Map Projections

(SVG 302)

PART 1
 Historical Background………..
• Systematic transformation of the latitudes and
longitudes of locations from the surface of
a sphere or an ellipsoid into locations on a plane
• Maintaining Spatial Relationship (Latitudes and
Longitudes)
• Maps cannot be created without map
projections.
• All map projections necessarily distort the
surface in some fashion.
• Transformation from one plane coordinate
system to another is referred to as re-projection.
• This process is mostly accomplished by the use
of geometry or, more commonly, by
mathematical formulas (some are graphically
based).
• The map projection employs
projection formulas that
perform the critical task of
transferring a 3-D spheroid onto • The earth is a complex three-
a 2-D plane surface.
• By default, map projections are dimensional object with physical
not true or accurate dimensions, including depth, mass,
representation of the earth
surface. and density
• A 2-D plane cannot accurately
depict features on a 3-D globe. • An important physical characteristic
of the earth is its curvilinear surface
which is a surface bounded by curved
lines.
• This curvilinear surface adds
complexity to a map projection’s
transformation of the earth model to
a flat surface
➢Maps can be more useful than globes in many
situations:
• more compact and easier to store;
• readily accommodate an enormous range of scales;
• viewed easily on computer displays;
• facilitate measuring properties of the terrain being
mapped;
• show larger portions of the Earth's surface at once;
• cheaper to produce and transport.

➢These useful traits of maps motivate the

development of map projections.
➢Every distinct map projection distorts in a distinct
way.
➢The study of map projections is the characterization
of these distortions.
• Some distortions of scale, continuity,
distance, shape, and area always result from
this process.
•Some projections minimize distortions in To show a region of
some of these properties at the expense of the earth on any
maximizing errors in others (Map Projection appreciable area with
Challenge). accuracy, geographic
data must be drawn to
•Some projection are attempts to only compromise the
moderately distort all of these properties. distortions in shape,
• Goal of studying map projections is to distances and
create a mathematical basis for the directions introduced
production of maps and solving theoretical by the spheroid
and practical tasks in cartography, geodesy,
geography, astronomy, navigation etc
 • The earth is a complex three- • The curvilinear
dimensional object with physical characteristic of the earth is
dimensions, including depth, mass, the main reason why map
and density projections are cultured
• An important physical depictions of the globe and
characteristic of the earth is its not exact representations.
curvilinear surface which is a • As a result of this curvilinear
surface bounded by curved lines.
nature, map projections
• This curvilinear surface adds always hold a degree of
complexity to a map projection’s distortion.
transformation of the earth model
to a flat surface
Four important properties of the earth that can be tactically preserved during a
projection process: Preserving
The ability to choose the projection’s
• Area accurate type, aspect and classification is the
• Shape representation of ultimate tool for achieving the desired
all four elements
• Distance simultaneously is
projection properties and for
• Direction (Angle) impossible controlling distortion
➢ Map projections….
• Are easy if you let software calculate the numbers for you
• Otherwise map projections look like this …
lat = lat * DR; /* set to radians */ • The projection process is a
lon = lon * DR; mathematical condition
lono = lono * DR; superimposed on a natural
partA = tan(DR*(180.0/4) - lat/2.0); surface to accommodate a
partB = pow(((1-e*sin(lat))/(1+e*sin(lat))),e/2); man-made interpretation
t = partA / partB;
m = cos(c)/sqrt(1 - (e*e) * sin(c));
partA = tan(DR*(180.0/4) - c/2.0);
partB = pow(((1-e*sin(c))/(1+e*sin(c))),e/2);
tc = partA / partB;
p = a * m * (t / tc);
*x = p * sin(lono - lon);
*x = *x * -1.0; /* reverse signs for southern hemisphere */
*y = (p * cos(lono - lon)) * -1.0;
*y = *y * -1.0;
 ➢ Latitude-Longitude System
• The most commonly used
coordinate system today is
the latitude, longitude, and
height system.
• The Prime Meridian and the
Equator are the reference
planes used to define
latitude and longitude.

Meridian = (N-S Longitude); Parallel = (E-W Latitude)

Coordinate Systems
Geographic vs. Projected
• Geographic Coordinate Systems (GCS)
• Location measured from curved surface of
the earth
• Measurement units latitude and longitude
• Degrees-minutes-seconds (DMS)
• Decimal degrees (DD) or radians (rad)

• Projected Coordinate Systems (PCS)

• Flat surface
• Units can be in meters, feet, inches
• Distortions will occur, except for very fine
scale maps
Geographic and Projected (Coordinate Systems)
Geographic Coordinate System

•Parallels - east to west – 0° at the Equator (0 °-90 °)

•Meridians – north to south – 0° at the Prime Meridian (0 °-180 °)
•Latitude and longitude are angular measurements made from
the center of the earth to a point on the surface of the earth
➢ Plane Coordinate Systems
• 2-D Systems • 3-D Systems
(1 plane) (2 orthogonal planes)
 Classifications of Map Projections
➢ Based on (projection types) ➢ Based on (projection techniques)
geometric distortions i.e. Properties map projection surface
to be preserved

Planar Projection Conical Projection Cylindrical Projection

• Mercator • Albers • stereographic

 Understanding Distortion Preserving Properties
• Distortion cannot be avoided; we have • If two properties are to be
to choose from distortion of: preserved then one is always
• Shape direction
• Area
• Distance
• Direction
• These properties are
incompatible:

No Map Projection can The Purpose of the Map

preserve all these determines which projection
properties should form the base for the Map
➢Size of map influences on scale ➢Why do we project data?
distortions
• Data are stored as
• The smaller the scale (a larger geographic, or spherical
displayed area), the greater the coordinates (latitude and
distortion longitude) and not useful for
• The larger the scale (a small area calculations
displayed) area, the smaller the •Some projections are tailored
distortion – for very small areas, specifically for different parts
the earth can be considered a of the globe giving more
plane. accurate calculations.
 ❑ Map should be just right
➢ Projection Parameters
for your area of interest.
❑ Parameters let you ❑ Maps are made just right by
customize a projection for setting projection parameters
your area of interest.
❑ “Just right” usually means having as
❑ Map projections are chosen little distortion as possible, at least for
with the aim of applying it the spatial property that you most want
either to the whole world or to to preserve.
some part of the world—a ❑ Not all projections have exactly the
continent or a strip of land. same set of parameters, though they
tend to be similar.
❑ Parameters can be changed in some
projections but not in others.
➢ PROJECTION PARAMETERS
✓ Linear
✓Angular
✓Pointless

➢ FACTS
✓A projected map isn't enough to define a
projected coordinate system.
✓You can state that a dataset is in
Transverse Mercator, but that's not
enough information.
✓Where is the center of the projection?
✓Was a scale factor used?
✓Without knowing the exact values for the
projection parameters, the dataset can't
be re-projected.
Projections are named after those who developed them