PHYSICS PROJECT ON INTERFERENCE

FROM THE BASIC OPTICS

By: Divya Anilkumar Chandak
Class: 11-A
Introduction
Interference of light is the phenomena of multiple light waves interacting with
one another under certain circumstances, causing the combined amplitudes of
the waves to either increase or decrease. In this piece, we discuss both the
constructive and destructive interference of light waves, what causes
interference, and some real-world examples and experiments that
demonstrate this phenomenon.
An important characteristic of light waves is their ability, under certain
circumstances, to interfere with one another. The definition of interference in
physics is the superposition of waves, causing an increase or decrease in the
amplitude of the resulting wave. Most people observe some type of optical
interference every day, but do not realize what is occurring to produce this
phenomenon. One of the best examples of the interference of light is
demonstrated by the light reflected from a film of oil floating on water. Another
example is the soap bubble illustrated in Figure 1 that reflects a variety of
beautiful colours when illuminated by natural or artificial light sources.

Origin of the Concept of Interference

The concept of interference is implicit in Newton's explanation of the anomaly
of the tides in the Gulf of Tongkin, but Thomas Young was the first to generalize
the principle and to apply it to compound tides, to auditory beats, and to the
colours of thin films. In his Bakerian Lecture, delivered on 12 and 19 November
1801, he was able to accurately derive the wavelengths of particular hues from
Newton's measurements of the colours of thin plates. The first printed
statement of the generalized principle of interference appears in the Syllabus
for his Royal Institution lectures, which was published early in 1802. His
celebrated two-slit experiment is first described in his Course of Lectures on
Natural Philosophy and the Mechanical Arts of 1807.
Seeing a black hole at the heart of a distant galaxy is like standing in Paris and
reading a newspaper in New York. How is this possible? And why can quantum
computers compute impossible things in hours that would take classical
computers the time since the Big Bang? The answer to these questions is
interference. Optical interferometry is mankind’s most sensitive form of
measurement. In just the past several years, interferometry has been used to
make the first image of a black hole, to demonstrate the first programmable
quantum computer, and to detect the first gravitational waves. This recent list
of “firsts” points to the fertile and active field of optical interferometry for
which Interference provides a convenient and up-to-date guide for a wide
audience interested in the science of light. This book tells the stories about the
personal adventures experienced by the scientists and engineers who
uncovered the vast wealth of optical interference phenomena. Beginning with
Young’s double-slit experiment and the collaboration of Arago and Fresnel to
prove the wave nature of light, to the detection of gravitational waves using
kilometer-long laser beams, the history of interferometry has astonishing
human drama that parallels the scientific drama of the discoveries.

Mechanisms of Wave Interference

The principle of superposition of waves states that when two or more
propagating waves of the same type are incident on the same point, the
resultant amplitude at that point is equal to the vector sum of the amplitudes
of the individual waves.[4] If a crest of a wave meets a crest of another wave of
the same frequency at the same point, then the amplitude is the sum of the
individual amplitudes—this is constructive interference. If a crest of one wave
meets a trough of another wave, then the amplitude is equal to the difference
in the individual amplitudes—this is known as destructive interference. In ideal
mediums (water, air are almost ideal) energy is always conserved, at points of
destructive interference, the wave amplitudes cancel each other out, and the
energy is redistributed to other areas. For example, when two pebbles are
dropped in a pond, a pattern is observable; but eventually waves continue, and
only when they reach the shore is the energy absorbed away from the
medium.
Photograph of 1.5cm x 1cm region of soap film under white light. Varying film
thickness and viewing geometry determine which colours undergo constructive
or destructive interference. Small bubbles significantly affect surrounding film
thickness.
Consider, for example, what happens when two identical stones are dropped
into a still pool of water at different locations. Each stone generates a circular
wave propagating outwards from the point where the stone was dropped.
When the two waves overlap, the net displacement at a particular point is the
sum of the displacements of the individual waves. At some points, these will be
in phase, and will produce a maximum displacement. In other places, the
waves will be in anti-phase, and there will be no net displacement at these
points. Thus, parts of the surface will be stationary—these are seen in the
figure above and to the right as stationary blue-green lines radiating from the
centre.
Interference of light is a unique phenomenon in that we can never observe
superposition of the EM field directly as we can, for example, in water.
Superposition in the EM field is an assumed phenomenon and necessary to
explain how two light beams pass through each other and continue on their
respective paths. Prime examples of light interference are the famous double-
slit experiment, laser speckle, anti-reflective coatings and interferometers.
In addition to classical wave model for understanding optical interference,
quantum matter waves also demonstrate interference.

The Types Of Wave Interference

Different types of interference
Interference is a phenomenon that occurs when two or more waves overlap,
resulting in the reinforcement or cancellation of amplitudes at specific points.
There are several types of interference, categorised based on the relative
phases of the interfering waves and the resulting amplitude at a given point.
Here are the main types of interference:
1. Constructive Interference:
Description: Occurs when two waves meet in phase, meaning their peaks and
troughs align.
Result: The amplitudes of the waves add together, leading to a higher
combined amplitude.
2. Destructive Interference:
Description: Occurs when two waves meet out of phase, meaning the peak of
one wave aligns with the trough of the other.
Result: The amplitudes of the waves subtract from each other, leading to a
lower combined amplitude or complete cancellation under ideal conditions.
3. Coherent and Incoherent Interference:
Coherent Interference: Occurs when the interfering waves have a constant
phase relationship.
Incoherent Interference: Occurs when the interfering waves have no specific
phase relationship.
4. Temporal Interference:
Description: Involves interference that occurs in the time domain, such as
beats in sound waves.
Result: The periodic variation in amplitude due to the constructive and
destructive interference of waves with slightly different frequencies.
5. Spatial Interference:
Description: Involves interference that occurs in the spatial domain, such as the
patterns seen in the double-slit experiment.
Result: The formation of alternating regions of constructive and destructive
interference on a screen or surface.
6. Polarisation Interference:
Description: Occurs when polarised waves interfere.
Result: The amplitude and polarisation state of the resulting wave depend on
the relative orientations of the polarisation of the interfering waves.
7. Quantum Interference:
Description: Unique to quantum mechanics, it involves the interference of
probability amplitudes for different quantum states.
Result: Quantum interference plays a crucial role in phenomena such as the
double-slit experiment with particles and quantum entanglement.
8. Thin-Film Interference:
Description: Occurs when light waves reflect off the top and bottom surfaces
of a thin film, leading to interference.
Result: The colours observed are a result of constructive and destructive
interference, depending on the thickness of the film.
Understanding these various types of interference is essential for physicists and
engineers working in fields such as optics, acoustics, and quantum mechanics.
The study of interference not only provides insights into wave behaviour but
also enables the development of technologies ranging from interferometers to
antireflection coatings.

Interference Through Two Sources

Experiment
In a two-source interference experiment, light waves from two separate
sources, like the double-slit experiment, overlap and create an interference
pattern on a screen. This pattern consists of bright and dark bands, a result of
constructive and destructive interference. For a clear interference pattern, the
sources must be coherent, meaning they have a constant phase difference. If
the sources are not coherent, the phase difference will change randomly, and a
blurry or no interference pattern will be observed.
Here's a more detailed explanation:
1. Two Coherent Sources:
  In the classic Young's double-slit experiment, light from a single source is
passed through two slits, effectively creating two coherent sources.
 These two sources are then treated as if they are two independent
sources, but with a constant phase relationship (coherence).
2. Overlapping Waves:
 The light waves from the two slits spread out and overlap on a screen
placed behind the slits.
 Where the crests (high points) of the waves align, they constructively
interfere, creating a bright spot.
 Where the crest of one wave aligns with the trough (low point) of
another, they destructively interfere, creating a dark spot.
3. Interference Pattern:
 This superposition of waves results in a pattern of alternating bright and
dark fringes on the screen.
 The bright fringes correspond to locations where constructive
interference occurs, and the dark fringes correspond to destructive
interference.
4. Factors Affecting the Pattern:
 Wavelength of Light: The wavelength of the light source affects the
spacing of the fringes.
 Distance between Slits: The separation between the two slits influences
the pattern's spacing.
 Distance to the Screen: The distance between the slits and the screen
also affects the pattern's spacing.
5. Incoherent Sources:
 If the two light sources are not coherent (i.e., they don't have a constant
phase difference), the interference pattern will not be clearly defined or
may not be visible.
 Incoherent sources will produce a blurred or smeared interference
pattern because the phase difference between them changes randomly
over time.
Interference Through A Thin Film
Thin-film interference is a phenomenon where light waves interfere after
reflecting off the top and bottom surfaces of a thin film, resulting in visible
patterns of colour. This occurs because light waves reflected from these two
surfaces travel slightly different paths and can interfere constructively
(reinforcing each other) or destructively (cancelling each other out). The
resulting interference patterns depend on the film's thickness and the
refractive indices of the film and the surrounding media.
Here's a more detailed explanation:
 Light Interaction with a Thin Film:
When light strikes a thin film, a portion is reflected at the top surface, and
another portion is transmitted and reflected at the bottom surface.
 Path Difference:
The light wave that is reflected from the bottom surface travels a longer path
than the wave reflected from the top surface.
 Interference:
The difference in path length and any phase shifts upon reflection can cause
the reflected light waves to interfere.
 Constructive Interference:
When the path difference is an integer multiple of the wavelength (λ), the
waves reinforce each other, and bright colors are observed.
 Destructive Interference:
When the path difference is an odd multiple of half the wavelength (λ/2), the
waves cancel each other out, and dark regions are observed.
 Colour Patterns:
The combination of constructive and destructive interference creates colorful
patterns, such as those seen in oil slicks on water or soap bubbles.
 Factors Affecting Interference:
The colour and intensity of the interference patterns depend on several factors,
including the thickness of the film, the wavelength of light, and the refractive
indices of the film and the surrounding media.
 Applications:
Thin-film interference is used in various applications, including anti-reflective
coatings on lenses, solar cells, and optical filters.

Facts About Interference

🌊 Conditions for Interference
 Waves must be coherent (same frequency and stable phase
relationship).
 Typically involves identical or similar waves.
 Interference is most commonly observed in light, sound, and water
waves.

🌈 Examples in Real Life

 Double-slit experiment (light): Demonstrates interference patterns of
light as alternating bright and dark bands.
 Thin film interference: Seen in soap bubbles or oil slicks, due to
constructive/destructive interference of reflected light.
 Beats (sound): Created when two waves of slightly different frequencies
interfere.

📐 Mathematics of Interference
If two waves are given by:
 y1=Asin⁡(ωt)y_1 = A \sin(\omega t)y1=Asin(ωt)
 y2=Asin⁡(ωt+ϕ)y_2 = A \sin(\omega t + \phi)y2=Asin(ωt+ϕ)
Then the resulting wave is:
  y=2Acos⁡(ϕ2)sin⁡(ωt+ϕ2)y = 2A \cos\left(\frac{\phi}{2}\right) \sin\left(\
omega t + \frac{\phi}{2}\right)y=2Acos(2ϕ)sin(ωt+2ϕ)
Where ϕ\phiϕ is the phase difference:
 If ϕ=0,2π,4π,…\phi = 0, 2\pi, 4\pi, \ldotsϕ=0,2π,4π,…: Constructive
 If ϕ=π,3π,5π,…\phi = \pi, 3\pi, 5\pi, \ldotsϕ=π,3π,5π,…: Destructive

🧪 Applications
 Interferometry (precision measurement of distances using light
interference).
 Holography
 Acoustic engineering (controlling sound in rooms).
 Wireless communication (signal interference).

Conclusion
In conclusion, this project on wave interference has deepened my
understanding of how waves interact when they meet in the same medium. I
learned that interference can be constructive, where waves combine to make a
larger wave, or destructive, where they cancel each other out. This principle
explains many real-world phenomena, such as colourful patterns in soap
bubbles, quiet zones in noise-cancelling headphones, and even the patterns
seen in the famous double-slit experiment. Through demonstrations and
experiments, I observed how the phase difference and path difference
between waves affect the interference pattern. These findings show how wave
interference is not just a theoretical concept but a crucial part of technologies
and natural phenomena around us. Overall, studying interference has helped
me appreciate the wave nature of light and sound and how precise control of
wave behaviour is essential in fields like optics, communication, and
engineering.
Interference is a rich and multifaceted phenomenon that transcends the
boundaries of classical and quantum physics. From its foundational role in the
double-slit experiment to its applications in technology and everyday life,
interference continues to captivate physicists and researchers alike. As we
delve deeper into the intricacies of interference, we uncover not only the
beauty of wave dynamics but also the profound implications for our
understanding of the universe.

Bibliography
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