied, diligent
- business does not originally mean an organization or a ENTREPRENEUR
trade in our modern sense of the term ● ‌Insight Aspect - how new and private ideas can
- business is one's occupation, engagement of work be applied so that it may have more social utility
- trade and commercial engagements (1972) ● ‌innovators
- usually associated with an enterprise, a trade or a ● ‌upsets and disorganized
for-profit organization; trade that involves the transaction ● ‌creative destruction
of goods and services involving money and/or profit ● ‌calculated risks
● ‌think against approved paradigms
‌ ritanica
B ● ‌think outside the box or without the box
- an entity formed for the purpose of carrying on ● ‌propelled by creative juice
commercial enterprise ● ‌leading to market process boost
- predicated on systems of law governing contract and ● ‌founders and owners
exchange, property rights, and incorporation ● ‌entrepreneurial spirit

Business - can also refer to an entire market sector Imitation - considerably part of the dynamics of healthy
‌Compound Forms - represents subsets of the world's market economy
broader meaning, such as "agribusiness" and "
showbiz—show business" CAPITALIST VS ENTREPRENEUR

BUSINESSPERSON VS ENTREPRENEUR ‌ apitalist - someone who owns enough productive assets

C
that he can, if he chooses, live comfortably on the income
‌ ntrepreneur - somebody who shifts economic resources
E generated by these assets
out of an area of lower and into an area of higher
productivity and greater yield (John-Baptiste Say, french CAPITALIST
economist) ● ‌owns more than sufficient income-generating
resources
‌ ntreprende - french verb that means "to do something" or
E ● ‌may not work and still live comfortable and rich
"to undertake" (Russell Sobel, american economics lifestyle
professor) ● ‌passive recipients of the fruits and toils
● ‌capitalist qua capitalist (capitalist whose specific
‌Antha Prerna - sanskrit meaning of "self motivated" function is to provide capital)
ENTREPRENEUR b. Limited Partnerships and Partnerships with Limited
● ‌does not receive economic reward by chipping in Liability - partners have "limited" liability (to the extent of
● ‌entrepreneurial activity is a necessary component their investments) as well as limited input regarding
● ‌more productive and more valuable to society management decisions; not often used for operating retail
or service businesses
Lesson 2: Forms of Business
c. Joint Venture - like a general partnership, but is clearly
BASIC FORMS OF BUSINESS ORGANIZATION for a limited period of time or a single project; if there is a
repeat in the activity of the joint partnership, they will
1. Sole Proprietorship recognizes as an ongoing partners and will have to file as
- also known as sole trader such, and distribute accumulated assets upon dissolution of
- owned by one person and operates for their benefit the entity
- own all the assets and the generated profit
- assume complete responsibility for any of its liabilities or ADVANTAGES
debts • partnerships are relatively easy to establish; however, time
- not ideal for high-risk business (child care, animal care, should be invested in developing the partnership agreement
manufacturing or selling edible goods, repairing items or • with more than one owner, the ability to raise funds may
value, and alcohol) be increased
• the profits from the business flow directly through the
ADVANTAGES partner's personal tax return
• easiest and less expensive form of ownership to organize • prospective employees may be attracted to the business if
•sole proprietors are in complete control, and within the the given incentive to become a partner
parameters of the law, may make decisions as they see it • the business usually will benefit from partners who have
• profits from the business flow-through directly to the complementary skills
owner's personal tax
• the business is easy to dissolve if desired DISADVANTAGES
• partners are jointly and individually liable for the actions
DISADVANTAGES of the other partners
• sole proprietors have unlimited liability and are legally • profits must be shared with others
responsible for all debts against the business • since decisions are shared, disagreements can occur
• may be at te disadvantage in raising funds and are often • some employee benefits are not deductible form the
limited to using funds from personal savings or consumer business income on tax returns
loans • the partnership may have a limited life; it may end upon
• may have hard time attracting high-caliber employees, or the withdrawal or death of a partner
those that are motivated by the opportunity to own a part of
the business 3. Corporation
• some employees benefits such as owner's medical - owners have limited liability, and the business has a
insurance premiums are not directly deductible form the separate legal personality from its owners
business income (only partially as an adjustment to income) - can be either government-owned or privately owned
- either profit or as non-profit organization
2. Partnership - can be taxed; can be sued; can enter into contractual
- business owned by two or more people agreements
- should have legal agreement on: how decisions will be
made, profits will be shared, disputes will be resolved, how Shareholders - owners of a corporation; elects the board of
future partners will be admitted to the partnership, how directors to oversee the major policies and decisions
partners can be bought out, and what steps will be taken to
dissolve the partnership when needed TYPES OF CORPORATION

TYPES OF PARTNERSHIPS a. C Corporation (C corps) - considered separate

tax-paying entities; files their own income tax returns, and
a. General Partnerships - partners divide the management income earned remains in the corporation, until it is paid as
and liability, share of profit or loss according to their a salary or wages to the corporation's officers and
internal agreement; equal shares are assumed unless there is employees; subject to double taxation
a written agreement that states differently
b. S Corporations (S corps) - pass through entities; their DISADVANTAGES
income losses, deductions, and credits pass-through the • owner must immediately recognize profits
company and become the direct responsibility of the • fewer fringe benefits
company's shareholders; avoids the income double taxation • building capital
• higher fees
ADVANTAGES • lack of case law
• shareholders have limited liability for the corporation's
debts or judgements against the corporation 5. Cooperative
• Generally, shareholders can only be held accountable for - often referred as "co-op"
their investment in the stock of the company. however, - a limited liability business that can organize for profit or
officers can be held personally liable for their actions, such non-profit
as failure to withhold and pay employment taxes - different from corporation in that it has members and not
• corporations can raise additional funds through the sale of shareholders
stock - owned by a group of individuals and is operated for their
• can elect 5 corporation status if certain requirements are mutual benefit
met. this election enables the company to be taxed similarly - voluntarily associations, formed with a service motive;
to partnership the primary source of income being the members' shares,
they get dividend on trading surplus (water and electricity
DISADVANTAGES cooperatives, banking, credit unions, and housing)
• the process of incorporation requires more time and
money than other forms of organizations Cooperative Organization - they are formed not for the
• corporations are monitored by the government and some purpose of making profit but to provide its members goods
local agencies, and as a result, may have more paperwork and services at reasonable rates; primarily protects and
to comply with regulations safeguards the economic interests of its members
• incorporating may result in a higher overall taxes.
dividends paid to shareholders are not deductible from ADVANTAGES
business income; thus this income can be taxed twice • generally inexpensive to register
• a cooperative organization is owned and controlled by the
4. Limited Liability Corporation members
- in the USA, hybrid forms of business that have • members have an equal vote at general meetings
characteristics of both a corporation and a partnership regardless of their level of investment or involvement. one
- the owners enjoy limited liability; may choose to be taxed member, one vote
as a sole proprietorship, partnership, or a corporation • all members must be active in the cooperative
- protects the owner's personal assets from financial • this type of organization has a limited liability
liability and provides protection against personal liability • profit distribution (surplus earnings) to members is
- there's a need to file simple documents, also known as carried or in proportion to the use of service; surplus may
"Articles of Organization"; create an operating agreement be allocated in shares or cash
that spells out each owner's percentage interest in the
business, responsibilities, and voting power, how profits DISADVANTAGES
and losses will be shared, and what happens if an owner • a cooperative organization entails longer decision-making
wants to sell his interest in the business process
• it requires members to participate for success
ADVANTAGES • it has less incentive, and there's also a possibility of
• limited liability: as the name implies, members' liabilities development of conflict between members
for the debts and obligations for LLC are limited to their • as cooperatives are formed to provide a service to
own investments members rather than return on investment, it may be
• pass-through taxation: for taxation purposes, income from difficult to attract potential members seeking for financial
your business can be treated as your own personal income return
• limitless ownership: freedom in management; fewer • there is usually limited distribution of any surplus
corporate formalities • members providing greater involvement or investment
• ability to use cash method of accounting that other will still only get one vote
• ability to place membership interests in a living trust • extensive record keeping is necessary in this form of
• ability to deduct losses; tax flexibility organization
• requires ongoing education programs for members
 Lesson 3: Classification of Business Organizations c. Real-Estate Businesses - sell, rent, and develop
properties-- including land, residential homes, and other
CLASSIFICATION OF BUSINESS buildings
ORGANIZATIONS
d. Information Businesses - generate profits primarily
1. Service Businesses from the sale of intellectual property-- includes movie
- provides intangible products (products with no physical studios, publishers, and internet, and software companies
form)
- offer professional skills, expertise, advice, and other 4. Hybrid Businesses
similar products - companies that may be classified in more than one type of
business
TYPES OF SERVICE BUSINESSES - these companies may be classified according to their
major business interest
a. Service Businesses - school, repair shops, hair salons, - restaurants (combines ingredients in making a fine meal
consulting firms, and entertainment. that results to manufacturing, they sells a cold bottle of
wine, which is considered as merchandising, and fills
b. Financial Businesses - banks, accounting firms, customer orders that is considered as service-- more of the
companies that generate profits through investments and service type for they provide dining service)
management of capital
Lesson 4: Purpose of Business
c. Transportation Businesses - delivers goods or
individuals to their destination for a fee WHAT DO YOU THINK IS THE PURPOSE OF
BUSINESS?
d. Utilities - produce public service such as electricity or • Money
sewages treatment; usually under the government • Profit
• Financial Returns
2. Merchandising Businesses
- buys products at a wholesale price and sells the same at a COMMON REASONS
retail price 1. to make money and have financial independence (help
- "buy-and-sell" business family)
- make profit by selling the products at prices higher than 2. to be the own boss (monotonous employment)
their purchase cost 3. to self-actualize; to fulfill own interest and enjoyment
- grocery stores, convenience stores, distributors, and other (personal growth, self-discovery, feeling of
sellers accomplishment)
4. to make dreams come true
Retail and Distributors - act as a middlemen and get 5. to use your skills and knowledge for yourself (time
goods produced by manufacturers to intended consumers; management, organization, communication, teamwork,
they make their profits by marking up their prices accounting and numeracy, giving presentations, business
planning, developing a brand)
3. Manufacturing Businesses 6. to have a second career (sideline)
- buys products with the intention of using them as a 7. to have variety at work (variation in the job everyday con
materials in making a new product; thus a transformation of be very fulfilling as you are prepared to learn all the skills
the purchased products and knowledge required to perform these roles)
- combines raw materials, labor, and factory overhead in its 8. to create opportunities (innovations, discoveries,
production process networking, communications)
9. to employ relatives, friends, and community members
TYPES OF MANUFACTURING BUSINESSES (assistance in providing jobs for persons in the
communities)
a. Agriculture and Mining Businesses - produce raw 10. to take up a challenge (challenged by an obvious lack in
materials, such as plants or minerals the market while seeing an innovative way of responding to
the inadequacy)
b. Manufacturers - produce products, either from raw 11. to come up with better ways, to create, to innovate
materials or from component parts, then sell their products 12. to be efficient at work (self-discipline)
at a profit (cars, clothing, pipes) 13. to set and meet own deadlines
14. to avoid commuting
15. to create a customer
16. to offer value
17. to have more life, more freedom
18. to solve problems
19. to move the society, to change the world, to make the
world better
20. to build our future

BUSINESS AND SOCIOECONOMIC

DEVELOPMENT

Business is...
- significant factors in the improvement of our standard of
living
- major players in creating employment
- main enhancer for entrepreneurial mind-- mind for
innovation and creativity
- helping the government and other social agencies in
responding to the basic needs of many Filipinos
- powerful institutions that can challenge and change the
common practiced of a particular society
- harnessing and improving nature almost to perfection
 Entrepreneurship 7. Seeing the Big Picture
- able to access how particular decisions about operations
Lesson 1: Introduction to Entrepreneurship or human resources can affect the other aspects of the
business
CONCEPT OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP - specific decisions in certain areas can affect other areas,
as well as the business as a whole
J‌ oseph Schumpeter - says that entrepreneurship is a
concept of creative destruction TYPES OF ENTREPRENEUR

Entrepreneurship 1. Innovative Entrepreneur

- the ability to be able to know what products and services - always make new things by thinking of new ideas
are needed by people, and to be able to provide these things - creativity
at the right time, at the right place and to the right people, - allows new ideas
and at the right price
- art of creating, launching, and growing new venture 2. Imitating Entrepreneur
business - don't create new things but only follow the ideas of other
- the ability and readiness to develop, organize, and run a entrepreneurs
business enterprise, along with any of its uncertainties in
order to make a profit 3. Fabian Entrepreneurs
- skeptical
Entrepreneur - don't initiate but follow only after they are satisfied
- reference to individuals who have initiated the
establishment of a business enterprise 4. Drone Entrepreneurs
- lives on the labor of others
business man or women - owns a business - conservatives
professional manager - manage business
franchisee - bought a franchise 5. Social Entrepreneurs
- initiate changes in various fields
CHARACTERISTICS AND TRAITS OF
ENTREPRENEUR COMPETENCIES IN ENTREPRENEURSHIP

1. Passion for Business A. COMMON COMPETENCIES

- eagerness to be involved in commercial activities
1. Decisive - firm in making decisions
2. Confidence 2. Communicator - convincing power
- posses belief in themselves and their capabilities to see 3. Leader - have a charisma to be obeyed by his employees
things through and get things done 4. Opportunity Seekers - ability to be the first to see
business chances
3. Self-Determination 5. Proactive - controlling situations by making things to
- one's fate or destiny lies on oneself— his beliefs, efforts, happen or by preparing for possible future problems
and actions 6. Risk Taker - courage to pursue what is their business
ideas
4. Management of Risk 7. Innovative - have business ideas and they do not stop
- knows how to take risks but these risks are calculated and improving and thinking if new worthwhile ideas for their
well thought out and considered done business

5. Initiative and Need for Achievement B. CORE COMPETENCIES

- entrepreneurs usually have a great need to achieve things
and to have accomplishments 1. Economic and Dynamic Activity - entrepreneurship is
an economic activity because it involves the creation and
6. Creativity operation of an enterprise with a view to creating value or
- needs to be creative because they are not satisfied with wealth by ensuring optimum utilization of limited resources
just copying or doing the same routine or churning out the 2. Innovative - constantly look for new ideas; creativity
same product
3. Profit Potential - can be compensated by his profit - new products and services need to be researched and
coming from the operation tested before launching in the market
4. Risk Bearing - needs to gamble but wise enough to - entrepreneur also dispenses finance for research and
offset the risk development with research institutions and universities
- promotes research, general construction, and development
What is Business Risk? in the economy

Business Risk FIVE REASON WHY FILIPINO DON’T GO TO

- exposure of a company or organization has factors that BUSINESS
will lower its profits or lead it to fail
- anything that threatens a company's ability to achieve its a. money
financial goals b. time
c. skills
THREE BASIC SOURCES OF BUSINESS RISK d. opportunity
e. connection
1. Demand Risk
- the risk that the product will not be accepted by the Lesson 2: Business Plan
market is much smaller than what was originally estimated
to be WHAT IS BUSINESS PLAN?

2. Competition Risk Business Plan

- risk that competitors may be able to replicate the business - a document that defines in detail a company's objectives
model and capture the market ahead of the proponent and how it plans to achieve its goals
- lays out written road map for the firm from marketing,
3. Capability Risk financial, and operational standpoints
- consider the possibility that the product or services of the - both startups and established companies
firm would fail to deliver the value proposition that the
customers are willing to pay REASONS IN MAKING A BUSINESS PLAN
a. vision
IMPORTANCE OF ENTREPRENEURSHIP b. opportunity assessment
c. financing
1. Creation of Employment d. market assessment
- provides an entry-level job, required for gaining e. implementing the plan
experience, and training for unskilled workers f. outside failure

2. Innovation BUSINESS FAILURE

- provides an entry-level job, required for gaining a. poor cash flow control
experience, and training for unskilled workers b. lack of managerial experience, training, and skills
c. undercapitalization
3. Impact on Society and Community Development d. inventory control problems
- society becomes greater if the employment base is large e. trade area competition
and diversified f. poor site location (retail)
- brings about changes in society and promotes facilities g. unidentified target market
like higher expenditure on education, better sanitation, h. pricing strategy
fewer slums, a higher level of homeownership i. inadequate long-term plan
j. inadequate financial control
4. Increase Standard of Living
- helps to improve the standard of living of a person by BASIC COMPONENTS OF A BUSINESS PLAN CAN
increasing the income BE ORGANIZED AS FOLLOWS:
- standard of living means, increase in consumption of
various goods and services by a household for a particular 1. providing a description of the business
period 2. choosing the best marketing strategy
3. identifying the management plan
5. Supports Research and Development
4. analyzing the finances needed to start the business and - the goal is to draw readers in so they want to learn more
make it successful about your company
- should include:
WHAT IS MARKET POTENTIAL? ● ‌your business name and location
● ‌products and/or services offered
Market Potential ● ‌mission and vision statements
- entire size of the market for a product at a specific times ● ‌the specific purpose of the plan
- represents the upper limits of the market for a product
- usually measured either by sales value or sales volume 2. Company Description
- high-level view of your business should explain who you
ELEMENTS IN DETERMINING MARKET are, how you operate and what your goals are
POTENTIAL - should feature:
● ‌the legal structure of the business
1. Market Size ● ‌a brief history, the nature of your business, and
- first and most important factor to consider while the needs or demands you plan to supply
determining the market potential is the market size of the ● ‌an overview of your products/services,
proposed product customers, and suppliers
- total market sales potential of all companies put together ● ‌a summary of company growth, including
financial or market highlights
2. Market Growth Rate ● ‌a summary of your short and long term business
- you have to forecast based on the differences between goals, and how you plan to make a profit
product line extensions and a completely new concept in
the market 3. Products/Services Description
- clearly describe what you're selling, with focus on
3. Profitability customer benefit
- to understand the market potential ● ‌include details about suppliers, product or service
- low profitability means the volume of sales need to be costs and the net revenue expected from the sale
high of those products or services. consider adding
- calculation of this determine the market potential pictures or diagrams
● ‌ROI - return on investment ● ‌a detailed description of your product/service that
● ‌ROS - return on sales emphasizes customer's benefits
● ‌RONA - return on net assets ● ‌an explanation of the market role of your
● ‌ROCE - return on capital employed product/service and advantages it has over
- you can use any of the calculations above to calculate the competitors
likelihood of profitability and to determine how profitable ● ‌information about the product/service's lifecycle
the industry or product is going to be ● ‌relevant copyright, patent, or trade secret data
● ‌research and development activities that may lead
4. Competition to new products and services
- you need to know and understand the competition in an
industry to determine the market potential for the product 4. Market Analysis
you are going to launch - show industry knowledge, and present conclusions based
- if the industry has high competition, the entry barriers are on thorough market research
going to be high and at the same time, establishing yourself - placed detailed findings of any studies in an appendix
will require deep pockets - should include:
● ‌a sketch or targeted customer segments, including
5. Product and Consumer Type size and demographics of each group
- is your product a repeat buying product or one time sale ● ‌an industry description and outlook, including
only statistics
● ‌historical, current, and projected marketing data
THE PAT OF BUSINESS PLAN for your product/services
● ‌a detailed evaluation of your competitors,
1. Executive Summary (same as abstract sa research) highlighting their strengths and weaknesses
- concise overview of your business plan
- should be short, and must be well written 5. Strategy and Implementation
- summarize your sales and marketing strategy, and how - addressing the wants and desires of the consumers
you'll implement them with an operating plan - key to effective selling and advertising
- should include: - factor that differentiates a product from its competitors,
● ‌an explanation of how you'll promote your such as the lowest cost, the highest quality or the first-ever
business to customers and enter the market product of its kind
● ‌details about costs, pricing, promotions, and - what you have that the competitors don't
distribution/logistics
● ‌an explanation of how the company will function, 5 STEPS TO DETERMINE OUR USP
including the operations cycle (from acquisition 1. list the features and benefits that are unique about your
of supplies through production to delivery) product or service
● ‌information on sources of labor and number of 2. decide what emotional need is being specifically met by
employees your product or service
● ‌data on operating hours and facilities 3. identify aspects of your product or service that your
competitors cannot imitate
6. Organization and Management Team 4. create phrases about your unique product or service that
- outline your company's organizational structure. identify are short, clear, and concise
the owners, management team and board of directors 5. answering your customer's primary question: "what's in
- include the following: it for me?"
● ‌an organizational chart with descriptions of
departments and key employees DETERMINING YOUR TARGET MARKET
● ‌information about owners, including their names,
percentage of ownership, extent of involvement ‌ arget Market - are those who are most likely to buy from
T
within the company and a biography listing their you
background and skills
● ‌profiles of your management team, including thei ‌ arket Targeting - is a sage in market identification
M
names, positions, main responsibilities, and past process that aims to determine the buyers with common
experiences needs and characteristics
● ‌list of any advisors, such as board members,
accountants, and attorneys Requirements of Target Market
● ‌Are your target customers male or female?
7. Financial Plan and Projects ● ‌how old are they?
- should be developed with a professional accountant after ● ‌where do they live? Is geography a limiting factor
you've completed a market analysis and set goals for your for any reason?
company ● ‌What do they do for a living?
- should include: ● ‌how much money do they make?
● ‌historical financial data (if you own an
established business), including income THE MARKETING MIX (7PS)
statements, balance sheets, and cash flow
statements for the past three to five years 1. Product
● ‌realistic prospective financial information, - refers to any goods or services that are produced to meet
including forecasted income statements, balance the consumer's wants, tastes and preferences
sheets, cash flow statements, and capital
expenditure budgets for the next five years 2. Promotion
● ‌abrief analysis of your financial data, featuring - refers to the complete set of activities, which
ratio and trend analysis for all financial communicate the product, brand, or service to the user
statements - attract people to buy your over others

Lesson 3: The Marketing Mix (7Ps) in Relation to Business 3. Pricing

Opportunity - is the narrowest sense, price is the value of money in
exchange for a product or service.
UNIQUE SELLING PROPOSITION OR UNIQUE - price is the amount or value that a customer gives up to
SELLING POINT enjoy the benefits of having or using a product or service
- refers to how you sell your product or services to your
customer TYPES OF PRICING
‌ ost-Plus Method
C 6. Packaging
- the simplest method - a silent hero in the marketing world
- the cost of the product is figured out and tackled on a little - refers to the outside appearance of a product and how it is
something for profit presented to the customers
- the best packaging should be attractive enough and cost
‌ arket-Oriented Method
M efficient for the customers
- not based on cost, but on the interaction of demand supply - highly functional
- for protection, containment, information, utility of use and
‌ Loss" Leader Strategy
" promotion
- some products may be sold at a losing preposition to
attract customers to go to their stores 7. Positioning
- mark-up is taken from other products - it is the process of marketers use to determine how to best
communicate their products' attributes to their target
‌ sychological Pricing
P customers based on customer needs competitive pressures,
- starting price on a lower scale available communication channels, and carefully key
messages
‌ alue for Money Pricing
V
- this pricing approach is not aimed at maximizing profit BRAND NAME
per single purchase but in bulk of quantity/frequent sale - is a name applied by manufacturer or organization to a
- this sale tactic is an ideal mechanism in tapping potential particular product or service
sales through more purchases, thus clearing inventory gluts - usually capitalized
and crating an image of fresh supply - bicapitalized names become popular
- targets either or both the diet and price conscious - may be used and protected as a trademark
consumers

‌ ricing Factor Segmentation

P
- the "seller" subdivides the market into groups responsive
to price and price deals, product quality, etc.

‌ arket Down Pricing

M
- in cases where demand is limited and competition is
intense, the usual mark-up pricing approach is temporary
suspended in favor of a markdown to capture a segment of
the market
- the concept of markdown pricing is the thought that the
lower you can make your price, the more you sell, and you
generate revenues sufficient to cover costs and provide a
profit

‌ onus-Pack Pricing
B
- for the end-users, this is commonly used so that they will
buy more than the required quantity

4. Place
- represents the location where the buyer and seller
exchange goods or services (distribution channel)
- include any physical store as well as virtual stores or
online shops on the internet

5. People
- your team, a staff that makes it happen for you, your
audience, and your advertisers are the people in marketing
- consists of each person who is involved in the product or
service whether directly or indirectly
 Business Enterprise Simulation - suppliers of raw materials, components, labor, and
services (such as expertise) to the firm can be source of
Lesson 1: Parts of Feasibility power over the firm when there are few substitutes

FEASIBILITY STUDY WHY FEASIBILITY STUDIES IS SO IMPORTANT?

- analysis and evaluation of a proposed project to determine 1. list in detain all the things you need to make the business
if: work
1. is technically feasible 2. identify logistical and other business-related problems
2. is feasible within the estimated costs and solutions
3. will be profitable 3. develop marketing strategies to convince a bank or
- are almost always conducted where large sums are at investor that your business is worth considering as an
stake investment
- also called as feasibility analysis 4. serve as a solid foundation for developing a business
plan
PORTER SIX FORCES:
COMPONENTS OF A FEASIBILITY STUDY
Michael Porter - projected five forces model in capacity to
analyze competitive strategy if the management in any 1. Description of the Business - the product or services to
industry be offered and how they will be delivered

● Porter's Framework - has been challenged by 2. Marketing Aspect - it includes description of the
other academics and strategists such as Kevin P. industry, current market, and anticipated future market
Coyne and Somu Subramaniam who have started
that three dubious assumption underlie the five 3. Technical Aspect - details on how you will deliver a
forces: product or a service (materials, labor, transportation, where
your business will be located, and technology needed)
RIVALRY AMONG EXISTING FIRMS
4. Financial Stability Aspect - it projects how much
1. Threats of New Entrants start-up capital is needed, sources of capital, and returns on
- profitable markets that yields high returns will attract new investment
firms
- this result in many new entrants, which eventually will 5. Organizational Aspect - defines the legal and corporate
decrease profitability for all firms in the industry structure of the business (may also include professional
background information about the founders and what skills
2. Threat of Substitutes they can contribute to the business)
- the existence of products outside of the realm of the
common product boundaries increase the propensity of CHAPTER 1: THE PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING
customers to switch to alternatives
Introduction
3. Bargaining Power of Buyers - this is a short explanation on why the students chooses
- described as the market outputs: this subject matter for feasibility study
- the relevance of the subject is also discussed
● the ability of customers to put the firm under - includes the name of the proposed project, the proposed
pressure, which also affects the customer's location, the products, the proposed target market, and the
sensitivity to price change. firms can take mode of financing
measures to reduce buyer power, such as
implementing a loyalty program. The buyer Objectives
power is high if the buyer has many alternatives. - refers to one's goals in writing the project feasibility study
the buyer power is low if they act independently - all topics to be discussed in the text are geared toward its
accomplishment
4. Bargaining Powers of Suppliers
- describes as the market inputs Significance of the Study
- this tells the importance of the study to a particular group • time, clarity, and accuracy are not sacrificed in
of people or sector, such as readers, researchers, communicating with computer personnel and computer
community, etc. instructions or in interpreting their responses
• requires relatively low cost
Scope and Limitations • the whole direction of the processing lies entirely within
- this tells the coverage of the study, the target market, the the researcher's knowledge and skill without outside
time horizon, the survey area, and the time the data were constraints
gathered
- the researcher should identify the specific target market Review of Related Literature
covered, such as consumers, resellers, industrial, - the presentation of related studies and literature that
government, and non-profit organization supports the study
- point out the difference of one study from other studies
Methodology
- it describes the sources of data, research design, and the Definition of Terms
treatment of data - define the technical, scientific, or legal terms that are used
in the study, especially those which are differently
Sources of Data explained by the dictionary

a. Primary Data - are usually derived from interviews, Lesson 2: Marketing Aspect
survey questionnaire, and observations
CHAPTER 2 - MARKETING ASPECT
b. Secondary Data - are usually derived from printed
materials, books, magazines, films, video tapes, and related Marketing
studies on the subject - considered as the most important are
- it describes market situations where the product can be
Research Design identified through the demand analysis
- business research usually requires the use of descriptive
and exploratory methods utilizing historical trends and Product Description
projections - describes the primary (and the secondary, if there's any)
products of the proposed project
• Exploratory Method - process of feeling the situation or
obtaining a bird eye view on the total aspects. It includes a Industry Profile
literature survey, the so-called library tour. - describes the general trade practices of an industry or
business which sells the same product
• Descriptive Method - it establishes relationships or - some of these practices are pricing, sales, methods of
correlations between dependent and independent variables. transportation, promotion, channels of distribution,
the description is based on sample size, which represents supplies, packaging resources available, the values of
the total population people, and also the opportunities, threats, strengths, and
weaknesses of the industry
FORMULA IN SAMPLE SIZE: (SLOVIN'S
FORMULA) Mission Statement
- many companies have a brief mission statement, usually
n= N/1+Ne^2 in 30 words or fewer, explaining their reason for being and
the guiding principles
where in:
• n - the sample size Company Goals and Objectives
• N - estimated population - goals are destinations where you want your business to be
• e - margin of error - objectives are progress markers along the way to goal
achievement
Treatment of Data
- manual or personal method of processing is the most MISSION STATEMENT EXAMPLES
appropriate for the students to use because:
• it has simple manipulative requirements in statistical • Life is Good - "to spread the power of optimism"
analysis • IKEA - "to create a better everyday life for many people"
• Warby Parker - "to offer designer eyewear at a • Avis - we try harder
revolutionary price, while leading the way for • Bank of America - (1) higher standards, (2) bank of
socially-conscious businesses" opportunities
• Universal Health Services Inc - " to provide superior • Barack Obama - change we need
quality of healthcare services that: patients recommend to • Bartles & Jaymes - thank you for your support
family and friends, physicians prefer for their patients,
purchasers select for their clients, employees are proud of, Marketing Plans or Strategies
and investors seek for long-term returns" - done to attract customers and even the customer of the
competitors
Demand
- pinpoints the specific customers who are willing and are 1. Occupants
able to buy the proposed products - answers the questions:
- could be done through segmenting the market ● who is the target market?
geographically and demographically ● what are their values, culture, religion, etc.?

Demographic Segmentation 2. Object

- determines to whom, in a particular place, the products - answer the question:
will be offered ● what makes the products attractive to the target
- defines the market market (based on packaging, color, shape, size,
etc.)?
a. sex
b. age 3. Objective
c. religion - answer the question:
d. educational attainment ● what is/are their objectives in buying the product
e. ethnic group (based on status symbol, price, quality, etc.)?
f. income level
g. occupation 4. Occasion
h. credit availability - answer the question:
● When do customers usually buy the products
Supply (daily, weekly, during birthdays, anniversaries, or
- it represents the number of sellers/producers selling Christmas season)?
similar or substitute products
- referred as competitors 5. Outlet
- answers the question:
STEPS ● where could the target buyers buy the products
(from the wholesalers, retailers, brokers,
1. enumerate the competitors, their location, and their contractors)?
capacity or size
2. determine the 5 year historical supply as well as the 5 6. Organization of the Family
year future supply by using one of the projection methods - answer the question:
● What is the customer's role in the family
Tag Lines (initiator, buyer, or decision maker)?
- second most noticeable element of a business identity
- must be understandable, summarize the product or service 5 P's OF MARKETING MIX
offering, build trust, or incite to buy
1. Product
TAGLINE EXAMPLES - what should be done with the product so that it will
become more attractive than the competitor's products?
• 3M - innovation
• 7-UP - the uncola 2. Promotion
• Apple - (1) think different, (2) the power to be your best, - what promotional activity should be done in order to
(3) think outside the box complete with promotions of the current suppliers
• AT&T - reach out and touch someone
• Audi - never follow 3. Pricing
- what terms of sale will increase the selling value of the - describes how one will reach their customers
products (n/30, 2/10, 1/15)? - they may use the services of the middlemen, if the
- what pricing technique can be used in determining the location is far from the customers
selling price of the products? - you need to include in the budget is the compensation
(could be in the form of commission, fringe benefits,
PRICING TECHNIQUES promotional assistance or other) which is given to the
middlemen
a. Cost-Plus Method
- simplest method 5. People
- the cost of the product is figured out and tacked on a little - refers to the salesman who will be selling and promoting
something for profit the products
- (1) do they know the product?, (2) are they committed to
b. Market-Oriented Method the company?, (3) are they motivated and satisfied?
- based on the interaction of the demand and the supply
LOGO MEANING
c. "Loss" Leader Strategy
- some products may be sold at a losing preposition to Red
attract customers to go to their store - associated with the heat of the sun and fire and is
- mark-up os taken from other products considered a high-arousal color, often stimulating people to
take risks
d. Psychological Pricing - it also stimulates the senses and raise blood pressure
- stating the price on a lower scale - feeling of power, energy, passion, love, aggression, or
danger
e. Value for Money Pricing
- this pricing approach is not aimed at maximizing profit Orange
per single purchase, but in bulk of quantity or frequent sale - associated with the heat of the sun and fire and is
- this sale tactic is an ideal mechanism in tapping potential considered a high-arousal color
sales through more purchases, thus clearing inventory gluts - feelings of energy, balance, and warmth
and creating an image of fresh supply. this pricing concept
targets either both the diet and price conscious consumers Yellow
- associated with the heat of the sun and fire and is
f. Pricing Factor Segmentation considered a high-arousal color
- the "seller" subdivides the market into groups responsive - feelings of optimism, hope, cowardice, and betrayal
to price and price deals, product quality, etc.
- this strategy favors both the customers and the seller. on Green
the part of the consumers, they get the benefit of quality - associated with the coolness of leaves
and good tasting products at reduced prices. on the other - nature, health, good luck, and jealousy
hand, the seller avoids wastage and minimizes cost of
storage Blue
- associated with the coolness of the sea and sky
g. Marked Down Pricing - shown to calm senses and lower blood pressure
- in cases where demand is limited and competition is - feelings of trust, security, order, and cleanliness
intense, the usual markup pricing approach is temporarily
suspended in favor of a markdown to capture a segment of Purple
the market. - considered as a low-arousal color
- concept of this is the "thought" how lower you can make - feelings of spirituality, mystery, royalty, or arrogance
your price, the more you sell, and you generate revenues
sufficient to cover costs and provide a profit Packaging
-not only a box or an enclosure
h. Bonus-Pack Pricing -many extra information have to appear on it
- commonly used by the end-users so that they will buy -has to be marked (symbols like recycling or poisonous)
more than the required quantity - has to be labeled (text, numbers)
- most of the information is required by law but varies from
4. Place or Channel of Distribution a country to another
- must include: name of the company, name of the product, • target market
weight or volume, instructions for use (include the safety • product strategy
hazards), and country of origin • pricing strategy
• direct competitors
How to Package a Product? • promotional strategies
- packaging a product for market is something that needs to • advertising strategies
be anticipated. don't wait until your product is ready to be • competitive advantage
shipped to realize that you don't have the proper packaging • channel of distribution
for sending it safely and at a reasonable cost • demand
• projected supplies
THE 4 RULES OF PRODUCT PACKAGING • demand gap
• SWOT analysis
1. low cost
2. protective
3. attractive (first impression is always the packaging so
you don't want to miss it)
4. regulations complaint

THE 4 STEPS FOR DECIDING ON A PACKAGING

1. market survey - look what you competitors are doing

(materials, shapes, and colors)
2. choose the type of packaging (always keep in mind that
this will change overtime)
3. find a local packaging supplier for test on small
quantities
4. test and tweak until you find the right fit

The Classic Boxboard Packaging

- many open hardware products come in a box made of
recycled cardboard. it's actually a simple sheet of cardboard
that is folded in the shape of a box and closed by a tape or
sticker
- a big label with the information about the company, the
product and a link ro find more information (instructions,
documentation, and more) can be put to it.
- advantage: its cheap, green, and easy

PARTS OF CHAPTER 2

Chapter 2: Marketing Aspect

• introduction
• mission
• vision
• trademark of the study
• direct labor requirements
• summary of survey questionnaire
• product logo
• company logo
• product description
• marketing strategies
• marketing segmentation
• market positioning
 Physical Education and Health 4 2. it has no simple form - includes variety of forms and
may be found in various settings
Lesson 1: Introduction to Recreational Activities
3. it involves activity - individuals actively participate in
RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES different activities

Recreation 4. it is determined by motivation - the kinds of recreation

- is the expenditure of time with an intent to gain some an individual engages in are determined by their interest
refreshment
- break from monotony and a diversion from the daily 5. it involves voluntary participation - individuals
routine engaging in recreation have the freedom to choose the
- positive change from the stereotypical lifestyle and activities which they wish to take part in
involves an active participation in some entertaining
activity 6. it is universally sought and practice - people from all
walks of life, young, old, poor, and rich generally engage in
Recreational Activities recreational activities
- actions that are performed solely for the enjoyment,
pleasure, and amusement of individuals 7. it has by-products - personal development, intellectual,
- fun, mentally or physically engaging activities that people physical, social growth, and better health are the rewards of
usually plan to do during their time off from work or school recreation
- bowling, swimming, kite flying, bird watching, surfing,
dancing, playing cards, and watching movies 8. it gives satisfaction - the main objectives of recreation
- held during one's leisure time are enjoyment and satisfaction. if these objectives are
-objective is to revitalize the different aspect of life, such achieved, there will be a feeling of fulfillment within us
as:
● ‌physical IMPORTANCE OF RECREATION
● ‌mental
● ‌social 1. Physical Health - a large part of recreation is physical in
● ‌emoyional aspect of individual nature, like some forms of games, sports, and dances that
- can become organized activity by local governments are essential to physical fitness
- venues like parks or community center for :
● ‌sports 2. Psychological Health - leisure and recreation can relax
● ‌arts and crafts and recharge the overworked individual. frustration is a
● ‌activities for senior citizens result of mental stress. satisfying and worthwhile activities
- without this, life would be: that relax a tired mind during spare time can overcome
● ‌unbearable frustration. recreation also offers opportunities to develop
● ‌unsatisfying and enhance skills, as well as activity
● ‌unbalanced
- open roads to opportunities for: 3. Social Well-Being - recreation can be a source of
● ‌self-discovery happiness and satisfaction. a happy person can easily adjust
● ‌self-expression to their peers, subordinates, and superior. As a social force,
● ‌creativity recreation is a means of establishing unity among
individuals. it develops a well rounded personality. it also
THE BEST TIME FOR RECREATION helps restrain or control delinquency, lessen (if not totally
eliminates) the problems of community disorganization,
1. weekends and offers a varied opportunities for better social relations
2. holidays
3. special occasions such as anniversaries and birthdays 4. Emotional Stability - people who balance work and
recreation fond their life fulfilling and their existence
CHARACTERISTICS OF RECREATION meaningful

1. it occurs an obligated time - done during leisure time 5. Occupational - recreational activities usually translate
into monetary benefits for people who engage in business.
amusement parks, internet cafes, gyms, and arcades are
some examples of businesses that profit from recreational c. commercial type - endorsing products which are open to
activities everybody

SCOPE OF RECREATION AQUATIC SPORTS

- an individual! may voluntarily participate in recreational - in the olympics and other international competitions,
activities, either as a spectator or an active participant. The including the disciplines of swimming, diving,
scope of recreation is wide, enough to cover the many synchronized swimming, water polo, and open water
activities which an individual may freely choose from. swimming
these activities may be performed either indoors or - water related sports more broadly (boat racing, water
outdoors skiing, swimming, etc.)
- water based techniques or modalities used for aquatic
a. games and sports therapy
b. music activities
c. technology-based activities MOUNTAINEERING
d. fitness activities - is the set of outdoor activities that involves ascending tall
e. arts and crafts activities mountains
f. nature and outdoor activities - include traditional outdoor climbing, and skiing
g. special events - indoor climbing, sport climbing, and bouldering are also
h. mental, linguistics, and literary activities considered as variants of mountaineering by some
i. commercial and home entertainment activities
j. cultural activities MARTIAL ARTS
k. miscellaneous activities - are codified systems and traditions of combat practiced
for a number of reasons such as self-defense; military and
RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES law enforcements applications; competition; physical,
- relaxing the body and mind mental, and spiritual development; entertainment; and the
- it is important to engage in an activity that relieves a preservation of nation's intangible cultural heritage
day-to-a-day tension
- universal need of man COMMUNITY RECREATION
- refers to recreation at the local level like community
CLASSIFICATION OF RECREATIONAL ACTIVITY recreation facilities and community activity programs, and
BASED ON: includes activities like sport, personal development
programs, rehabilitation programs, and government
‌ articipation
P initiatives
a. spectator type - people spend their time watching the
event and derive enjoyment from it Lesson 2: Barriers on Recreational Activities
b. participant type - people do not gain enjoyment merely
by watching; they do so by joining the activity BARRIERS ON RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES
- many technological advances and conveniences that made
‌ ature
N our lives easier and less active, many personal variables,
a. active type - people have to function effectively in including physiological and behavioral factors, many
performing the action affects our plans to become more physically active
b. passive type - people have no excessive movement in - Understanding common barriers to physical activity and
performing the task or action creating strategies to overcome them, may help physical
activity become part of daily life. people experienced a
‌ ell-Being
W variety of personal and environmental barriers to engaging
a. physical - people exerts efforts and bodily functions in in regular physical activity
performing the action - we might have experienced that no matter how
b. mental activity - the mind is doing the functions with determined each one of us to have an active lifestyle, we
less body movement suddenly lose interest, and when an emergency comes up,
we feel like we are not in the mood etc. in fact, many
‌ urpose and Organizer
P people come-up with excuses to avoid physical activity
a. public type - involves general public - what keeps young people from engaging in regular
b. private type - confines people working in a private physical activity?
companies
1. Lack of Time
if you think that you don't have time to engage yourself in 7. I don't feel like it (Lack of Motivation)
physical activities, make an effort to: ● choose singe recreations such as working out
● maintain a journal of your daily activities for a using an exercising video if you feel uneasy
week. use it to check how much free time you exercising in front of other people
have ● make certain your objectives are sensible. avoid
● manage to break up your work out session into the all-- or nothing catch that physical activity is
two 15-minute blocks or even into three a waste of time if it cannot make you fit or slim
10-minutes blocks, incase dedicating a 30 ● plan physical activities ahead. prepare and put
minutes exercise each day, is not possible them in your diary
● look for a workout friend, as you are more likely
2. Exercise in Uninteresting to commit to regular physical activity if you have
at time, it is the lack of interest rather than the lack of time someone else relying on you
that is the problem:
● exercise with a friend or an associate. join a DIET AND NUTRITION ASSESSMENT
group or take up a team sport - In outdoor activities, nutrition is also important. the body
● consider the physical activities you enjoyed when will be needing enough fuel to meet the demands of the
you were still a kid activity
- fueling the body means increasing the amount of
3. Does not have the idea how to be active (Lack of glycogen or stored glucose in the body to help one get
Skills) going longer before "hitting the wall"-- when carbohydrates
many people are willing to help when you decide to be reserve are depleted such that person cannot reach the
active and get moving desired highest level of performance anymore
● checking with your doctor for suggestions and - healthy eating is not about depriving oneself, starving to
support while getting on a physical activity plan become unrealistic thin or denying ourselves food we love.
● getting in touch with your local community the right way is to achieve a balanced diet which contains
center. most centers suggest an assortment of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals in the
physical activity classes at modest fees right proportions

4. Tired (Lack of Energy) COMPONENTS OF WELL-BALANCED DIET

life can be very tiring but incredibly, the more that you are
on the go, the more vigor you will have for everything else 1. Carbohydrates - a vital source of energy, carbohydrates
● trying to be active on most days of the week and comprises about 60% of an individual's diet. Most energy
you will soon feel more vigorous. the fitter you needs are met from carbohydrates. choose wisely from
are, the more lively your life becomes complex carbohydrates sources such as whole grains,
● reorganizing your to-do list if you can. this way, wheat, millet rice, etc.
you can be full of energy in the morning rather at
night 2. Proteins - needed to assist your body to repair cells and
make new ones. it is also essential for growth and
5. Not Feeling Well and Not Thinking Fit development during the various stages of life
There is something for every person to do, even if you are
not feeling good. at times, activities can essentially help 3. Fats - contribute to about 15% of daily caloric needs and
you feel better are a major energy source. they are also vital for storing
● examine your medical condition. speak with your and providing vitamins and synthesize hormones
doctor or local support group, or browse through
health channel articles to get physical activities 4. Vitamins and Minerals - micronutrients (vitamins and
that may be appropriate for you minerals that support metabolism, nerve muscle function,
bone maintenance, and cell production). vitamins are
6. Excuses about the Weather organic compounds of our body that need to perform all its
it is too hot, it is too cold, or it is raining yet there are essential functions, like growing tissues, regulating
things you can do regardless of the weather metabolism, and maintaining a healthy immune system.
● have a range of indoor and outdoor activities to
decide from so that the weather cannot get in the 5. Water - life without water is unimaginable. a major
way with your exercise arrangements nutritional component that helps regulate body temperature,
lubricate our joints, and protects our major organs and games. This has been their regular and popular past times,
tissues. water also aids to transport oxygen throughout your as well as the favorite games of our parents and
body. make sure that you drink at least 8 glasses of water grandparents until new and modern forms of entertainment
every day. (technology like computers and phones) has taken over the
interest of children. but a great majority of Filipino children
NUTRITION ASSESSMENT still play these games
- is an in-depth evaluation of both objective and subjective
data related to an individual's food and nutrient intake FIVE COMMON PHILIPPINE GAMES
lifestyle, and medical history.
- the data for nutritional assessment falls into four - these are visibly seen all over the regions in the
categories: anthropometric, biochemical, clinical, and philippines and sometimes these games are likely similar or
dietary. share common characteristics with our neighbor asian
- use to determine the nutritional status of individual or countries
population group as influenced by the intake and utilization - our traditional games are also influenced by other
of nutrients countries during the colonization period like America and
Spaniards. The majority of the games use physical strength
1. Anthropometric Assessment - are a series of that can be classified as mock warfare, racing games, and
quantitative measurements of the muscle, bone, and tissue formula games. all of these games make use of ability and
that is used to assess the composition of the body. The core skills
elements of this are the height, weight and body mass index
(BMI), body circumference (waist, hips, and limbs), and 1. Patintero (Block the Enemy Game)
skin fold thickness. - composed of a guard and passer
- there are two sets (one team requires 6 players then the
2. Biochemical Assessment - uses laboratory measurement other team requires 8)
of serum protein, serum micronutrient level, serum lipids, - played outdoors and required teamwork and incredible
and immunological parameters to assess general nutritional agility since the game is characterized with a wide playing
status and to identify specific nutritional deficiencies area

3. Clinical Assessment - refers to collecting information MECHANICS

and drawing conclusions through the use of observation,
psychological test, neurological test, and interviews to a. form two teams (guard and passers)
determine what the person's problem is and what symptoms b. guards will be stationed on three lines (one per line) and
they are presenting. Nutrition screening is also used to passers will stay at the starting line
identify malnourished individuals. it can be carried out on c. the goal of the passers is to pass by the guards without
the whole population on specific subpopulation at risk or being tagged. take note that the guards cannot leave the
on selected individuals lines; move within a time frame
d. passers who manage to run back and forth will get a
4. Dietary Assessment - assessing food and fluid intake is point, if guards tagged all passers, the guards win the round
an essential part of nutrition assessment. it provides
information on dietary quantity and quality, changes in 2. Sipa
appetite, food allergies and intolerance, and reason for - similar with the football back in the old days
inadequate food intake - the ball is made of a light material which is called as a
washer
Lesson 3: Philippine Traditional Games - this game is done by kicking the ball upward. the player
who kicked the ball with the highest count will be the
PHILIPPINE TRADITIONAL GAMES winner
- larong lahi
- commonly played by children, usually using native MECHANICS
materials or instruments
- due to limited resources for toys of Filipino children, they a. create a washer. typically, these are soft balls that are
usually come up with games without the need of anything light enough to kick around
but the players themselves b. Players have one turn to kick the washer as many times
- years ago, kids used to gather in the streets or in their as they can with their feet. once the washer falls that's their
neighborhood playground to play their favorite Pinoy final count and the other player begins their turn
c. players who kicks with the highest count wins
- playing traditional games is always a big part of our
3. Luksong Tinik (Thorn Hurdles) culture as Filipinos but suddenly with the continuous
- a very common game for both boys and girls development of technologies, traditional games are
- played outside, usually in a grassy place abandoned which supposedly have so much to offer. that's
- originated in Cabanatuan, Nueva Ecija why it's highly recommended for us to know the benefits of
traditional games
MECHANICS - studies showed that these traditional games provide highly
significant benefits since it requires physical skills, social
a. two players, the "taya" will face each other with their skills, creativity, imagination, competition, camaraderie,
hands and feet stacks and many more
b. the other players will jump on it
c. their hands gradually increase in the height and the other 1. Social Skills - playing games would help the children
players will continuously hop on it meet new friends, become more cooperative, and socially
d. the player who touches the body of the "taya" will be the expressive
next "taya"
2. Competitiveness - playing games would help the
4. Sack Race children to stand out on the crowd as well as learn values
- to play you need one burlap sack for each individual that can be derived from their experience of playing these
participant games
- the more people racing, the more fun it is
3. Boost Mood - games play an important role in boosting
MECHANICS the mood and relieving stress of a person. scientifically,
while the brain releases endorphins that will make you feel
a. participants will run to the sack, put both feet in and happy and cheerful
begin hopping towards the finish line
b. contestants must keep both feet in sack and at least one 4. Improve Motor Skills - playing games help the children
hand on the sack at all times to strengthen their muscles, joints, increases flexibility, and
c. the sack must remain as close to the waist as possible and makes them more agile
should not fall below the knees
d. the first racer to finish the line wins 5. Improves Coordination - improves the eye-hand
coordination (the ability to do activities that require the
5. Tug of War (Hilahang Lubid) simultaneous use of our hands and eyes)
- athletic contest between two teams at opposite ends of a
rope, each team trying to drag the other across a center line 6. Boost Metabolism - playing traditional games naturally
- in some forms of the game, a tape or a handkerchief is helps in speeding the metabolism of a person, which is
tied around the center of the rope, and two others are tied important to help the body to lose weight
six feet (1.8 meters) on both sides
7. Relieve Stress - through playing traditional games, you
MECHANICS are being distracted from the stressful events you are
dealing in life
a. each team must have equal number of players
b. the group must be a combination of 5 males and 5 PRINCIPLE OF PHYSICAL ACTIVITY
females
c. the distance between team us three meters - fitness standards are higher than health standards. People
d. both ends of the rope should be tied on the waist of the can get fit by becoming more active. However, you need to
last player while the others should hold on the rope practice caution because doing more is not exactly doing it
e. a piece of ribbon or handkerchief is tied to the rope on right. there are safe and effective principles of exercise
the centerline training that can help you improve and sustain your
f. upon the signal to start, each team pulls each other improvements while avoiding injuries
g. the team that pulls the other over the borderline is - the following principles are important in designing an
declared as the winner exercise program

BENEFITS OF PLAYING GAMES 1. Principle of Overload

- states that the body must work harder that what it is used
to in order to adapt
- implies that exercise is a controlled form of stress that
will stimulate the body to become stronger

2. Principle of Progression
- states that the body should experience a gradual increase
in workload. if the principle of workload asks "how hard?"
then the principle of progression asks "how soon?". the
body will get injured if it experience a workload that is too
hard and too soon
- the body should be given ample time to recover and get
used to the new workload. The rate at which the body
adapts varies from one individual to another. a reasonable
time frame is to increase the load for two weeks

3. Principle of Specificity
- states that the body will adapt specifically to the workload
it experienced. it implies that improvement of fitness will
be limited to the activities that one is performing. the
application of this principle is not only on the movement or
activity performed but to the intensity at which it is
performed
- a person who trains for a marathon should not be expected
to be able to lift heavy barbells. This principle highlights
the importance of performing a variety of activities to
improve overall fitness.

4. Principle of Individuality
- states that no two persons are the same and their rate of
adaptation to the same workload differs. this principle
emphasizes the need to create an exercise program that is
individual-specific
- all individuals have different performance goals, fitness
attributes, lifestyle, and nutritional preferences. they
respond to exercise and its physical and social
environments in their own unique way. it is therefore an
essential that the exercise program cater to these individual
needs and preferences

5. Principle of Reversibility
- the adaptation that takes place as a result of training is
reversible. While an exercise program requires rest of the
body to recover, too much rest may be counterproductive. It
is another way of stating the principle of disuse. If your
energy systems are not utilized, they deteriorate to a level
that matches the level of activity. it indicates that disuse or
inactivity results in loss of benefits achieved in overloading
 Filipino Christian Living D • The first condition has to do with whether the agent
possessed an adequate degree of control or freedom in
Lesson 1: Freedom as a Human Person performing the action, whereas the second condition is
concerned with whether the agent's epistemic or cognitive
DEFINITION OF FREEDOM state was such that she can properly be held accountable for
the action and its consequences.
• In our life as Christians, freedom is also very crucial. We • While the first condition prompts us to ask "was this
often have enemies when our freedom like speech, person acting freely when she did A?", the second
movement, and choices or preferences is being suppressed.. condition prompts us to ask "was this person aware of what
Suppression might happen due to authority from others like she was doing of its consequences, moral significance,
parents, friends or in a workplace. etc.)?"
• But we should remember that all of us have our respective
freedoms, even those in authority. What we need is to have PASCAL'S GAMBLE
a consensus when freedom is being set aside for some
important matters. Pascal's Wager
- Pascal's wager is a philosophical argument presented by
What is Freedom? the seventeenth-century French philosopher, theologian,
- " the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants". mathematician, and physicist, Blaise Pascal (1623-1662).
- "power of self-determination attributed to the will; the - It posits that human beings wager with their lives that
quality of being independent of fate or necessity." God either exists or does not.
- Pascal argues that a rational person should live as though
BIBLICAL MEANING OF FREEDOM God exists and seek to believe in God. If God does not
- Freedom is a shared capacity with others in the exist, such a person will have only a finite loss (some
community for choosing, not anything at all, but what is pleasures, luxury, etc.), whereas if God does exist, he
good, in order to become our true selves. It is the inner stands to receive infinite gains as represented by eternity in
power which discerns and calls us to do what is good and Heaven) and avoid infinite losses (eternity in Hell).
avoid evil, according to the law God has written in our - He said that it is not possible to prove or disprove that
hearts. God exists. Therefore, it is better to bet that God exists. If
- Freedom from whatever opposes our true self-becoming God existed, and the person believed in God, he would be
with others in the community. rewarded (with happiness forever); if the person did not
- Freedom from growing as full persons before God and our believe, he would be punished (with what is called eternal
fellow human persons in authentic love. damnation). If God did not exist it would make no
- We experience freedom in our free choices to act or not to difference. For this reason, it would be better to believe in
act, to do or not to do something. We accept responsibility God, Pascal said. Indeed, Pascal strongly believed in this
for these acts. Besides our individual free acts. This is ideal.
called fundamental freedom or option. It is not primarily a
psychological term but rather refers to our moral being as a KIERKEGAARD'S LEAP OF FAITH
human person.
Leap of Faith - is the act of believing in or accepting
OUR FREEDOM AND RESPONSIBILITY something outside the boundaries of reason.
- Yes, we are free to the extent that we are abusing our
freedom like speech, movement, and choices. • He describes the core part of the leap of faith: the leap.
- Many of us tend to forget that in every exercise of our "Thinking can turn toward itself in order to think about
freedom, there is always corresponding responsibility. itself and skepticism can emerge. But this thinking about
itself never accomplishes anything."
THE EPISTEMIC CONDITION FOR MORAL • Kierkegaard says thinking should serve by thinking
RESPONSIBILITY something. Kierkegaard wants to stop "thinking's
self-reflection" and that is the movement that constitutes a
• Philosophers usually acknowledge two individually leap. He is against people's thinking about religion all day
necessary and jointly sufficient conditions for a person to without ever doing anything; but he is also against external
be morally responsible for an action, i.e., susceptible to be shows and opinions about religion.
praised or blamed for it: a control condition (also called
freedom condition) and an epistemic condition also called Lesson 2: Intersubjectivity
knowledge, cognitive, or mental condition).
 INTERSUBJECTIVITY modern man by converting him from subjects into objects
through the instrumentality of the machine as “machines
Doctrine: “From the beginning, this one Church has been which were invented in order to serve men in their work
marked with diversity which comes from were no longer, like tools, an extension man’s arm but man
both the variety of God’s gifts and the diversity of those became that extension doing the bidding of the machines”.
who receive them.” (CCC 814) - The way man treats the machine as an object becomes
also his way of treating the other human person. To
Moral: “Blessed are the peacemakers, for they will be radically break from these prevailing attitudes in order to
called children of God.” (Matthew 5:9) establish an ethical principle on human relationship
anchored on the dignity of the human person, Buber
Worship: “So that all of us who through this participation introduces his I-Thou philosophical theory.
at the holy altar, may be filled with every - He explored the psychology of individual man in two
grace and heavenly blessing” (Communion Epiclesis) distinct modes or relationships, namely, the ‘I-It’ and the
‘I-Thou’.
WHAT IS INTERSUBJECTIVITY?
1. Experience (I-IT Relationship)
Intersubjectivity - is the mode that modern man almost exclusively uses.
- is a term coined by social scientists as a short-hand Through experience, man collects data of the world,
description for a variety of human interactions. analyses, classifies, and theorizes about them. This means
-For example, social psychologists Alex Gillespie and Flora that, in terms of experiencing, no real relationship occurs
Cornish listed at least seven definitions of intersubjectivity for the “I” is acting more as an observer while its object,
(and other disciplines have additional definitions): the “it” is more of a receiver of the I's Interpretation. The
“it” is viewed as a thing to be utilized, a thing to be known,
1. People’s agreement on the shared definition of an object; or put for some purpose.
2. People’s mutual awareness of agreement or - Buber, looking at the main problem of human society in
disagreement, or of understanding or misunderstanding time, claims that the problem of human life in the modern
each other; age lies in the mode of the I–It relation. Modern human
3. People’s attribution of intentionality, feelings, and beliefs relationships are mostly grounded on others viewing
to each other; another human person as an “it” rather than as a “Thou”
4. People’s implicit or automatic behavioral orientations and treats everyone as a means to their selfish ends.
towards other people;
5. People’s interactive performance within a situation; 2. Encounter (I-THOU Relationship)
6. People’s shared and taken-for-granted background - both the “I” and the ‘other’ enter into a genuine
assumptions, whether consensual or contested; and relationship as active participants. In this relationship,
7. “The variety of possible relations between people’s human beings do not perceive each other as consisting of
perspective” specific, isolated qualities, but engage in a dialogue
involving each other’s whole being and, in which, the
- used in social science to refer to agreement. There is ‘other’ is transformed into a “Thou” or “You”. This treating
intersubjectivity between people if they agree on a given the other as a “You” and not an “it” is, for Buber, made
set of meanings or a definition of the situation. Similarly, possible by “Love” because in love, subjects do not
Thomas Scheff defines intersubjectivity as "the sharing of perceive each other as objects but subjects.
subjective states by two or more individuals". - Love, for Buber, should not be understood as merely a
- also has been used to refer to the common-sense, shared mental or psychological state of the lovers but as a genuine
meanings constructed by people in their interactions with relation between the loving beings. Hence, for Buber, love
each other and used as an everyday resource to interpret the is an I-Thou relation in which both subjects share a sense of
meaning of elements of social and cultural life. If people caring, respect, commitment, and responsibility. In this
share common sense, then they share a definition of the relationship, therefore, all living beings meet each other as
situation. having a unity of being and engage in a dialogue involving
each other’s whole being.
MARTIN BUBER'S "I-THOU" RELATIONSHIP - Buber’s I-Thou mode of relationship has shown us a
clearer path to genuine living through authentic relation to
"I-THOU" Relationship others.
- The onset of industrialization and the growth of large - By valuing others we also encourage or give them reason
urban cities, for Martin Buber, has dehumanized the to value us. Authenticity, therefore, lies in reciprocal
intersubjective relations wherein despite our differences we the merciful cleansing fire of Christ so that they may take
recognize each other as humans. their place in the Church Triumphant whose members are
- The others are not means, tools, or instruments for the Interceding for us and the cycle continues
fulfillment of my whims but, rather, they are a companion
in life, a friend to rely on, a person worthy to live with.

STATES OR DIVISIONS OF CHRISTIAN CHURCH

"Until the Lord shall come in His majesty, and all the
angels with Him and death being destroyed, all things are
subject to Him; some of His disciples are exiles on earth,
some having died are purified, and others are in glory
beholding "clearly God Himself triune and one, as He is."
Lumen gentium,49 (Second Vatican Council, 1964)

- In this statement, the Church articulates what she has

always taught: that our membership in the mystical Body of
Christ exists in three "states."

1. Ecclesia Militants (Church Militants or Church

Pilgrim)
- consists of Christians on earth who struggle as soldiers of
Christ against sin, the devil, and "the rulers of the world of
this darkness, against the spirits of wickedness in the high
places"

2. Ecclesia Poenitens (Church Penitent/Church

Suffering/Church Expectant)
- which in the theology of certain churches, especially that
of the Catholic Church, consists of those Christians
currently in Purgatory

3. Ecclesia Triumphans (Church Triumphant)

- consist of those who have the beatific vision and are in
Heaven.

States of Catholic Church

- Within Catholic ecclesiology these divisions are known as
the "three states of the Church."
- The actual language used in the Catechism of the Catholic
Church states that “The three states of the Church… At the
present time some of his disciples are pilgrims on earth.
Others have died and are being purified, while still others
are in glory, contemplating ‘in full light, God himself triune
and one, exactly as he is.'”
- Keep in mind, this doesn’t mean there are three Churches.
We are members of the One, Holy, Catholic and Apostolic
Church. Death simply changes our states of membership.
The angels and saints in heaven and the holy souls in
purgatory, are one with us in this divine, eternal family.
- Truly, this is the “circle of life!” We in the Church
Militants are DISCIPLING, offering ourselves in prayer
and service for others, especially those in the Church
Suffering who are PURIFYING, being made perfect by
 Applied Economics - the work time and work effort that people devote to
producing goods and services
Lesson 1: Revisiting Economics as a Social Science
3. Capital
WHAT IS ECONOMICS? - tools, instruments, machines, buildings, and other
construction that business now use produce goods services
Economics
- study of allocation of scarce resources to satisfy the 4. Entrepreneurship
commerce of people - the human resource that organizes labor, land, and capital
- allows allocation of scarce human and non-human
resources among their alternative uses to satisfy them C. FOR WHOM? (DISTRIBUTION PROBLEM)
- Who gets the goods and services?
Adam Smith - the market segmentation (assigning of marketing fields
- father of economics where products are to be sold)
- well-traveled man that tutors royalty - who consumes the goods and services that are produced
conceive a lot of rules using laissez faire (leave alone or depends on the income that people earn. people earn their
letting you do) for free enterprises and the word income by selling the service of factors of production they
entrepreneur for the skill necessary to bring the factors of own
production into a coherent whole a. land earns rent
b. labor earns wages
1. WHAT, HOW, AND FOR WHOM? c. capital earns interest
d. entrepreneurship earns profit
Goods and Services
- objects that people value and produce to satisfy wants 2. SELF-INTEREST AND SOCIAL INTEREST

‌ oods - physical objects on sale

G Self-Interest
‌Services - actions performed - choice is in your self-interest if you think that choice is
the best one available for you
-by far the largest part of what people in the rich industrial
countries produce today are services, such as retail and Choice Rule
wholesale services, health services, education - people compare the expected benefit and cost of available
- goods are a small and decreasing part of what we produce opportunities before they act and they take action, which
they think will yield them the largest net benefit
A. WHAT? (ALLOCATION PROBLEMS)
- what we produce changes over time. Every year, new Social Interest
technologies allow us to build better equipped homes, more - self-interested choices promote the social interest if they
powerful sporting equipment and even deliver a more lead to an outcome that is the best for the society as a
pleasant experience in the dentist's chair. and technological whole— an outcome that uses resources efficiently and
advance make us incredibly more productive at producing distributes the goods and services fairly among individuals
food and manufacturers
OPPORTUNITY COST, CHOOSING THE MARGIN,
B. THE HOW? (PRODUCTION PROBLEM) AND CETERIS PARIBUS
- goods and services get produced by using productive
resources that economist call factors of production (land, Opportunity Cost
labor, capital, entrepreneurship) ● ‌"there is no such thing as a free lunch" (expresses
the central idea of economics, which every choice
FOUR FACTORS OF PRODUCTION involves a cost)
● ‌is the highest-valued alternative that we give up
1. Land to get it
- "gives of nature" ● ‌cost of the lost alternative
- use to produce goods services
- what in everyday language we call natural resources Choosing the Margin
● ‌you can allocate the next hour between studying
2. Labor and chatting with your friends on facebook. but
 the choice is not all nothing. you must decide ● s‌ ocial science that deals with the allocation of
how many minutes to allocate to each activity. to scarce resources to meet the unlimited human
make this decision, you compare the benefits of a wants
little bit more study time with its cost you make
your choice at the margin ECONOMICS AS A SOCIAL SCIENCE
● ‌marginal benefit (benefit that arises from an ● ‌economics is primarily a social science
increase in an activity) ● ‌it utilizes the scientific method of inquiry from
● ‌marginal cost (cost of an increase in activity) identifying the problem, proposing alternative
● ‌To make your decision, you compare the answers, testing alternative answers to the
marginal benefit from an extra night of study question or the problem, gathering and treating
with its marginal cost. if the marginal benefit the data, and answering the question through the
exceeds the marginal cost, you study the extra conclusion
night. if the marginal cost exceeds the marginal ● ‌social science (study of the various mades and
benefit, you do not study the extra night aspects of human interactions in a group these
● ‌by evaluating marginal benefits and marginal cost people aspire to preserve their group as a social
and choosing only those actions that bring greater science unit, to make it stable, and promote its
benefit that cost, we use our scarce resources in growth, expansion, and development)
the way that makes us as well off as possible ● ‌economics (study on how society creates its
materials wealth, how it makes wealth available
Ceteris Paribus to its people with minimum difficulties, and how
● ‌"holding other things constant" (latin phrase) it expands wealth)
● ‌" all else being equal" ● ‌related to the other social sciences that study
● ‌a dominant assumption in mainstream economic other dimensions of a society
thinking, it acts as a shorthand indication of the
effect of one economic variable on another CONCERNS OF ECONOMICS
provided all the variables remain the same
Economics is concerned with PRODUCTION
ECONOMICS AS A SOCIAL SCIENCE ● ‌Production - use of inputs to produce outputs
● ‌Inputs - commodities or services that are used to
Revisiting Economics as a Social Science produce goods and services
- there a three strand in the development of the definition of ● ‌Outputs - different goods and services which
economics come out of production process
● ‌society have to decide what outputs will
a. Wealth - economics is a science of wealth-getting and produced and in what quantity
wealth using
b. Decision Making Process - economics is a science of Economics is concerned with DISTRIBUTION
making choices ‌Distribution - allocation of the total product among
c. The Allocation Process - economics is a social science members of society. it is also related to the problem of for
that deals with the allocation of scarce resources to meet whom goods and services are to be produced
the unlimited human wants
Economics is concerned with CONSUMPTION
ECONOMICS: AS A STUDY OF WEALTH ‌ Consumption - use of the good or service. Serve as the
● ‌science of wealth-getting and wealth using ultimate end of economic activity. without consumption,
● ‌it implies that the motivation process of wealth there will be no need for production and distribution
accumulation is the utilization of wealth for the
individual's satisfaction and society's welfare Economics deals with PUBLIC FINANCE
‌Public Finance - concerned with government expenditures
ECONOMICS: AS A STUDY OF MAKING CHOICES and revenues. economics studies how the government
● ‌in everything we do, whether we produce or raises money through taxation and borrowing
consume, whether wealth-getting or wealth using,
we make decisions and these decisions are based Lesson 2: Economics as an Applied Science
on alternative choices
WHAT IS AN APPLIED SCIENCE?
ECONOMICS: AS A STUDY OF ALLOCATION
Applied Science History of Economics - economists are prolific writers so
- is a discipline of science that applies existing scientific there is a need to codify their works and relate to earlier
knowledge to develop more practical applications, works.
technology or inventions.
Econometrics - there is a believed that economics should
Economics as an Applied Science rely more mathematical equations, instead of just graphs
- As social science, economics deals with the analysis on and logic so there is a branch called econometrics that uses
how members of a society interact with one another on the statistics and calculus to explain economic phenomena
creation and utilization of wealth.
- However, the study of economics has been perceived as Behavioral Economics - that fuses knowledge from both
too theoretical since it deals with the principles, laws and disciplines psychology and economics.
assumptions governing human behavior in the allocation
process. Financial Economics - is the fusion of finance and
economics.
WHAT IS AN APPLIED ECONOMICS?
POSITIVE AND NORMATIVE STATEMENT
Applied Economics
- is the application of economic theory and econometrics in Positive Statement
specific settings. - These are statements and predictions that can be tested to
- As one of the two sets of fields of economics (the other see if the theories from which they were derived should be
set being the core), it is typically characterized by the accepted or rejected.
application of the core, i.e. economic theory and - concern is "what is"
econometrics.
- The process often involves a reduction in the level of Normative Statement
abstraction of this core theory. - based on value of judgements on "what should be"
- lends itself to debate
MAIN DIVISION OF ECONOMICS
TYPES OF ECONOMIC SYSTEMS
Microeconomics
- aims to give an understanding and appreciation of the - There are basically three types of economies the
basic theories and concepts in economics and their planned, the market and the mixed types of economies.
application to current national and international economics Among them, the more predominant type is the market
concerns. economy, but there was a period when planned
- The focus of the course is on the economic activities of the economy was equally present internationally.
individual decision making units in the society, specifically
households and firms. 1. Planned Economy
- The planned economy is prevalent in the communist and
Macroeconomics socialist type of government. The state provides the
- deals with the bigger picture while the allocation of strategic planning guide that will dictate the product and
resources on the aggregate level. services that would be available to the communities.
- concentrates on the behavior of entire economies of - Nowadays, North Korea and Cuba are the only remnants
nations, no matter how small. of the planned economy. Another term for the planned
economy is command economy.
FIELDS OF ECONOMICS
2. The Market Economy
International Economics - discuss the concepts of - The other type of economy is market economy. Here, the
globalization, internationalization, and the mechanics of the consumers exercise virtual autonomy on what they will
open economy system. buy, at what quantities will they buy, and at what price. The
interaction is among the buyers and sellers of products and
Development Economics - there are few economists who services.
believe that there is a need to focus on poor nations and - The United State of America and the members of the
how they can avoid the pitfalls of copying verbatim the European unions, and virtually all countries in the world,
development program of the industrialized countries. are considered market economies.
3. The Mixed Economy - skills training and investment in education can shape
- The last type is the mixed economy in which the state human capital of a nation
dictates and exercises some control over the factors of
production, but the populace exercises a mixed economy. 4. Weak Infrastructure
- The Communist Party in China is a good example of the - physical infrastructure facilitates the expands transaction
mixed economy. The Communist Party of China owns the that likewise fuel economic growth
land and most of the capital resources, yet it relies on the - philippines have weak infrastructure, meanwhile the
market forces to determine what products and services get limited capacity of our energy infrastructure has resulted in
produced. daily interruptions of electricity in many regions in the
country
Lesson 3: Basic Economic Problems and Philippine - the major reason for this inadequate expansion is
Socioeconomic Development in 21st Century insufficient funds

ECONOMIC PROBLEMS IN THE PHILIPPINES 5. Pursuing Food Security

- with more than 100 million people to feed, the concern of
1. Poverty the government is to ensure food security for all
- poverty is a restricting condition experience by millions - the food sufficiency in linked with the development of
of families that prevents them in attaining the minimum agriculture as a major economic sector of the country
level of consumption for subsistence living contributing over 11% of GNP

TWO CATEGORIES OF POVERTY 6. Slow Adaptation of Modern Technology

- technology us the manner of processing the raw materials
• Absolute Poverty - the lack of income to buy the basic or intermediate inputs into transformed outputs through the
foods and necessities for subsistence living use of factor inputs
- a technology that is biased in the use of labor is called
• Relative Poverty - refers to the structure on how the labor intensive technology, while the capital-intensive
national income is being distributed among households in technology refers to use of more capital relative to labor in
an economy the productive process

2. Demographic Changes and Its Economic Application Lesson 4: Business Environment

- the population of the philippines has been increasing over
several decades BUSINESS ENVIRONMENT
- 1960, the country has enumerated 27 million people
- 2015, the population estimate for the country has reached - it includes all internal and external factors that affect the
102 million people company's performance and functions
- includes employees, customers, management, supply and
IMPLICATIONS demand, business regulations, and competitions
- every business organization has an internal and external
• additional consumer and savers that can expand the environment. for the organization to be successful, it is
economy important to study its environment regularly
• additional laborers can be a source of productivity, - this is to access any developments and understand factors
creativity, and entrepreneurship that can contribute to its success
• labor force
• population growth exerts on limited resources Environmental Scanning - is a process used by
• it is a burden to the government to provide the social organizations to monitor their external and internal
services including education, health, and housing to an environments. The purpose of the scan is to identify the
expanding population opportunities and threats affecting the business. as a part of
• limited funds to suffice the needs of the huge population the environmental scanning process, the organization
• strain to the environment collects the information regarding its environment and
analyzes the impact of changes in the market
3. Low Investment in Human Resource Development
- a highly trained workforce is more productive than a pool Environment Analysis - is a strategic tool in assessing the
of unskilled workers level of threats or opportunities that might affect the
business. this eventually helps the management team to interest rates, exchange rates, inflation, disposable income
make better decisions of consumers and businesses.

1. Internal Environment • Social Factors - These include the shared belief and
- consists of factors that are controllable by the attitudes of the population. These factors are population
management growth, age distribution, health consciousness, career,
- consists of various elements like the value system, attitudes and so on.
mission/vision/goals/objectives of the organization,
structure, culture, quality of employees, labor unions, • Technological Factors - Technological factors affect the
technological capabilities, etc. management and marketing in three ways: new ways of
- these elements lie within the organization and any producing goods and services, new ways of distributing
changes to them can affect the overall success of the goods and services, and new ways of communicating
business markets with target

2. External Environment • Environmental Factors - These factors have become

- these environmental factors are beyong the control of the important due to the increasing scarcity of raw materials,
business but they still minimize the impact of the business pollution targets, doing business as an ethical and
has an effective strategic plan sustainable company.

TWO ELEMENTS IN THE EXTERNAL • Legal Factors - It includes health and safety, equal
opportunities, advertising standards, consumer rights and
a. Micro-Environmental Factors laws, product labeling, and product safety. It is clear that
companies need to know what is and what is not legal in
• Suppliers - can control the success of the business when order to trade successfully
they hold power. the supplier holds the power when they
are the only or the largest supplier of the goods in the Lesson 5: SWOT Analysis
market
SWOT ANALYSIS
• Resellers - have a great contribution to the delivery of
products to the ultimate consumers SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, and
threats) analysis
• Customers - an individual or business that purchases - a framework used to evaluate a company's competitive
goods or services. It is important because they drive position and to develop strategic planning.
revenues. Without them, businesses have nothing to offer. - assesses internal and external factors, as well as current
most public-facing businesses compete with other and future potential (Grant, 2020).
companies to attract customers - a technique for assessing the performance, competition,
risk, and potential of a business, as well as part of a
• Competition - Those who sell the same or similar business such as a product line or division, an industry, or
products and services as your organization are called other entity
competitors. The presence of one or more competitors can
reduce the prices of goods and services as the companies INTERNAL FACTORS: STRENGTHS (S) AND
attempt to gain a larger market share. WEAKNESSES (W)

b. Macro-Environment Factors - These are the resources and experiences readily available
to the business proponents. These factors include:
• Political Factors - These are about how and to what
degree a government intervenes in the economy. It includes 1. financial resources such as money and source of funds
government policy, political stability or instability in for investment;
overseas markets, foreign trade policy, tax policy, labor 2. physical resources such as the company's location,
law, environmental law, and trade restrictions. facilities, machinery, and equipment;
3. human resources consisting of employees;
• Economic Factors - Economic factors have a significant 4. access to natural resources, trademarks, patents, and
impact on how an organization does business and also how copyrights; and
it is profitable. These factors include economic growth, 5. current processes, such as employee programs,
sales, and distribution capabilities, marketing situation, its current competitive position, and the strength
programs, etc. of a position that an organization may enter into.

Strengths - describe what an organization excels at and • According to Porter, the origin of profitability is identical
what separates it from the competition: a strong brand, regardless of industry. In that light, the industry structure is
loyal customer base, a strong balance sheet, unique what ultimately drives the competition and profitability and
technology, and more. not on whether an industry produces a product or service, is
emerging or mature, high-tech or low-tech, regulated or
Weaknesses -stop an organization from performing at its unregulated.
optimum level. There are areas where the business
needs to improve: lack of raw materials, personnel 1. Competitive Rivalry - This force examines how intense
attitude, poor location, and lack of budget for product the competition currently is in the market, which is
promotion, among others. determined by the number of existing competitors and what
each is capable of doing. Rivalry competition is high when
EXTERNAL FACTORS: OPPORTUNITIES (O) AND consumers can easily switch to a competitor offering for
THREATS (T) little cost.

- These are factors that affect a company, an organization, 2. Bargaining Power of Supplier - This force analyzes
an individual, and those outside their control. These factors how much power a business' suppliers have and how much
include: control it has over the potential to raise its prices, which, in
turn, would lower a business's profitability. Also, it looks at
1. economic trends such as stock market, economic the number of suppliers available. The fewer there are, the
performance, and the like; more power they have.
2. market trends such as new products or technology,
changes in tastes and lifestyle of society; 3. Bargaining Powers of Buyers - This force looks at the
3. national and local laws and regulations; power of the consumer to affect pricing and quality.
4. relationship with suppliers; and Consumers have power when there aren't many of them,
5. competitive threats. but lots of sellers, as when it is easy to switch from one
business's products or services to another. Buying power is
Opportunities - refer to favorable external factors that low when consumers purchase products are small amounts
could give an organization a competitive advantage. and the seller's product is very different from any of its
Examples include larger market, company expansion, and competitors.
new customer trends, among others.
4. Threat of New Entrants - This force examines how
Threats - refer to factors that have the potential to harm an easy or difficult it is for the competition to join the
organization. For example, changes in government policy, marketplace in the industry being examined. The easier it is
changes in consumer tastes and preferences, inflation, and a competitor to join the marketplace, the greater the risk of
recession, among others. a business's market share being depleted. Barriers to entry
include absolute cost advantages, access to inputs,
Lesson 6: Porter’s Five Force Analysis economies of scale, and well-recognized brands.

WHAT IS THE FIVE FORCE ANALYSIS? 5. Threat of Substitute Products or Services - This force
studies how easy it is for consumers to switch from a
• Five Forces Model business's product or service to that of a competitor. It
- originally developed by Michael E. Porter of Harvard looks at how many competitors there are, how their prices
Business School. and quality compare to the business being examined, and
how much of a profit those competitors are earning, which
• Porter's Five Forces Analysis would determine if they can lower their costs even more.
- a framework or a guide for assessing and evaluating the
competitive strength and position of a business
organization. Porter's theory identifies the five forces that
determine the competitiveness and attractiveness of a
market and which seek to locate the power in a business
 Physical Science After the Big Bang Nucleosynthesis
- The expanding universe had been an optically opaque
Lesson 1: Nucleosynthesis plasma of photons, free electrons, and H, He, He, and Li
nuclei.
THE BIGBANG MODEL - But when the temperature fell, the electrons were able to
combine with the atomic nuclei to form neutral atoms and
- Most prevailing model of the origin of the universe the universe became optically clear.
- Describes how the universe began in rapid expansion
about 13.7 billion years ago Stellar Nucleosynthesis
- Offers explanation to a broad range of phenomena, - What eventually happens to stars depends on their masses.
including the formation of light elements.
● A low-mass star ends up as white dwarf
The Alpher-Bethe-Gamow Paper ● A high-mass star ends up either as a neutron star
- In 1948, Ralph Alpher, Dr. Hans A. Bethe, andGeorge (after supernova explosion) or a black hole
Gamow published a paper entitled, "The Origin of
Chemical Elements". They described a process by which all - A star is formed when a cloud of gas and dust collapses to
of the elements in the universe could have come into the point where the material in the center of the clump is so
existence shortly after the big bang. dense and hot that nuclear fusion of hydrogen nuclei and
helium nuclei occurs.
Big Bang Nucleosynthesis (BBN or Primordial - The outflow of energy released by these reactions
Nucleosynthesis) provides the pressure necessary to halt and collapse. The
- It refers to the production of nuclei other than H-1 (the pressure and gravity are in 'hydrostatic equilibrium.
normal, light hydrogen) shortly after the Big Bang. It is - It begins with Proton- Proton Chain where hydrogen is
also believed that this process is responsible for the converted to helium. This is a dominant process in stars
formation of: that have similar mass as the sun.
- Because of the increase in the temperature inside the star,
● Hydrogen (H-1) several nuclear fusion processes will occur. The following
● Deuterium (H-2, a hydrogen isotope) is where the nuclear fusion process happens.
● Helium isotopes (He-3 and He-4)
● Lithium isotope (Li-7) • Triple Alpha Process - In the triple-alpha process, three
● Trace amounts of Beryllium (Be) helium-4 nuclei or alpha- particles, fuse to form a carbon
nucleus. As soon as carbon is present, the alpha process
- The period of Big Bang Nucleosynthesis lasted only from begins where the formation of neon, oxygen, and silicon
about 10 seconds to about 20 minutes from the beginning takes place.
of the universe itself.
- The temperature in the early universe was extremely high •CNO Cycle - It is the process where C12 is used as a
that the fusion reaction (process where two or more nuclei catalyst that facilitates the production of He4.
combine to form a new element) could take place.
- The fusion reactions however are slightly different from - If the star is massive ( > 8x Solar masses), another set of
the fusion reactions in the interior of the stars. The universe nuclear fusion reactions begins. These include the burning
expanded and cooled to -10^10 Kelvin. of carbon, neon, oxygen and silicon, which lead to the
- At this temperature the nuclear chemistry changed and no formation of heavier elements until it finally produces iron.
more neutrons were formed. Once they stopped being - Stars evolve so that they have "onion skin like" shells of
made, their ratio relative to the stable protons, started to the nuclear combustion with differing nuclear chemistry.
decline. - After the star consumes its "fuel" for a certain stage, it
- As the universe further cooled, the protons outnumbered consumes its next fuel to continue its burning process and
the neutrons. sustain its life.
- At this lower temperature, neutrons were able to combine
with protons to form the isotopes of hydrogen and LIFE CYCLE OF A STAR
deuterium. The deuterium nuclei, 2H, is very reactive.
- For several minutes the deuterium nuclei, 2H, went Stars have a life and evolve over time. The mass
through a variety of nuclear reactions resulting in a mixture of the star controls its evolution and life span. The sun is an
of isotopes: 3He, 4He, 7Li, along with the primordial 1H, example of an average size star.
and 2H.
1. Stars begin as a nebula (cloud of gas and dust) that starts - Elements through iron are created throughout the Stellar
to contract due to gravity. Evolution. This synthesis of new elements are achieved
2. Protostar: temperature increases, millions of years later through the neutron capture, either through the S process or
the gas becomes plasma and fusion begins. R – process.
3. Main sequence star: (the longest stage in the life of a
star) nuclear fusion (hydrogen fuses into helium) continues A Brief Background of Neutron Capture
in the core of the star...our Sun is a main sequence star. - Neutron capture is a nuclear reaction by which an atomic
nucleus and neutrons collide to form heavier nucleus.
● Stars more massive than our Sun may be main - Since the neutrons have a neutral charge, there is a high
sequence stars for only 10 million years. probability of neutrons being captured by an atomic
● Stars less massive than our Sun may be main nucleus, unlike protons which are electrostatically repelled.
sequence stars for 100's of billions of years. - By transforming the neutron captured by a nucleus to a
● The larger the star the shorter the lifespan, the proton, a new element is determined.
smaller the star the longer the life
Beta-Minus decay: Neutron to Proton Transformation
(NOTE: A star starts to die when hydrogen runs low) - The number of protons determines the identity of an
element.
4. Giant: A star cools as it expands and starts to glow red. - Thus, an atomic nucleus with neutrons that are captured
Giants can be more than 10 times larger than the sun. must “transform” these neutrons into protons to become
5. White dwarf: outer layers escape into space, the star new elements.
collapses into a dense hot, dim star smaller than Earth. - The neutron to proton process undergoes a beta-minus
decay, with B- being that a neutron is lost and a proton
Supergiant: Massive stars become larger than giants as appears (on the other hand, B+ means that a neutron
they leave the main sequence....they can be 100 to 1,000 appears while a proton is lost)
times larger than the sun. - In this process, the neutron naturally decays into a proton
once the product nucleus becomes unstable in the neutron
Supernova: the explosion of a supergiant capture process.
- Combining the Beta-Minus Decay into Neutron capture,
• Neutron Star: a small dense ball of neutrons that spin the sequence is complete in synthesizing new elements.
after a supernova explosion - Both the s-process and r-process undergo the sequence.
• Black Hole: the remnants of a supernova that are - What varies between the two is the rate of neutron capture
contracted even more than a neutron star... it is so dense couples with beta-minus decay and the sites where these
light cannot escape from it. processes occur.

Lesson 2: Describing How Elements Heavier Than Iron are Nucleosynthesis Using S-Process
Formed - The S-process works by “Slow Neutron Capture” to
synthesize heavier elements.
Core Collapse of Massive Stars - S-process does not really occur in supernova events, but
- With the star’s core pressure suddenly dropping, nothing in evolving low-to medium-sized stars. However, it is
remains to support the star and so its interior begins to worth noting that the “seed” for the S—process is iron.
collapse. - In the slow neutron capture, a neutron is added at a rate
- The force of gravity, meanwhile, is so immense that it that whenever an unstable nucleus is formed, it beta-decays
crushes the core. before another neutron can be added.
- The star’s outer layers also contribute to the core’s - After the s-process, beta-minus decay occurs to transform
immune crushing. a neutron into a proton.
- As an effect, the infalling gas is heated 10 billion degrees.
- With the pressure surging, it lifts the outer layers away Nucleosynthesis using R-Process
from the star through a titanic explosion – supernova. - The R-Process works by "Rapid Neutron Capture" to
synthesize heavier elements.
Supernova Capture and Further Nucleosynthesis - This process mostly occurs in supernovae events due to
- A supernova is the explosion of a star. It is the largest the rapid process that the time scale would be too short.
explosion that takes place in space. It happens where there - R-process also occurs on neutron star mergers, but
is a change in the core, center of a star. scientists are still studying the phenomenon.
- In rapid neutron capture, neutrons are added so rapidly neutrons and form other heavier isotopes of the seed nuclei.
that the unstable nuclei formed cannot decay before Unstable or radioactive isotopes however, will undergo beta
additional neutrons are added until a nucleus is eventually decay, producing isotopes of a new element.
produced that will not accept a further neutron. This
nucleus, however, will eventually be subject to beta decay, Lesson 3: Idea of Atom Greek and Alchemist
thus permitting further neutron capture.
All matter whether in the form of water, carbon,
Radioactive and Stable Nuclei air or minerals – consists of atoms, which are in turn made
- Some isotopes are radioactive, whereas others are stable. up of simple particles. This fact took human beings
There are about 300 naturally occurring isotopes, 264 are thousands of years to understand and the present journey
stable which means nuclei of the isotopes never give off through that history.
any radioactivity. And the others are radioactive isotopes -
giving off radioactivity. Ideas of the Ancient Greeks on the Atom
- Isotopes in which the number of protons and neutrons are - The development of the atomic model of matter started
balanced seem to be stable. In lighter elements this balance from the early Greek concept of the atom. Greek
occurs, when protons and neutrons are equal. philosophers and thinkers were the first to describe matter
and to wonder whether matter can be divided infinitely into
TYPES OF RADIOACTIVITY smaller pieces or if there was a limit to the number of times
a piece of matter could be divided.
1. Alpha Emission - For heavy elements, the loss of alpha
particles is an important stabilization process. For example, Thales of Miletus (640 – 546 BC) - According to Thales,
Uranium - 238 nucleus decays to produce Thorium - 234 in both the synthesis during life and the decomposition
and a Helium - nucleus. after death, water was the primary component of all matter.

2. Beta Plus Emission - The second type of radioactive Anaximenes (526 BC) - For Anaximenes, air was the
emission is beta particle emission. A beta particle is a fast primary component of all life and physical stuff.
moving electron. The symbol le is used, note that the
isotopic mass for the electron is used to be -1, zero because Heraclitus (535-475 BC) - Heraclitus seems to follow the
it is much less than that of a proton or neutron. pattern of explanation from Thales` water and Anaximenes
air when he refers to the world as "ever living fire" and
3. Gamma Ray Emission - Some nuclei are pure gamma makes statements such as "Thunderbolt steers all things."
emitters, but these are rare. Gamma emission often alluding the directive power of fire.
accompanies alpha and beta emissions. A gamma ray is a
proton of light. No transmutation takes place, Boron is still Pythagoras of Samos (582-507 BC) - Together with his
Boron, but the nucleus is in a lower energy (more stable) followers, deserted the concept of a single, primary element
state after the emission of excess energy in the form of for all matter and suggested that all matter is a combination
gamma rays of the four elements.

4. Beta Minus Emission (Positron) - A positron is a Empedocles (450 BC) - He adopted the idea of Pythagoras
particle that has the same mass as an electron, but a charge and developed a theory that all matter in the universe was
of +1 rather than -1. Its symbol is o +1e. composed of various combinations and proportions of four
elementary substances. Metals, for example, were
5. Electron Capture - An extranuclear electron is captured considered to be composed of earth and fire, since they
by the nucleus and there reacts with a proton to form a could be produced by placing ores (earth) in a flame. He
neutron, that reduces the atomic number of an element by also believed that the shinier the metal, the more fire it
one but the mass number is unchanged. The electron contained.
involved in electron capture came from the atom`s own
electron clouds. Aristotle (384-322 BC) - He also supported the
Pythagorean view and added four elements - and therefore
6. Neutron Capture - It can be fast as a fraction of a all of matter - are infinitely divisible. In addition, he
second or as slow as a few million of years. This process explained the concept of gravity by assuming that the four
occurs as a seed nucleus captures neutrons, forming heavier elements had a natural home to return to when free to do
isotopes of the element that can be either stable or so.
radioactive. Stable isotopes can continue to capture
Leucippus of Miletus (500-420 BC) - He first believed physicians thought that disease must be cured by
that all matter - including four elements - was composed of experimental use of chemicals accompanied by
basic building: the atom. The word “atom” came from the observation.
Greek word "atomos'', which means indivisible.
Democritus of Abdera (460-370 BC) - Leucippus`s idea Phillippus Aureolus Paracelsus
was further developed by his student Democritus who - An alchemist and physician by profession and considered
proposed that the atom has the following characteristics: as the "Father of Toxicology". As such, alchemy also laid
the foundation of medicine.
● Invisible because it is extremely small - Alchemy was both an inquiry of nature and an early
● Indivisible because it cannot be broken down to a philosophical and spiritual discipline that combined
tinier unit. chemistry, metal work, physics, medicine, astrology,
● Solid, spherical, not empty Surrounded by an mysticism, spiritualism, and art. It's three main goals were
empty space to -
● Eternal because atoms are seamless
● Immeasurable number of shapes 1. Find the "elixir of life" which can bring wealth,
power and immortality;
Epicurus (341 BC - 270 BC) - Supported Democritus's 2. Find the so called "philosopher`s stone" which
atomos theory, saying that belief in such theory can actually can turn base metals into gold (believed to be the
help human beings live better lives. purest form of matter); and
3. Discover the cosmological relationship of
Alchemy: The Dark Age of Atomism humans.
- The theory that all matter is made up of atoms was later
called atomism and widely attributed to Democritus. - Still, alchemy contributed to a lot of future uses and
Because of Aristotle, however, this view was not again applications of chemicals such as metallurgy, ink and paint
widely accepted in Ancient Greece. Aristotle refuted production, extractions of natural products and liquors. The
Democritus` theory because it`s consequences were not in isolation of zinc and phosphorus from their ores can be also
line with Aristotle's ideas of natural phenomenon. Because attributed to alchemy.
of Aristotle`s wide influence, not only in philosophy but
also in science, the theory of atomism was not further Revival of Atomism
explored in the next 2000 years. - It was not until the early 17th century that atomism saw a
revival.
Chemistry
- is the science of composition of matter, its properties and Pierre Gassendi (1592-1655) - A French priest,
characteristics, and the changes it undergoes. It is often philosopher, and scholar of science and ancient texts,
called the central science because it connects the physical, rejected the view that matter is infinitely divisible.
life and applied sciences. But before it became an important Following Epicurus, Gassendi suggested that materials
branch of science, it had a rather unscientific history. objects have substrata made up of basic, indivisible
- The science of chemistry strived during the Middle Ages. principles.
This was then known as alchemy, a mixture of black magic
and scientific knowledge with much superstition. ● He believed that the closer the principles are put
Alchemist pursued a mythical philosopher`s stone that was together, the harder is the material object;
believed to transform based materials, such as iron, lead, whereas the more void there is between these
into gold. They studied the classical Greek Philosophers, principles, the softer is the object.
especially Aristotle, who argued that all substances
originated in some way from the basic elements. Robert Boyle (1627-1691) - An Irish physicist and chemist
Alchemists tried to find a fifth element (the quintessence) proposed a similar idea. Through experiments with gasses,
which they believed could control the changing of one he developed a principle of gasses now known as Boyle's
substance into another. Law which states that at constant temperature, the volume
- Even though their efforts and methods were unscientific, of gas decreases as the pressure increases.
alchemists contribute many useful tools in the study of
science. Equipment, such as the test tube, the closed ● He further concluded that since gas can be
crucible, and the retort, which, are still used compressed, it must be composed of particles that
in chemical laboratories today, were developed by these have spaces between them. He also believed that
alchemists. During the 16th century, alchemists and
 all matter consisted of arrangements of tiny produced them and therefore must be fundamental particles
identical particles called corpuscles. found in all elements. Later he came up with his model
which is known as the "plum pudding" or "raisin bread"
Isaac Newton (1642-1726) - In 1704, the English atomic model because he visualized that electrons are
physician and mathematician Isaac Newton publish Opticks stuffed like raisins in positively charged mass or "loaf of
in which analyzed the corpuscular nature of light. He bread"
explained that both matter and light are made up of
corpuscles. Rutherford's Nuclear Model of the Atom
- Subsequently having made notable achievements in the
Lesson 4: Structure of Atom study of radioactivity, the British physicist Ernest
Rutherford (1871- 1937) became interested in the structure
As the idea that matter is made up of atoms of atoms from which radioactivity radiated.
became widely accepted, the question shifted to the - In 1911, Rutherford and his colleagues tested Thomson's
structure of the atom. Indeed, one of the most controversial idea by striking alpha particles through a thin gold foil
and debatable topics in chemistry and quantum physics has (0.000004 cm) and identified them as flashes of light or
been the true nature and structure of the atom. There have scintillations on a screen. Most of the alpha particles went
been many attempts that sought the truth behind the straight through the foil, but some were deflected by small
concept of atoms starting from the early age to the present angles and hit a spot on a screen placed off to one side. He
time. Let us find out the different atomic models based on also observed that, occasionally, an alpha particle traveled
the experiments done by the "titans” in the quantum world. back from the foil.
- Based on these observations: Rutherford's team developed
Dalton's "Billiard Ball" Model a totally different idea from Thomson`s by making the
- After the dark age of atomism, John Dalton (1766-1844), following conclusions:
an English chemist, physicist and meteorologist, revived
and developed modern atomic theory in the early 1800s. He ● The gold atoms in the foil must be mostly empty
suggested that all atoms of an element have the same size space since most of the alpha particles were able
and weight, and that the atoms of an element bond to penetrate the foil.
chemically in simple ratios to form compounds. ● An atom is composed of a positive, central core
- He came up with the following main points for his atomic which he called the nucleus, where most of its
theory: mass is concentrated.

1. All matter is made of indestructible atoms. - The electrons which are said to be negatively charged
2. Atoms of the same element are identical in their circulate around the nucleus of an atom in a greater
physical and chemical properties. distance from the center.
3. Atoms of different elements have different - Rutherford also concluded that the nucleus is composed
physical and chemical properties. of nucleons. These nucleons are two types: positively
4. Atoms of different elements combine in simple charged particles (proton) and neutrally charged particles
whole number ratios to form chemical (neutron)
compounds.
5. In chemical reactions, atoms cannot be James Chadwick and the "Neutron"
subdivided, created or destroyed. They are only - It was James Chadwick (1891- 1974). An English
combined, separated and rearranged. physicist and Rutherford's protégé, who discovered the
neutron in 1932. By this time, scientists are sure that atoms
- Dalton's atomic theory served as a guide for chemists and are made up of three kinds of subatomic particles: proton,
physicists. neutron and electron. The charge, location, and mass of
these particles have also been determined.
Thomson's Plum-Pudding Model
- In 1897, Joseph John Thomson (1856-1940), a British Henry Moseley (1887-1915)
physicist, discovered that Dalton's atomic model was not - An English physicist and another student of Rutherford's
accurate. He proposed that atoms are uniform spheres of found out that atoms of each element contain a unique
positively charged matter in which negatively charged positive charge in their nucleus. The discovery cleared why
electrons are embedded. atoms of other elements are different. He noted that the
- He further concluded that they were less massive than identity of an atom comes from the number of protons in its
atoms and indistinguishable, regardless of what gas nucleus.
- All atoms can be identified through the number of protons further based on the assumption that the electron is a wave.
in their nucleus and the number of electrons that move The wave functions summarize where an electron is
around the nucleus. In an atom, the number of protons is likely to be found.
equal to the number of electrons. This is the atomic number - This function of an electron is called atomic orbital, a
of the atom. On the other hand, the atomic mass is equal to region in three dimensional space where an electron has the
the total number of protons and neutrons. The mass highest probability to be located. Schrodinger's quantum
number, therefore, is given by the following equation: mechanical model allowed the electron to occupy
- The accepted way of denoting the atomic number and three-dimensional space.
mass number of an atom of an element is as follows:
Isotopes
● A = Mass Number (number of proton and - It has been discussed that the center of an atom is a
neutrons) massive nucleus composed of neutrons and protons. It has
● Z = Atomic Number (number of protons) also been settled that the atoms
● X = Element symbol of the same element are not necessarily identical as they
can differ with respect to the number of neutrons in their
Bohr's Planetary Model of the Atom nuclei.
- In 1913, Niels Bohr (1885-1962), a Danish physicist, - When an element has two or more "versions" of atoms,
proposed his quantized planetary model of the atom to each will have the same number of protons but differ in the
elucidate how electrons can have stable orbits around the number of neutrons; the unlike versions are called isotopes.
nucleus. Note that in Rutherford's model, the motion of Different isotopes of the same element have the same
electrons was unstable because, according to classical atomic number, but different mass numbers, which is the
mechanics and Maxwell's electromagnetic theory, any total number of protons and number of neutrons.
charged particle moving on a curved path emits Lesson 5: Elements in the Periodic Table (Quantum
electromagnetic radiation; thus, the electron would lose its Models, Electron Distribution, and Lewis Dot Sample
energy and coil into the nucleus.
- To give a solution on the stability problem of the nuclear Quantum Numbers
model, Bohr suggested that electrons move in orbits of - Better than any previous model, quantum mechanics does
fixed size and energy. The smaller the orbit, the lower its explain how the atom behaves.
energy. Now energy is radiated when an electron jumps - Quantum mechanics treats electrons not as particles, but
from one orbit to another closer to the nucleus. The atom more as waves (like light waves) which can gain or lose
becomes totally stable in the state with the nearest orbit to energy.
the nucleus (smallest orbit) since there is no lower-energy - But they can't gain or lose just any amount of energy.
orbit into which the electron can jump. They gain or lose a "quantum" of energy.
- Moreover, Bohr hypothesized the following: - A quantum is just an amount of energy that the electron
needs to gain (or lose) to move to the next energy level. In
1. Electrons in atoms are permissible to be in certain this case it is losing energy and dropping a level.
motionless states. Each stationary is associated - Quantum numbers describe the atomic orbitals as well as
with a certain energy. the properties of electrons in those orbitals
2. No energy emission occurs while the electron is
in a stationary state. When it moves from a high Principal Quantum Number (n) - it indicates the size of
energy-stationary state to a low energy stationary the orbitals. The bigger the n is, the greater is the average
state (a transition), an emission of energy takes distance of an electron in the orbital from the nucleus and
place. The amount of energy is equal to the thus, the larger the orbital and the atom.
energy difference between the two stationary
states. Azimuthal Quantum Number (1) - It is also known as
3. In any stationary state, an electron moves in a angular momentum quantum number, which corresponds to
circular orbit around the nucleus. the shape of the orbital. Allowed values for l include 0 and
4. An electron is allowed to move with an angular all positive integers less than or equal to n -1. For example,
momentum an n = 1 denotes a specific orbital shape corresponding to l
= 0 and 1 = 1.
Schrodinger's Electron Cloud Model
- In 1962, Erwin Schrodinger (1887-1961) developed a Magnetic Quantum Number - The magnetic quantum
powerful atomic model based on wave functions, which is number (m,) indicates the orientation of an orbital around
the nucleus. For a particular value of l, there will be (21 +1)
possible values of m,. Hence, the values of magnetic - Electron Configuration uses the symbols of the orbitals
quantum numbers are integers from -l to +1, including 0. and the number of electrons that occupy each orbitals.
For example if l = 0, only one value for m, is possible; that - An orbital diagram, on the other hand, consists of boxes
is, it is equal to 0. and arrows that represent the orbitals and the electrons,
respectively. The up and down orientations of arrows
Spin Quantum Number (m) - The spin quantum number represent the two magnetic spins of the electrons.
(m) indicates the spin of the electrons and may have only 2
possible values, +1/2 and - 1/2. The (+) and (-) signs only Rules for Electron Configuration
refer to the orientation of the spin and not on the electric - The basic electron distribution is made when an atom is in
charge. The orientation is normally upward or downward its ground state. Ground state means that the atom`s
when represented in diagrams electrons occupy the lowest possible energy levels.
Representing electron distribution follows three general
Atomic Orbitals rules - Aufbau principle, Pauli`s exclusion principle and
- Think of orbitals as sort of a "border" for spaces around Hund`s Rule.
the nucleus inside which electrons are allowed. No more - The Aufbau Principle states that electrons enter the lowest
than 2 electrons can ever be in 1 orbital. The orbital just energy orbitals first.
defines an “area” where you can find an electron. - The lower the principal quantum number (n) the lower the
- What is the chance of finding an electron in the nucleus? energy. Within an energy level, s orbitals are the lowest
Yes, of course, it's zero. There aren't any electrons in the energy, followed by p, d and then f. F
nucleus. orbitals are the highest energy for that level.
- The Pauli Exclusion Principle states that an atomic orbital
Energy Levels may have up to 2 electrons and then it is full. The spins
- Quantum mechanics has a principal quantum number. It is have to be paired. We usually represent this with an up
represented by a little n. It represents the "energy level" arrow and a down arrow. Since there is only 1 s orbital per
similar to Bohr's model. energy level, only 2 electrons fill that orbital.
- Hund's Rule states that when you get to degenerate
● n=1 describes the first energy level orbitals, you fill them all half way first, and then you start
● n=2 describes the second energy level Etc. pairing up the electrons.

- Each energy level represents a period or row on the Lewis Dot Symbols
periodic table. It's amazing how all this stuff just "fits" - The formation of compounds or molecules can be easily
together. understood using knowledge on electron configuration,
periodic table and Lewis Dot symbols. Named after its
Sub-levels = Specific Atomic Orbitals proponent, Gilbert Newton Lewis, a Lewis dot symbol, or
- Each energy level has 1 or more "sub- levels" which Lewis Structure, consists of the symbol on an element
describe the specific "atomic orbitals" for that level. (representing its nucleus and inner electrons) surrounded by
one or more dots; each dot corresponds to every valence
● n = 1 has 1 sub-level (the “s” orbital) electron in an atom of the element. Valence electrons refer
● n = 2 has 2 sub-levels ("s" and "p") to the electrons found in the outermost shell of an orbital;
● n = 3 has 3 sub-levels ("s", "p" and "d") that is, those occupy the shell with the highest n. Valence
● n = 4 has 4 sub-levels ("s", "p", "d" and "f") electrons are also the ones that participate in chemical
reactions.
- There are 4 types of atomic orbitals: - When writing Lewis dot symbols, a dot is placed on each
of the four sides of the element symbol before pairing it
● s, p, d and f with another as needed. This procedure observes the Hund's
● Each of these sublevels represent the blocks on rule for orbital filling. Thus, four valence electrons of
the periodic table. carbon are represented with four single dots per side, and
not two pairs of dots.
Electron Distribution
- Electron distribution is important in understanding
chemical reactions. Two types of notation are used to show
the distribution of electrons in different orbitals in atom
electron configuration and orbital diagram.