MODULE-VI

OXY FUEL-GAS WELDING (OFW)

Oxy fuel-gas welding (OFW) is a welding process that uses a fuel gas
combined with oxygen to produce a flame.
The flame is the source of the heat that is used to melt the metals at the joint.
Gas welding process uses acetylene; the process is known as oxy acetylene-
gas welding (OAW) and is typically used for structural metal fabrication and
repair work
OAW utilizes the heat generated by the combustion of acetylene gas (𝐶2 𝐻2 )
in a mixture with oxygen.
The heat is generated in accordance with a pair of chemical reactions.
The primary combustion process:
𝐂𝟐 𝐇𝟐 + 𝐎𝟐 → 𝟐𝐂𝐎 + 𝐇𝟐 + 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭
 OXY FUEL-GAS WELDING (OFW)

The primary reaction dissociates the acetylene into carbon monoxide and
hydrogen and produces about one-third of the total heat generated in the
flame.
The secondary combustion process:
𝟐𝐂𝐎 + 𝐇𝟐 + 𝟏. 𝟓 𝐎𝟐 → 𝟐 𝐂𝐎𝟐 + 𝐇𝟐 𝐎 + 𝐇𝐞𝐚𝐭
This reaction consists of the further burning of both the hydrogen and the
carbon monoxide and produces about two-thirds of the total heat.
The temperatures developed in the flame can reach 3300°C
FLAME TYPES
 FLAME TYPES
The proportion of acetylene and oxygen in the gas mixture is an
important factor in oxyfuel-gas welding.
At a ratio of 1:1 (i.e., when there is no excess oxygen), the flame is
considered to be neutral.
With a greater oxygen supply, the flame can be harmful (especially for
steels), because it oxidizes the metal.
For this reason, a flame with excess oxygen is known as an oxidizing
flame
Only in the welding of copper and copper-based alloys is an oxidizing
flame desirable, because in those cases, a thin protective layer of slag
(compounds of oxides) forms over the molten metal.
If the oxygen is insufficient for full combustion, the flame is known as a
reducing or carburizing flame (a flame having excess acetylene).
The temperature of a reducing flame is lower; hence, such a flame is
suitable for applications requiring low heat, such as brazing, soldering,
and flame-hardening operations.
PRINCIPLE OF OFW PROCESS
 OXY-FUEL GAS WELDING (OFW)

Oxyfuel-gas welding can be used with most ferrous and nonferrous

metals for almost any workpiece thickness, but the relatively low heat
input limits the process to thicknesses of less than 6 mm
Small joints made by this process may consist of a single-weld bead.
Deep-V groove joints are made in multiple passes.
Cleaning the surface of each weld bead prior to depositing a second layer
is important for joint strength and in avoiding defects
Wire brushes (hand or power) may be used for this purpose.
 OXY-FUEL GAS WELDING (OFW)
Other fuel gases (such as hydrogen and methylacetylene propadiene)
also can be used in oxyfuel-gas welding.
The temperatures developed by these gases are lower than those
produced by acetylene.
They are used for welding
(a) Metals with low melting points (such as lead) and
(b) Parts that are thin and small.
The flame with pure hydrogen gas is colourless it is difficult to adjust the
flame by eyesight.
OFW EQUIPMENT
 OFW EQUIPMENT
The equipment for oxyfuel-gas welding consists basically of a welding
torch connected by hoses to high-pressure gas cylinders and equipped
with pressure gages and regulators
The use of safety equipment (such as goggles with shaded lenses, face
shields, gloves, and protective clothing) is essential.
Proper connection of the hoses to the cylinders is an important factor in
safety.
Oxygen and acetylene cylinders have different threads, so the hoses
cannot be connected to the wrong cylinders.
The low equipment cost is an attractive feature of oxyfuel-gas welding.
Although it can be mechanized, this operation is essentially manual and
slow.
It has the advantages of being portable, versatile, and economical for
simple and low-quantity work.
 WELDING TECHNIQUES
There are two usual methods depending upon the ways in which welding
rod and welding torch are used.
1. Leftward technique or forehand welding method.
2. Rightward technique or Backhand welding technique
LEFTWARD TECHNIQUE
 LEFTWARD TECHNIQUE
In Leftward Technique, welding starts from the right side and proceeds
towards the left the blowpipe follows the filler rod and the flame is
directed towards the incomplete weld.
This method is used for welding steel plates under 6.5 mm thick, and
also welding for non-ferrous metals.
The welding rod moves the blowpipe along the seam, and the weld
travels from right to left when the pipe is held in the right hand.
The blowpipe makes an angle of 60°-70° with the plate, the filler rod is
held at an angle of 30°-40°.
The flame is given a circular motion and played on the joint until a
molten pool is obtained the welding then proceeds on.
RIGHTWARD TECHNIQUE
 RIGHTWARD TECHNIQUE
In Rightward Technique the welding starts from the left and proceeds
toward the right of the filler rod follows the blowpipe and the flame is
directed towards the complete weld
In this method the weld progresses along the seam from left to right, the
rod following the blowpipe.
This method has definite advantages on thick plate over the leftward
method.
At the time of welding the rod is given a rotational or circular motion,
while the blowpipe moves in practically a straight line.
 FILLER METALS
Filler metals are used to supply additional metal to the weld zone during
welding.
They are available as filler rods or wire and may be bare or coated with
flux.
The purpose of the flux is to retard oxidation of the surfaces of the parts
being welded by generating a gaseous shield around the weld zone.
The flux also helps to dissolve and remove oxides and other substances
from the weld zone, thus contributing to the formation of a stronger joint.
The slag developed(compounds of oxides, fluxes, and electrode-coating
materials) protects the molten puddle of metal against oxidation as it
cools
 ARC-WELDING PROCESS
In arc welding, developed in the mid-1800s, the heat required is obtained
from electrical energy.
The process involves either a consumable or a nonconsumable electrode.
An AC or a DC power supply produces an arc between the tip of the
electrode and the workpiece to be welded.
The arc generates temperatures of about 30,000°C
In nonconsurnable-electrode welding processes, the electrode is typically
a tungsten electrode
Because of the high temperatures involved, an externally supplied
shielding gas is necessary to prevent oxidation of the weld zone.
Direct current is used, and its polarity (the direction of current flow) is
important.
The selection of current levels depends on such factors as the type of
electrode, metals to be welded, and depth and width of the weld zone
 POLARITY

Straight polarity-also known as direct-current electrode negative

(DCEN)-the workpiece is positive (anode), and the electrode is negative
(cathode).
DCEN generally produces welds that are narrow and deep
Reverse polarity-also known as direct-current electrode positive
(DCEP)-the workpiece is negative and the electrode is positive.
Weld penetration is less, and the weld zone is shallower and wider
DCEP is preferred for sheet metals and for joints with very wide gaps.
In the AC current method, the arc pulsates rapidly.
This method is suitable for welding thick sections and for using large-
diameter electrodes at maximum currents
POLARITY

a. Straight polarity-also known

as direct-current electrode
negative (DCEN)
b. Reverse polarity-also known
as direct-current electrode
positive (DCEP)
c. AC current
 HEAT TRANSFER IN ARC WELDING
The heat input in arc Welding is given by the equation :

𝐇 𝐕𝐈
=𝐞
𝐥 𝐯
Where ,H = Heat input (J)
l =Weld length,
V= Voltage applied,
I = Current (amperes),
v = Welding speed.
e = Efficiency of the process
(75% for shielded metal-arc welding
90% for gas metal-arc welding and submerged-arc Welding)
HEAT TRANSFER IN ARC WELDING
(CONT..)
The heat input melts a certain volume of material, usually the electrode
or filler metal, and can also be expressed as

𝐇 = 𝐮𝐕𝐦 = 𝐮𝐀𝐥

Where, u = Specific energy required for melting,

𝑉𝑚 = Volume of material melted,
A = Cross section of the Weld
Welding speed:
𝐕𝐈
𝐯=𝐞
𝐮𝐀
 ELECTRODES
Electrodes for consumable arc-welding processes are classified
according to the following properties:
 Strength of the deposited weld metal
 Current (Ac or Dc)
 Type of coating
Electrodes are identified by numbers and letters or by colour code if the
numbers and letters are too small to imprint.
Typical coated-electrode dimensions are in the range from 150 to 460
mm in length and 1.5 to 8 mm in diameter.
Specifications for electrodes and filler metals (including dimensional
tolerances, quality control procedures, and processes) are published by
the American Welding Society (AWS) and the American National
Standards Institute (ANSI).
 CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRODES
AS PER INDIAN STANDARD
Structural steel electrodes were classified as per IS 814:1974 and this code was
revised and the revised code is IS 814:1991.
The corresponding code is given on each packet of electrode.IS 815:1974
As per IS 815 electrodes are designated with letters and digits.
PXXXXX X S
Prefix (P) is either E or R which indicates solid extruded (E) or reinforced
extruded (R) Electrode.
1 st digit – Indicates type of coating, 2 nd digit – Indicates weld positions in
which electrode can be used, 3 rd digit – Indicates welding current conditions, 4
th and 5 th digit – Indicate UTS and YS of all weld metal, 6 th digit –
Requirement of minimum % elongation and absorbed energy in charpy V- notch
impact test of weld metal.
Suffix (S) – P – Deep penetration electrode, H – Hydrogen controlled electrode,
J, K and L – Amount of metal recovery in case of iron powder electrode
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTRODES
AS PER INDIAN STANDARD
IS 814:1991
As per IS 814 electrodes are designated with letters and digits as given
below:
ELX X X X S
E indicates extruded solid electrode,
L is a letter to designate type of coating,
First digit indicates UTS and YS of deposited weld metal, second digit gives
percentage elongation and impact values of weld metal deposited, third digit
gives welding positions in which electrode can be used and fourth digit gives
the current conditions for the use of electrode.
Suffix(S) are optional and indicate special characteristics of electrode such
as H1, H2, and H3 indicate hydrogen controlled electrodes with different
amount of diffusible hydrogen J, K, L indicate different amount of metal
recovery in weld pool in case of iron powder electrodes and X means
radiographic weld quality.
 ELECTRODE COATINGS
Electrodes are coated with claylike materials that include silicate binders and
powdered materials, such as oxides, carbonates, fluorides, metal alloys, cotton
cellulose, and wood flour.
The coating, which is brittle and takes part in complex interactions during welding,
has the following basic functions:
 Stabilize the arc.
 Generate gases to act as a shield against the surrounding atmosphere; the gases produced are
carbon dioxide, water vapour, and small amounts of carbon monoxide and hydrogen.
 Control the rate at which the electrode melts.
 Act as a flux to protect the weld against the formation of oxides, nitrides, and other inclusions
and, with the resulting slag, to protect the molten-weld pool.
 Add alloying elements to the weld zone to enhance the properties of the joint among these
elements are deoxidizers to prevent the weld from becoming brittle.
 ELECTRODE COATINGS
Functions
Coating Constituent
Main Functions Other Functions
Cellulose Gas former Coating Strength and Reducing agent
Slag basicity and metal fluidity,
Calcium Fluoride (CaF2) Slag former
H2 removal

Clay (Aluminium Silicate) Slag former Coating strength

Talc (Magnesium Silicate) Slag former Arc stabilizer

Rutile (TiO2 ) Arc stabilizer, Slag former, Fluidity Slag removal and bead appearance
Arc Stabilizer, improved metal
Iron Oxides Fluidity, Slag former
transfer,
Calcium Carbonate Gas former, Arc stabilizer Slag basicity, Slag former
Asbestos Coating strength Slag former
Quartz (SiO2 ) Slag fluidity, Slag former Increase in current carrying capacity.
Sodium Silicate / Potassium
Binder, Arc stabilizer Slag former
Silicate
FeMn / FeSi Deoxidizer -
Iron Powder Deposition Rate -
Powdered Alloys Alloying -
SHIELDED METAL-ARC WELDING
(SMAW)
 SHIELDED METAL-ARC WELDING
(SMAW)
 Shielded metal-arc welding (SMAW) is one of the oldest, simplest, and most
versatile joining processes
 About 50% of all industrial and maintenance welding currently is performed
by this process
 The electric arc is generated by touching the tip of a coated electrode against
the workpiece and withdrawing it quickly to a distance sufficient to maintain
the arc
 The electrodes are in the shapes of thin, long rods (hence, this process also is
known as stick welding) that are held manually
The heat generated melts a portion of the electrode tip, its coating, and the base
metal in the immediate arc area
The molten metal consists of a mixture of the base metal (the workpiece), the
electrode metal, and substances from the coating on the electrode; this mixture
forms the weld when it solidifies
The electrode coating deoxidizes the weld area and provides a shielding gas to
protect it from oxygen in the environment.
SUBMERGED-ARC WELDING (SAW)
SUBMERGED-ARC WELDING (SAW)
SUBMERGED-ARC WELDING (SAW)

In submerged-arc welding (SAW), the weld arc is shielded by a granular

flux consisting of lime, silica, manganese oxide, calcium fluoride, and
other compounds
The flux is fed into the weld zone from a hopper by gravity flow through
a nozzle
The thick layer of flux completely covers the molten metal
It prevents spatter and sparks and suppresses the intense ultraviolet
radiation and fumes characteristic
The flux also acts as a thermal insulator by promoting deep penetration
of heat into the workpiece
The unused flux can be recovered (using a recovery tube), treated, and
reused
GAS TUNGSTEN-ARC WELDING
(GTAW)
 GAS TUNGSTEN-ARC WELDING
(GTAW)
Also called Tungsten Inert Gas (TIG ) welding
The filler metal is supplied from a filler wire
Because the tungsten electrode is not consumed in this operation, a
constant and stable arc gap is maintained at a constant current level
The filler metals are similar to the metals to be welded, and flux is not
used
The shielding gas is usually argon or helium (or a mixture of the two)
The GTAW process is used for a wide variety of applications and metals,
particularly aluminium, magnesium, titanium, and the refractory metals.
It is especially suitable for thin metals.
The cost of the inert gas makes this process more expensive than SMAW
but provides welds of very high quality and surface finish.
PLASMA-ARC WELDING (PAW)
 PLASMA-ARC WELDING (PAW)
In plasma-arc welding a concentrated plasma arc is produced and
directed towards the weld area
The arc is stable and reaches temperatures as high as 33,000°C
A plasma is an ionized hot gas composed of nearly equal numbers of
electrons and ions
The plasma is initiated between the tungsten electrode and the orifice by
a low-current pilot arc
There are two methods of plasma-arc welding:
Transferred-arc method: The workpiece being welded is part of the
electrical circuit. The arc transfers from the electrode to the workpiece
hence the term transferred
Non transferred method: The arc occurs between the electrode and the
nozzle, and the heat is carried to the workpiece by the plasma gas. This
thermal-transfer mechanism is similar to that for an oxy fuel flame
ULTRASONIC WELDING (USW)
 ULTRASONIC WELDING (USW)

In ultrasonic welding (USW), the faying surfaces of the two components are
subjected to a static normal force and oscillating shearing (tangential)
stresses.
The shearing stresses are applied by the tip of a transducer which is similar
to that used for ultrasonic machining
The frequency of oscillation is generally in the range from 10 to 75 kHz,
although a lower or higher frequency can be employed
The shearing stresses cause plastic deformation at the interface of the two
components, breaking up oxide films and contaminants and thus allowing
good contact and producing a strong solid-state bond
 ULTRASONIC WELDING (USW)
The temperature generated in the weld zone is usually in the range from
one-third to one-half of the melting point (absolute scale) of the metals
joined
The temperature generated can be sufficiently high to cause metallurgical
changes in the weld zone
The ultrasonic-welding process is versatile and reliable
It can be used with a wide variety of metallic and non metallic materials,
including dissimilar metals(bimetallic strips)
It is used extensively for the joining of plastics, for packaging with foil
FRICTION WELDING (FRW)
 FRICTION WELDING (FRW)
In friction welding (FRW), the heat required for welding is generated
through friction at the interface of the two components being joined
In friction welding, one of the workpiece components remains stationary
while the other is placed in a chuck or collet and rotated at a high constant
speed
The two members to be joined are then brought into contact under an axial
force
After sufficient contact is established, the rotating member is brought to a
quick stop while the axial force is increased
Oxides and other contaminants at the interface are removed by the radially
outward movement of the hot metal at the interface
The rotating member must be clamped securely to the chuck or collet to
resist both torque and axial forces without slipping
The pressure at the interface and the resulting friction produce sufficient heat
for a strong joint to form
 RESISTANCE WELDING (RW)

The category of resistance welding (RW) covers a number of processes in

which the heat required for welding is produced by means of electrical
resistance across the two components to be joined
These processes have major advantages, such as not requiring consumable
electrodes, shielding gases, or flux
The heat generated in resistance welding is given by the general expression

H = I2Rt
H = Heat generated in joules ( J)
I = Current (A)
R = Resistance (Ω )
t = Time of current flow (s)
 RESISTANCE WELDING (RW)
Above equation is often modified so that it represents the actual heat energy
available in the weld by including a factor K, which denotes the energy
losses through conduction and radiation

H = I2RtK
where the value of K is less than unity.
The total resistance is the sum of the following properties
a. Resistances of the electrodes;
b. Electrode-workpiece contact resistance;
c. Resistances of the individual parts to be welded;
d. Contact resistance between the two workpiece to be joined (faying
surfaces)
RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING
(RSW)
 RESISTANCE SPOT WELDING (RSW)

In resistance spot welding (RSW), the tips of two opposing solid,

cylindrical electrodes touch a lap joint of two sheet metals, and
resistance heating produces a spot weld
In order to obtain a strong bond in the weld nugget, pressure is applied
until the current is turned off and the weld has solidified.
Accurate control and timing of the alternating electric current and of the
pressure are essential in resistance welding.
The weld nugget is generally 6 to 10 mm in diameter.
The surface of the spot weld has a slightly discoloured indentation
Spot welding is the simplest and most commonly used resistance
welding process.
Spot welding is used widely for fabricating sheet-metal parts
RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING
(RSEW)
 RESISTANCE SEAM WELDING
(RSEW)

Resistance seam welding (RSEW) is a modification of spot welding

wherein the electrodes are replaced by rotating wheels or rollers
Using a continuous AC power supply, the electrically conducting rollers
produce a spot weld
With a high frequency or slow traverse speed, these spot welds actually
overlap into a continuous seam and produce a joint that is liquid tight and
gastight
In roll spot welding, current to the rollers is applied only intermittently,
resulting in a series of spot welds at specified intervals along the length of
the seam
In mash seam welding the overlapping welds are about one to two times
the sheet thickness, and the welded seam thickness is only about 90% of
the original sheet thickness
Stud Welding (SW)
 Stud Welding (SW)
Stud welding (SW) is also called stud arc welding
The stud (which may be a small part or, more commonly, a threaded rod,
hanger, or handle) serves as one of the electrodes while being joined to
another component, which is usually a flat plat
Polarity for aluminium is usually direct-current electrode positive
(DCEP), and for steel it is direct-current electrode negative (DCEN).
In order to concentrate the heat generated, prevent oxidation, and retain
the molten metal in the weld zone, a disposable ceramic ring (ferrule) is
placed around the joint
In capacitor-discharge stud welding, a DC arc is produced from a
capacitor bank.
No ferrule or flux is required, because the welding time is very short-on
the order of 1 to 6 milliseconds.
PERCUSSION WELDING (PEW)
 PERCUSSION WELDING (PEW)

The electrical energy for welding may be stored in a capacitor.

Percussion welding utilizes this technique, in which the power is
discharged within 1 to 10 milliseconds to develop localized high heat at
the joint.
The process is useful where heating of the components adjacent to the
joint is to be avoided, as in electronic assemblies and electrical wires
 BRAZING & SOLDERING

Joining processes soldering that require lower temperatures than those

used for fusion welding.
Filler metals are placed in or supplied to the joint.
Filler metals are melted by an external source of heat.
Solidification to form a strong joint
Temperatures for soldering are lower than those for brazing
Soldered joint has lower strength than a brazed joint
 BRAZING

Braze welding

Brazing
 BRAZING
A joining process in which a filler metal is placed between the faying
surfaces to be joined (or at their periphery) and the temperature is raised
sufficiently to melt the filler metal, but not the components(base metal).
It is a liquid-solid state bonding process
When filler metal cools and solidifies a strong bond is formed
 FILLER METALS
Several metals are available with a range of brazing temperatures.
Filler metals for brazing generally have a composition that is
significantly different than the composition of the metals to be joined.
This is different than for fusion welding.
Filler metals are available in a variety of shapes, such as wire, rod, ring,
shim stock, filings.
Incorrect filler selection may lead to embrittlement of the joint by:
 Grain-boundary penetration of liquid metal
 Formation of brittle-inter metallic compounds at the joint
 Galvanic corrosion at the joint
Mechanical and metallurgical properties of bond may change over time
by diffusion of filler metal into the base metal
 BRAZING FLUXES

Use of a flux is essential flux prevents oxidation and removes oxide

films.
Generally made of borax, boric acid, borates, fluorides, chlorides.
Wetting agents may be used to improve:
Wetting characteristics of molten filler
 Capillary action
 Surfaces must be clean; no oil, rust, other
Remove fluxes after brazing; flush with hot water (before corrosive
action can start)
 BRAZING METHODS

1. Torch Brazing(TB)
2. Furnace Brazing(FB)
3. Induction Brazing(IB)
4. Resistance Brazing(RB)
5. Dip Brazing(DB)
6. Infrared Brazing(IRB)
7. Diffusion Brazing(DFB)
8. High-energy Beams
9. Braze Welding
TORCH BRAZING(TB)
 TORCH BRAZING(TB)

The heat source in torch brazing (TB) is oxy fuel gas with a carburizing
flame.
Brazing is performed by first heating the joint with the torch and then
depositing the brazing rod or wire in the joint.
Suitable part thicknesses are typically in the range from 0.25 to 6 mm.
Torch brazing is difficult to control and requires skilled labour
FURNACE BRAZING(FB)
 FURNACE BRAZING(FB)

The parts are first cleaned and preloaded with brazing metal in
appropriate configurations; then the assembly is placed in a furnace,
where it is heated uniformly.
Furnaces may be either batch type, for complex shapes, or continuous
type, for high production runs
Skilled labour is not required,
Complex shapes can be brazed because the whole assembly is heated
uniformly in the furnace
INDUCTION BRAZING(IB)
 INDUCTION BRAZING(IB)

The source of heat is induction heating by high-frequency AC current

Parts are preloaded with filler metal and are placed near the induction
coils for rapid heating
Unless a protective (neutral) atmosphere is utilized, fluxes generally are
used
Part thicknesses usually are less than 3 mm.
 RESISTANCE BRAZING(RB)
The source of heat is the electrical resistance of the components to be
brazed.
Electrodes are utilized in this method, as they are in resistance welding.
Parts typically with thicknesses of 0.1 to 12 mm either are preloaded
with filler metal or supplied external with the metal during brazing
 DIP BRAZING(DB)

It is carried out by dipping the assemblies to be brazed into either a

molten filler-metal bath or a molten salt bath at a temperature just
above the melting point of the filler metal.
All component surfaces are coated with the filler metal.
Dip brazing in metal baths is typically used for small parts (such as
sheet, wire, and fittings), usually less than 5 mm in thickness or
diameter.
 INFRARED BRAZING(IRB)

The heat source is a high-intensity quartz lamp.

The process is particularly suitable for brazing very thin components,
usually less than 1 mm thick.
The radiant energy is focused on the joint, and brazing can be carried
out in a vacuum.
Microwave heating also can be used
 DIFFUSION BRAZING(DB)

It is carried out in a furnace where, with proper control of

temperature and time, the filler metal diffuses into the faying surfaces
of the components to be joined.
The brazing time required may range from 30 minutes to 24 hours.
The rate of diffusion at the interface does not depend on the thickness
of the components, part thicknesses may range from foil to as much
as 5 0 mm.
 HIGH-ENERGY BEAMS & BRAZE
WELDING

High-energy Beams
For specialized and high-precision applications and with high-
temperature metals and alloys, electron-beam or laser-beam heating
may be used.

Braze Welding
The joint in braze welding is prepared as it is in fusion welding
While an oxyacetylene torch with an oxidizing flame is used, filler
metal is deposited at the joint
 SOLDERING
In soldering, the filler metal (called solder) melts at a relatively low
temperature.
As in brazing, the solder fills the joint by capillary action between
closely fitting or closely placed components.
Two important characteristics of solders are low surface tension and high
wetting capability.
Heat sources for soldering are usually soldering irons, torches, or ovens.
The word “solder” is derived from the Latin solidare, meaning “to make
solid.”
Soldering with copper-gold and tin-lead alloys was first practiced as far
back as 4000 to 3000 B.C.
 TYPES OF SOLDERS

Solders melt at a temperature that is the eutectic point of the solder alloy
Solders traditionally have been tin-lead alloys in various proportions.
For example, a solder of 61.9% Sn-38.1% Pb composition melts at
188°C, whereas tin melts at 232°C and lead at 327°C.
For special applications and higher joint strength (especially at elevated
temperatures), other solder compositions are tin-zinc, lead-silver,
cadmium-silver, and zinc-aluminium alloys
Because of the toxicity of lead and its adverse effects on the
environment, lead free solders are being developed continuously and are
coming into wider use.
 TYPES OF SOLDERS

Types of Solders Applications

Tin-lead General purpose
Tin-zinc Aluminium
Lead-silver Strength at higher than room temperature
Cadmium-silver Strength at high temperatures
Zinc-aluminum Aluminium, corrosion resistance
Tin-silver Electronics
Tin-bismuth Electronics
 SOLDERING FLUXES

1.Inorganic acids or salts, such as zinc-ammonium-chloride

solutions, which clean the surface rapidly.
To avoid corrosion, the flux residues should be removed after
soldering by washing the joint thoroughly with water.
2.Noncorrosive resin-based fluxes, used typically in electrical
applications.
 SOLDERING TECHNIQUES
a. Torch soldering (TS).
b. Furnace soldering (FS).
c. Iron soldering (INS) (with the use of a soldering iron).
d. Induction soldering (IS).
e. Resistance soldering (RS).
f. Dip soldering (DS).
g. Infrared soldering (IRS).
Other soldering techniques, for special applications, are:
h. Ultrasonic soldering (US)
i. Reflow (paste) soldering (RS).
j. Wave soldering (WS).
 TORCH SOLDERING (TS)

The gas torch, used to supply heat quickly, may have single or multi
orifice tips.
Flame temperature is controlled by the nature of gas used.
Torch may operate on oxygen and fuel gas or air and fuel gas(eg:
propane, butane, etc.)
FURNACE SOLDERING (FS), DIP
SOLDERING (DS) &ULTRASONIC
SOLDERING (US)
Furnace Soldering (FS)
The flux and solder are preplaced on the component to be joined and the
components are heated in a furnace.
Dip Soldering (DS)
Dipping assembled flux coated joint into a pool or baths of liquid
solders.
Ultrasonic Soldering (US)
A transducer subjects the molten solder to ultrasonic cavitation and
thereby removes oxide films from the surface to be joined and
eliminates the need for a flux
 IRON SOLDERING (INS)

Traditional tool for soldering is soldering iron with a copper tip

which may be heated electrically or by coke or gas flame.
Electric iron may vary in size from 15W iron used for printed circuits
to 500w iron used for large electrical equipment's.
Soldering tip is sometimes coated with iron to minimise wear
The tip of soldering iron stores and conduct heat from heat source to
the components being joined
 INDUCTION SOLDERING (IS) &
RESISTANCE SOLDERING (RS)

Induction Soldering (IS)

The parts are assembled with the flux and solder preplaced by means
of conveyor belts, parts to be soldered are heated in the field of a high
frequency induction coil.

Resistance Soldering (RS)

The components to be soldered are held between two electrodes
and form the parts of the electrical circuits.
 Pressure is maintained until the solder has solidified.
 REFLOW SOLDERING
(RFS)/PASTE SOLDERING

Solder pastes are solder metal particles held together by flux and
binding and wetting agents.
The pastes are semisolid in consistency.
They have viscosity and are able to maintain a solid shape for long
period of time.
The paste is placed directly onto the joint, or on flat objects, heated in
a furnace and reflow soldering takes place.
In reflow soldering, the product is heated in a controlled manner
 REFLOW SOLDERING
(RFS)/PASTE SOLDERING

Sequence of events occurs during the process:

1. Solvent present in the paste are evaporated.
2. The flux in the paste is activated, and fluxing action occurs.
3. The components are carefully preheated.
4. The solder particles are melted and wet the joint.
5. The assembly is cooled at a lower rate to prevent thermal shocks
and fracture of solder joint.
WAVE SOLDERING(WS)
 WAVE SOLDERING(WS)

Wave soldering is an appropriate approach for attaching circuit

components to their boards.
Preheated and prefluxed circuit boards are conveyed over the wave,
the solder wets the exposed metal surfaces, but it does not stay
attached to the polymer package for the integrated circuits.
An air knife ( a high velocity jet of hot air ) blows excess solder from
the joint, to prevent bridging between adjacent leads.