Fluvial, Karst and

UNIT 5 FLUVIAL, KARST AND GLACIAL Glacial Landscapes

LANDSCAPES
Structure
5.0 Objectives
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Fluvial Landscapes
Erosional Landforms
Depositional Landforms
5.3 Karst Landscapes
Erosional Landforms
Depositional Landforms
5.4 Glacial Landscapes
Erosional Landforms
Depositional Landforms
5.5 Conclusion
5.6 Terminal Questions
5.7 References
5.8 Answers

5.0 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit, you should be able to:

 Discuss the meaning and concept of fluvial, karst and glacial

landscapes;

 Explain the formation of different landforms produced by fluvial, karst

and glacial actions;

 Discuss and differentiate between erosional and depositional

landforms.

5.1 INTRODUCTION
In Unit 4, you have studied about exogenic processes continuously active on
the surface of the earth. You must have observed that water flows from
higher altitude to lower along the slope. The areas where chemically reactive
rocks are found, rocks are weathered and eroded easily by chemical action. In
the areas where temperature is less than 00 Celsius, ice is found particularly
on higher altitude and polar region. They are said to be fluvial, karst and
glacial dominated regions, respectively. They are fluvial, karst and glacial 89
Geomorphic Processes agents of landscapes development. It is worth mentioning here that running
water or river is active in humid regions; underground water is active in the
regions where limestone chalk, gypsum and dolomite like soluble rocks are
found and glaciers are active in high altitudes and high latitudes regions of
the world.

The area dominated by running water is known as fluvial landscapes. Area

rich in limestone, dolomite, gypsum or chalk with water availability is known
as Karst landscapes. Glacial landscapes are found in high altitude and high
latitude regions of the world. In this Unit, we will learn about the formation
of landforms developed by these three agents of erosion.

5.2 FLUVIAL LANDSCAPES

Fluvial landscapes are those which are generated by running water or mainly
rivers. The term fluvial derives from the Latin word ‘fluvius’ that means
river. Fluvial landscapes are observed from the source of the river to its
mouth. River or running water is a normal agent of erosion in humid regions.
According to normal cycle of erosion (learnt in Unit 4) the fluvial landscape
can be compared with three stages of human life. A human being completes
its life through three stages - youth, maturity and old. In the same way, the
cycle of erosion is supposed to be completed through three – youthful, mature
and old stage. Since the characteristics of all the stages are different in terms
of altitude, slope, erosive power and carrying capacity of the river, the
landforms produced are also accordingly different.

The landscape of any area is the function of weathering, erosion,

transportation and deposition by different agents of denudation. Let us
discuss them in brief:

The details of weathering are discussed in Unit 4. Erosion is detachment and

lifting of rock particles. Detached and lifted particles are moved forward
according the transporting ability of the agent. Once the ability to transport is
reduced, carried particles are deposited. Transportation connects both –
erosion and deposition and helps in forming different kinds of land features.
These landforms are of two kinds – erosional and depositional.

Erosion is performed in four ways – (i) abrasion/corrasion, (ii) attrition, (iii)

hydraulic action and (iv) solution / corrosion. The loads carried by running
water grind the flow path (river bed and its side). Hence, erosion of bed and
side of river is termed as abrasion or corrasion. The reduction of the load by
striking the bed and side as well as hitting the loads among themselves is
known as attrition. The friction caused by the flow of running water causes
the rock to reduce. It is termed as erosion due to hydraulic action. When
soluble minerals of the rock are dissolved in water, it is called erosion by
solution or corrosion.

Transportation occurs in four ways – (i) traction, (ii)) saltation, (iii)

suspension and (iv) solution. Larger and heavier gravels lying on steep slope
90 are rolled along the river bed. Hence, erosion of bed of river is called
traction. When medium and smaller sized boulders/ rock fragments are Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes
moved forwarded by leaps and jumps (like frog’s leaping/ jumping), it is
called saltation. When very small and tiny rock particles are carried through
the flowing water body without putting back at the surface is termed as
suspension. Solution is the name given when the soluble substances/
minerals of rock are removed by dissolving them.

Deposition by running water is caused by (i) slope decrease, (ii) reduction on

water volume, (iii) load increase and (iv) lowering of water velocity or
decrease in water depth. Now, let us discuss the land features in a sequential
of their development.

5.2.1 Youthful Stage

River originates from higher altitude and drains downstream along the
general slope. The first flow of water is in the form of small rills and gullies.
Initially, slope is very steep. First stage of river cycle is characterised by the
formation of some distinct landscapes. According to Davis, river remains in
the first stage in mountainous region. In this stage, erosional work is
significantly very high and erosional features are developed by the river. This
stage is also known as upper course of river. After development of small rills
and gullies, ‘I’ shaped valley is formed due to rapid valley bottom erosion/
down cutting and very slow rate of lateral erosion. Therefore, the deep and
narrow valleys are developed due to down cutting, popularly known as
Gorge (Fig. 5.1).

Fig. 5.1: Gorge/I-Shaped Valley

(Source: https://www.nps.gov/subjects/geology/fluvial-landforms.htm NPS Photo/Ann Wildermuth)

Due to slow rate of lateral erosion, water divide remains wider in young
stage. Actually, water divide, divides the area drained by two rivers in two
different directions. River capturing is an important feature of young stage.
Due to head ward erosion, when a river erodes towards its source, it captures
the water of another river. The point where a river captures another river, it is
91
Geomorphic Processes Capture.. After some time, the bed of river with steeper
called Elbow of Capture
slope and deeper valley drains almost entire water. Hence, the downstream
valley of captured river is devoid of water (Fig 5.2). Since captured river has
more water, its bed is deeper. Its downstream continuation has higher bed,
and hence, it is called Misfit River.

Figure 5.2: River capturing

Source: https://digitalteachers.co.ug/river-capture-meaning/

In mountainous region, rapids, cascades, springs and waterfalls are formed

due to different arrangement of hard and soft rocks. Rapids are areas of fast
flowing water with shallow depth in the mountains/ higher slope. As the
name is self-explanatory, waterfall is fall of water vertically from a
resistance rock in its path. Where waterfalls, a plunge pool is created due
higher erosion of falling water. When a series of small waterfalls are found, it
is known as cascades (Fig 5.3). When seeped water into rocks reappears
slowly on the slope is called spring.

POTHOLE

Fig. 5.3: Rapids and Cascades

Source: Author

River flows through narrow and deep valleys during first stage or young
stage. When there is an abrupt break in slope along a river path, especially at
the foothill, alluvial cone or alluvial fan (Fig 5.4) is formed. It happens due
to more and more deposition of sediments caused by lowered ability to
transport by the river. When the slope of deposited sediment is steep, it is
called alluvial cone. When the slope of the same is relatively gentle, it is
termed alluvial fan.
92
 Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes

Fig. 5.4: Alluvial Cone

Source: Author

5.2.2 Mature Stage

When river leaves mountainous region, it enters into plain. It is generally
termed as mature stage. This stage is characterised by lateral erosion as slope
is lowered in comparison to the upper course. Hence, prominently vertical
erosion in upper is replaced by lateral erosion. Therefore, narrow and deep
valley is converted into wide and open valley. Relief and slope become lower
due to negligible vertical erosion in the plain. During mature stage, river
flows in along a curved path and creates some typical landscapes. Among
them, natural levees, ox bow lakes, flood plains are some important
landforms.

The velocity of the running water in plain area is slower as the slope is lesser.
It also carries huge amount of smaller sized debris. Under appropriate
conditions, river deposits its debris even in its path. Depositions of sediments
in its bed lead to meandering. Meander (Fig 5.5) is erosional cum
depositional landscape. Erosion at one bank is associated with deposition on
the other. At erosional bank, river water depth is more and cliff like feature is
created. At this place, the slope is concave. It is also termed as cut bank. On
the other bank, deposition is prominently observed. Water depth is low and it
is called point bar. At this place, the slope is convex.

Fig. 5.5: Meandering of Gomti River before its confluence with Ganges
Source:
https://earth.google.com/web/@25.5365971,83.11876483,104.6540149a,18724.91329176d,3
5y,0h,0t,0r/data=OgMKATA
(Last accessed on 26th March 2024) 93
Geomorphic Processes Due to higher erosion, the outer curve of meander gets closer. The inner
curve of loop gets disconnected from the channel. When the loop of meander
is separated by erosion of the meander neck from the flowing water, oxbow
lake (Fig 5.6) is formed. It is separated as independent still-water body.

Fig 5.6: Meander and Ox-Bow Lake

Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Nowitna_river.jpg

Flooding is a natural process in the plain. When the amount of water is

excess, it overtops the banks of river. At the bank, outside the channel, the
flood water velocity is slower. Since the lesser depth of water and more
friction cause deposition of sediment along the river bank. In due course of
time, river banks become higher than the surrounding outside the area. This
higher linear bank of the river is known as natural levees.

After overtopping the bank/natural levees, flood water spreads over a large
area. Whatever the sediment is carried by flood water, it is deposited over the
entire area up to which the flood water reaches. Therefore, whole of the area
covering flood water is known as flood plain. Currently up to which flood
water reaches is also termed as Khadar. The area of flood plain up to which
the flood water is not reaching currently is termed as Bhangar.

In a well-developed plain of a large river, some of its tributaries are running

parallel to the main river. After running for a considerable distance, it joins
the main river. Such tributaries are called Yazoo Rivers.

5.2.3 Old Stage

The lower course of the river is considered as the old stage of the river. Since
the slope is very negligible. In this stage, the youthful energy of the river is
completely missing. It flows very slowly and calmly. It all happens due to
negligible slope. Hence, the sediment brought from the upper or middle
course is deposited. The river reaches to a level where even tiny sized
sediments are completely deposited before it empties it water into the ocean
94 or sea. Due to very low slope, sediments are deposited into its bed. Water is
forced to get divided into several channels. Those several channels are known Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes
as distributaries. These distributaries distribute the river water into oceans
and hence, they are called so. Deposition of sediments by distributary system
of river forms delta at the mouth of a river (Fig. 5.7). Delta is, generally, a
triangular shaped depositional topography formed at the mouth of the river. It
is also known as arcuate or fan-shaped delta. Their classical example is
Ganges delta depending upon the local situation, the shape of the delta may
be of different kinds as well. Bird’s foot delta is termed when the shape
resembles like bird foot’s claw. Its example is delta of Mississippi of the
USA. Estuarine delta is formed where ocean wave is strong and the deposited
sediment is carried away into the ocean. Hence, the mouth of the river
remains open and empties into ocean. It’s very good example is delta of
Narmada River.

Fig. 5.7: Types of deltas

Source: https://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1591012432_image2.png

In the upper course, vertical erosion is very pronounced. Hence, 'V’-shaped

valley is formed. In the middle course, slope is relatively low, valley is
flattened and wider. In the lower course, the energy of the river is reduced
due to negligible slope, sluggish flow of water. All sediments are deposited.
Valley becomes much wide with shallow depth. Overall, the longitudinal
profile of the river is concave in shape.

95
Geomorphic Processes Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1. A river course is divided into how many stages. Name them.

2. Name the erosional landforms made by river.

3. Name the depositional landforms made by river.

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5.3 KARST LANDSCAPES

Karst landscapes are well developed in the areas of chemically reactive rocks.
Rocks like limestone, dolomite, chalk or gypsum are chemically reactive or
they get dissolved when comes in contact with them. You have already
studied about the chemical weathering in Unit 4 of this block. One of the best
developed such landscape is in Karst area of Adriatic coast of Yugoslavia.
Hence, the termed Karst landscape is given to such resembling areas.

Ideal Conditions

Topography made by groundwater or karst topography is well developed in

the areas where:

 large deposits of limestone or dolomite or such type of rocks are found;

 they are thickly bedded, fractured and well jointed;

 they are exposed to air and water;

 they lay in warm and humid areas;

 they are above the groundwater table; and

 there is good drainage system to removal of water.

On the basis of location and formation of the features, the karst topography is
grouped into two categories:

(i) Topographical features formed on the surface such as lapies, sinkholes,

swallow holes, doline, uvala, polje etc.(ii) Cave and related landscapes

5.3.1 Surface Karst Landforms

Lapies is a rugged topography developed in limestone surface region due to
96 dissolving of calcium content in the rocks. It is characterised by a series of
interconnected tiny ridges and shallow channels created by chemical Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes
weathering process and dissolution of rocks. It is such a rugged topography
over which it is difficult to walk in such areas (Fig. 5.8).

Fig. 5.8: Lapies

Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Lapies_de_Innerbergli_Habkern_P1012490mod.jpg

Sinkhole: Sinkholes are found on the surface of limestone or dolomite

regions. When water enters in the interior through joints of limestone or
dolomite, funnel shaped topography is developed at the head of the joints.
That funnel shaped topography is known as sinkhole. Its depth varies from 3
to 10 metres .

Fig. 5.9: Sinkholes

Source: Author

97
Geomorphic Processes Swallow Holes: In karst region, several sinkholes are formed. Due to gradual
and continuous enlargement of sinkholes, several adjacent merged together.
Their size becomes and large. Through the internal joints, rocks are dissolved
and a passage of water is created through which smaller rivers may even
disappear. This large depression on the surface and its connection with
internal drainage is termed as swallow hole.

Doline: When nearby swallow holes are further enlarged by continuous

solution and are merged together, they are known as dolines.

Uvala: Coalescence of several dolines forms the larger sized depression on

the surface is termed as uvala. The stagnation of water in uvala forms a
permanent lake in lime stone regions.

Polje: Polje is the larger size of uvala. It is characterised by vertical side

walls and flat alluvium deposited floor with large depression. Stagnation of
water in the polje creates a lake.

Fig. 5.10: Karst Landscape

Source: https://civilspedia.com/karst-topography/

Blind Valley: Blind Valley is that type of valley in which there is no outlet
of flowing water on the surface. It is formed when a smaller river flowing
through karst region disappears and water becomes underground through
dolines. The valley through which water becomes invisible automatically
(through dolines) is known as blind valley.

Fig. 5.11: Blind Valley

Source: Author
98
5.3.2 Cave and Related Landscapes Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes
Under the surface of the earth, a hollow space is created by dissolution of
rocks by chemical cation on such reactive rocks. It is formed in the region
where thick deposit of limestone is found. Its size varies from very small to
very large depending upon the deposits of limestone and chemical actions.
This hollow is termed as karst cave. In karst region, chemically dissolved
rocks are drained out through underground stream channels. Water seeps
through the roof of the cave from several joints. In this process, a huge
hollow underground cave is created. The water dripping from the joints and
holes into the cave .

Fig. 5.12: Cave, stalactite and stalagmite

Source: Author

The dripping water from the roof dilutes the lime content. The drip is slow
and, in this process, some part of the lime is solidified by evaporation of
water from the dripping surface. With the passage of time, it keeps on
enlarging in its width and length. Enlargement in width makes it thicker and
downward growth increases its length. This feature hanging from the roof is
termed as stalactite.

Below the stalactite, dripping drop of lime dissolved water falls on the
surface of the cave. Since it is rich in lime, some part of it is solidified and
there and rest is drained out. Hence, a rising structure at the falling point of
sipped water is seen. It also keeps on growing in width and length. Increase
in length vertically is observed. It known as Stalagmite.

When the growth of both stalactite and stalagmite leads to getting both joined
together, it is popularly known as Cave Pillar.

Check Your Progress 2

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.
ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit.

1) Name the erosional landforms made in karst region.

2) Name the depositional landforms made in karst region.

5.4 GLACIAL LANDSCAPES

Glaciers are found where the temperature is below freezing point. Glaciers
are basically formed due to accumulation of ice above the snow-line. Glacial 99
Geomorphic Processes landscape is the characteristics of high latitude and high-altitude regions of
the world. Glacial landscape develops or found above the snow line. There
are three types of glaciers. They are Alpine Continental and Piedmont
glaciers. Alpine glaciers are the features of high altitudes, continental glaciers
are the features of high latitudes
latitudes,, and piedmont glacier is the feature of
foothills where the temperature is below freezing point. Several distinct
features are developed by glaciers. They can be classified under two broad
categories:

(i) Erosional features and (ii) Depositional features

5.4.1 Erosional Features

All the erosional features are the creation of erosion. They are mostly
developed in Alpine glacier regions or in mountains. There are several
landforms created by erosional action by the glaciers. They are:

U-shaped Valley: Glacier is a solid body of ice which moves down slope
very slowly. Since it is solid, it exerts huge pressure on the surface. In this
process, it tries to make a ‘U’ shaped valley. When a glacier occupies a pre-
developed ‘V’ shaped valley by river, it creacreates
tes ‘U’ shaped valley. Hence,
river valley of ‘V’ shaped is transferred into ‘U’ shaped valley by glaciers.

Fig. 5.13: U-Shaped Valley Hanging Valley

Source: Author

The erosive power of the glaciers is determined by the slope of the surface
and the amount of accumulated ice. When the slope as well as amount of ice
is more
more,, it erodes more. Therefore, greater erosion is observed. Valley
becomes deeper. It is quite obvious that there is smaller quantity of ice is
there in the tributary glaciers. Hence smaller amount of ice erodes lesser in
comparison to the main (primary) gla glacier.
cier. Therefore, the difference in the
thickness of the glacier is responsible for the formation of hanging valley
(Fig. 5.13). Just like Main River, the main glacier has more thickness of ice
in comparison to the tributary. It results into the differences in bed level.
When, the tributary glacier meets the main glacier, it is seen hanging over the
main glacier. When the ice is melted, or glacial age is over, they are visible.
Several examples of hanging valleys are observed in the Himalayan region.

100
 Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes

Fig. 5.13: Glaciated Landscape (Source: Wikipedia, United States National Park
Service. Public Domain.)

Cirque: is like an armchair in shape found in the upper part of glacier. When
a glacier starts from a peak of a mountain system, it has a very steep wall like
structure. At the bottom, it is a basin like depression. To the front, it is like a
threshold with a little higher blocking of the depressed basin. Its slope is
concave. The height of the frontal part of a cirque is high due to deposition of
debris. Once, the glacier is melted, water get accumulated in the cirque. This
accumulated water is termed as Cirque Lake or tarn (Fig. 5.13).

Arête: When cirques are developed on both sides of a ridge, arête is formed.
The boundary between two adjacent cirques gets narrower and sharper due to
erosion; a sharp edge is created called arête. Tracking/climbing is dome along
the arête because it has lesser slope in comparison to the climbing through the
cirque. When three or more glaciers developed along a peak from different
direction, the peak becomes sharper and narrower (Fig. 5.13). This peak is
known as horn (Fig. 5.13).

Roche Moutonnee: The effect of glacial erosion is also seen on the floor/
surface. Such type of effect can be seen in both continental and mountain
glaciers. Continental glaciers are wider. Hence, there is a possibility of rocky
hills / or rocky mounds come in their path. In such a situation, the slope in
front of glacier (stoss side) of that rocky mound becomes softer and smoother
due to abrasion and the leeward side slope becomes rugged / rough due to
glacier/snow pressure. Such develop landscape is termed as roche moutonnee.

Fig. 5.14: Roche Moutonnee (Source: Author)

101
Geomorphic Processes Fiord: When a glacier reaches at the sea / oceanic coast, it performs erosional
work. At the coast, huge iceberg reaches to the coast. That iceberg also
carries load/ erosive tools of the glacier at the bottom. Since huge iceberg
exerts high pressure on the ocean bottom, erosion is performed below the seal
level. Hence, greater erosion creates fiord which is an extension of the ocean
inside the land. The western coast of Norway is famous for such type of
coast. These types of coasts are suitable for natural ports fish industry.

5.4.2 Depositional features

Deposition occurs when the carrying capacity is reduced. Different sizes of
loads are carried by glaciers. When they are getting deposited in their ways,
they deposit the materials in different ways. On the basis of the way of
deposition, t can be classified into two types – unstratified and stratified
glacial deposits.

A. Unstratified Features:

Unstratified landform is named till plain, formed due to deposition of loads

of glacier. When continental glacier melts, unsorted or unstratified loads
deposition of glacial happen. It leads to form a plain which is termed as till
(unsorted glacial sediments) plain. Prairie Plain of North America is an
example. Small plain of such type are also seen near Goolmarg in Kashmir,
India.

Moraine: Boulder, sand and clay deposits are found on the floor of the
glaciated region. The unsorted deposits by glaciers are termed as moraine.
They are of four types:

Fig. 5.14: Moraines (Source: Author)

Terminal Moraine: As the name suggests, it is found at the boundary of a

glacier where it terminates.

Lateral Moraine: Lateral moraines are formed along two banks of a glacier.
They are visible when the glacier recedes and the ice is melted.

Medial Moraine: When a tributary glacier meets with another glacier medial
moraine is formed. Both banks of both glaciers have lateral moraines. After
convergence, both joining banks (lateral moraines) merged together and their
sediments are carried in a merged form. Hence, sediments are carried in a
linear form from the middle of the moraine. That is why; the medial moraines
102 name is given. Ground Moraine: When the moving body of ice in the form
of glacier is melted, its loads are deposited on the way. Since, its deposition is Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes
taking place over the entire area of the moving ice; it is called as ground
moraine.

Drumlin: is a depositional topography found before terminal moraine. When

the transportation efficiency or carrying capacity of glacier comes to end,
they deposit their loads in hips. The axis of the hips is determined by the
direction/ axis of the movement of the glacier. These hips look like inverse
teaspoon. It is popularly called as Drumlin.

Fig. 5.14: Glacial Depositional Landscape

Source:
https://www.thephysicalenvironment.com/Book/glacial_systems/landforms_of_continental_glaciation_p1.html

B. Stratified Landforms: Stratified landscapes are found between glacier

and alluvial region. It develops after terminal moraine. Outwash Plain is
one of the prominent landscapes of such region. When water and ice
fragments are flow together, creates or develops a plain. It is called
outwash plain. Out wash plains are developed by continental as well as
mountain glaciers. Outwash plain is a depositional plain. In this stratified
outwash plain some other landscapes are found. Among them Kame,
Sandur and Kettle are prominent.

Kame: Kame is poorly stratified deposits found after snow line but parallel
to the snow line. This landscape is compared with delta, hence is called kame
delta.

Kettle: is a depression in the outwash plain. It is formed due to melt of a

large iceberg. They are found many in the outwash plain.

Esker: It is a narrow and long ridge made up of the deposits of gravel and
sand. It is generally found on the ground moraine areas. Its side has relatively
steep slope. Its height varies from a few meter to several meter and its length
is more than a km in the direction of the glacio-fluvial flow.

Check Your Progress 3

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answer with those given at the end of the Unit. 103
Geomorphic Processes 1. Name the erosional landforms made by glaciers.

2. Name the depositional landforms made by glaciers.

5.5 CONCLUSION
River, Underground water and Glaciers are active in different climatic
conditions. Depending upon the climatic conditions of any particular area,
geomorphic processes are different. You can simply take examples of Indian
plains and high Himalayan zone with temperature less than zero degrees
Celsius. Both of these regions have different geomorphic processes. Different
processes are working differently. Therefore, the landforms made by them
are different as well. It all depends on the way of their actions. That is why;
William Morris Davis proposed that landform of any region is the functions
of structure, process and stage. It is called trio of Davis about which you have
already studied before.

5.6 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

1. Describe the formation of either erosional or depositional feature of
made by river.

2. Explain the formation of either erosional or depositional feature made in

Karst regions.

3. Discuss the formation of either erosional or depositional feature of made

by glaciers.

5.7 REFERENCES & SUGGESTED READING

 Siddhartha, K: (2017), Physical Geography, Kitab Mahal

 Singh, Savindra: (1998), Geomorphology, Prayag Pustak Bhawan

 Robert E. Gabler, James F. Peterson, L. Michael Trapasso, Dorothy

Sack: (2008), Physical Geography, Cengage Learning.

 Leong, Goh Cheng: (1995), Certificate Physical and Human Geography,

Oxford University Press

 Marsh, William M, & Kaufman, Martin M: (2012), Physical Geography,

Great Systems and Global Environments

 https://earth.google.com/web/@25.5365971,83.11876483,104.6540149a,
18724.91329176d,35y,0h,0t,0r/data=OgMKATA

 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Nowitna_river.jpg

 https://www.drishtiias.com/images/uploads/1591012432_image2.png

 https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Lapies_de_Inner
bergli_Habkern_P1012490mod.jpg
104
 https://civilspedia.com/karst-topography/ Fluvial, Karst and
Glacial Landscapes
 https://www.thephysicalenvironment.com/Book/glacial_systems/landfor
ms_of_continental_glaciation_p1.html

5.7 ANSWERS
Check Your Progress 1
1) A river course is divided into three stages:
i : Youth stage, ii: mature stage and iii: old stage
2) The erosional landforms made by river are:
I shaped valley, v shaped valley, Gorge, Rapids, waterfall and Cascades
3) The depositional landforms made by river are:
1. Alluvial cones 2. Alluvial fan 3. Flood plain 4. Natural Levees etc.

Check Your Progress 2

1) The erosional landforms made in karst region are:
(i): lapies, sinkholes, swallow holes, doline, uvala, polje etc.
(ii): Cave and related landscapes
2) The depositional landforms made in karst region are:
i. stalactite ii. Stalagmite iii. Cave Pillar

Check Your Progress 3

2. 1) The erosional landforms made by glaciers are:
‘U’ shaped valley, hanging valley, Cirque, Arête , Roche Moutonnee
etc.
2) The depositional landforms made by glaciers are:
i. Till plain, ii. Moraine, iii. Kame, iv. Sandur and v. Kettle

TERMINAL QUESTIONS ANSWERS

1) Your answer should include the following points:

For details, refer Section 5.2.1, 5.2.2 and 5.2.3

2) Your answer should include the following points:

For details, refer Section 5.3.1, and 5.3.2

3) Your answer should include the following points:

For details, refer Section 5. 4.1 and 5.4.2

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