Solution

DERIVATIONS- ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS

Class 12 - Physics
Section A
1. i. In an electric dipole with two equal and opposite point charges, - q at point A and + q at point B with distance 2a as shown, so
→ →
AB = 2a with dipole moment | P | = q(2a) If the dipole is kept in a uniform external electric field E at an angle θ with the
→
direction of E, then :
→ →
a. force on a charge - q at point A = qE, E, opposite E
→ →
b. force on charge +q at point B = + qE , along E

Hence, the net force on dipole will be given as:

qE - qE = 0 this is possible when a uniform electric field is applied.
ii. Work done in rotating the dipole is given by, W = Ep (1 - cos θ)
= Ep (1 - cos 180°)
= 2 Ep joules
or Work done on the dipole, W = ΔU
= pE(cos θ1 - cos θ2)
W = pE(cos 0° - cos 180°)
W = 2pE
2. A thin straight conducting wire will be a uniform linear charge distribution. Let q charge be enclosed by the cylindrical surface.

Gauss' law states that electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the net charge enclosed inside the surface divided by
permittivity of vacuum.
Linear charge density,
q
λ= l
q = λl ....... (i)
By Gauss' theorem,
∴ Total electric flux through the surface of cylinder

q
ϕ= ε0
[Gauss' theorem]
λl
∴ ϕ= ε0
[From Eq. (i)]

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3. The situation is shown in Fig.

Flux through the entire cylinder,

= ∫ E dS cos 180o + ∫ E dS cos 0o + ∫ E dS cos 90o

= -E ∫ dS + E ∫ dS + 0
= -E × πr2 + E × πr2 = 0
4. Let the gaussian surface be a sphere and the separation between the charge is r and taking one charge inside the sphere and the
other be at the surface (r)
now firstly we are interested in finding the magnitude of the electric field at a distance r.
q net
∫ Eds = ε0
q1
∫ Eds = ε0
q1
E × 4πr2 = ε0
q1
E= (this is an electric field due to charge 1 at a distance r)
4πr 2ε 0
now we can find force due to this electric field on charge q2
q 1q 2
F = q2E =
4πε 0r 2
1 q 1q 2
= ×
4πε 0 r2
this proves the force of interaction between 2 charged particle.

5.

The electric field intensity at a point is the force experienced by a unit of positive charge placed at that point. Electric field
intensity is a vector quantity.
Consider the an electric dipole of charges +q and -q separated by distance 2a with center at O.
Let E1 and E2 be electric field on P due to charges +q and -q respectively.
kq kq
E= -
( r − a )2 ( r + a )2
4ra
= kq
(r −a )
2 2 2

Define, p = 2aq
2pr
E=k
(r −a )
2 2 2

2pr 2p
If r >> a, then E = k =k .
r4 r3
→
→ 2p
In vector form, E = k .
r3

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6. Let q charge be uniformly distributed over the spherical shell of radius r for which we have to find the electric field at the surface.

Surface charge density on spherical shell is the charge per unit area. Thus,
q
σ= ........ (i)
4πr 2
Electric field intensity on the surface of spherical shell assuming all charge resides in the centre is,
1 q
E= ⋅ n̂
4πε 0 r2
[ ∵ electric field acts along radially outward and along n̂ as the charge is positive]
( q / 4πr ) 2
σ
E= n̂ ⇒ E= n̂......... (ii)
ε0 ε0
This relation shows that for a given conductor electric field intensity(E) is directly proportional to surface charge density(σ) and
perpendicular to the surface as shown in the figure.
7. a. Let an electric dipole be placed in uniform electric field vector E

→
Force on each charge = qE
→
Perpendicular distance between two forces = 2 l sinθ
→ →
∴ Torque = qE × 2 l sin θ
→ →
= (q × 2 l ) Esinθ
= pE sinθ
→ →
=P × E
b. If the electric field is not uniform then there will be a net force acting on the dipole which will give the translatory motion to
the dipole.
c. i. is increasing parallel to p, then θ = 0o. So, torque becomes zero but the net force on the dipole will be in the direction of
increasing electric field and hence it will have linear motion along the dipole moment.
ii. E is increasing anti-parallel to p. So, the torque still remains zero but the net force on the dipole will be in the direction of
increasing electric field which is opposite to the dipole moment, hence it will have linear motion opposite to the dipole
moment.
8. Charges 1 and 2 are deflected towards the positive plate, hence they are negatively charged particles. On the other hand, charge 3
is positively charged particle, as it gets deflected towards negative plate.
Since all the three charged particles are crossing the electric field with same velocities, they remain under the action of electric
field E (say) for the same time t. The, deflection produced in the path of a charged particle along
the vertical,
1
y = ut + 2 at2
Now, the initial velocity of the charged particle along vertical is zero. If e is charge on a particle and m is its mass, then
acceleration produced in its path,
eE
a= m

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 1 eE 1 eE
∴ y=0 × t+ 2 m
t2 = 2 m
t2
As E and t are same for all the charged particles, it follows that
e
m
∝ y
Since the charged particle 3 suffers maximum deflection along vertical, its charge to mass ratio is highest.
9. i. By symmetry, the flux through each of the six faces of the cube will be the same when charge q is placed at its centre.
1 q
∴ ϕE = ⋅
6 ε0
→
ii. When charge q is placed at one vertex, the flux through each of the three faces meeting at this vertex will be zero, as E is
parallel to these faces. As only one-eighth of the flux emerging from the charge q passes through the remaining three faces of
the cube, so the flux through each such face is
1 1 q 1 q
ϕE = 3
⋅
8
⋅
ε0
= 24
⋅
ε0

10. Let q and Q - q be the charges on the two objects. Then force between the two objects is
1 q(Q−q)
F= ⋅ where r is the distance between the two objects.
4πε 0 r2
For F to be maximum,
dF
dq
=0
1 1 d
or ⋅ ⋅ (qQ - q2) = 0
4πε 0 r2 dq
d
or dq
(qQ - q2) = 0
or Q - 2q = 0
Q
or q = 2
i.e., the charge should be divided equally on the two objects.
11. Let two point charges q1 and q2 are placed at points A and B have position vectors r1 and r2 from the origin O as shown in the
figure-
Electric field lines due to these charges will be away from the charges as both are positive.

∵ AP = r - r1 and BP = r - r2
Electric field intensity at point P due to q1 will be given by -
1 q1 ^
E1 = 4πε 0
⋅ 2 AP
| AP |
Similarly, Electric field intensity due to charge q2 is given by -
1 q2 ^
E2 = 4πε 0
⋅
2 BP
| BP |
∴ Net electric field intensity at point P will be the vector sum of the electric field produced by the two charges and can be added
directly i.e.
E = E1 + E2

[ ]
^ ^
1 q1 q2
= 4πε 0 (r − r 1 ) + (r − r2 )
| r − r1 | 2 | r − r2 | 2

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12.

Derivation
Fr = -qEsinφ (Restoring force)
ma = -qEsinφ
when φ is small
ma = -qEφ
d 2x x
m = − qE l
dt 2
d 2x E x
= − qm
dt 2 l
comparing with equation of linear SHM.
d 2x
= − ω 2x
dt 2
qE
ω=
√ ml

2π ml
T=
ω
= 2π
√ qE

13. i. Electric dipole of charges + q and - q separated by distance 2a is shown in the figure.

It is placed in a uniform electric field at an angle θ with it.

→ →
Force on charge + q, F1 = qE, in the direction of E.
→
Force on charge - q, F2 = − qE, in the opposite direction of E.
→ →
∴ Net translatory force on dipole = F1 + F2 = + qE - qE = 0
Hence, no translatory force acts on it.
ii. But the two equal parallel and unlike forces form a couple in which a torque is given by
τ = Force × perpendicular distance between the two forces
τ = qE × 2a sin θ
τ = pE sin θ
where p = q × 2a = dipole moment
14. a. Since the electric field lines emanating from A and C, therefore the charges A and C are positive.
b. From a larger charge, relatively greater number of electric field lines emanate from charge C. Therefore, the charge C has the
largest magnitude.
c. The electric field cannot be zero between the unlike charges pairs, such as A and B or B and C. It can be zero between two
like charges (i.e. A and C) only. Further, the point, where the electric field is zero, would be closer to smaller charge and

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 farther away from the larger charge.
Therefore, the electric field is zero near the charge A.
15. Gauss's law states that the electric flux through any closed surface is equal to the net charge enclosed by the surface divided by
Q en
permittivity of vacuum. i.e ϕ = ϵ0
Let P be any point at a distance r from the sheet.
Let the small area element E = dsn
E and 'n' are perpendicular, on the surface of imagined cylinder, so electric flux is zero. E and 'nn' are parallel on the two
cylindrical edges P and Q, which contributes electric flux.
∴ Electric flux over the edges P and Q of the cylinder is

→
→ q
2 ∮E ⋅ ds = ϵ0

q →
→
2 ∮ Eds = ϵ0
[ ∵ E ⊥ ds]
q
2Eπr2 = ϵ0
q
→
2πϵ 0r 2
q
∴ The charge density σ =
S

⇒ q = πr2 σ [where S - area of circle]

πr 2σ
E=
2πϵ 0r 2
σ
E= 2ϵ 0
→ σ
∴ vecotrically E = n̂
2ϵ 0
16. An electric dipole is a separation of positive and negative charges. The electric dipole moment is the product of the magnitude of
the charge and the distance between the centres of positive and negative charges.
Let AB be an electric dipole of charges -q and +q and distance between them be 2l. Dipole makes an angle θ in the electric field

E in the direction of field. Force on the charge +q due to electric field is given by F = qE Due to both forces are equal and
opposite. Hence resultant force is zero, but they from a couple. Therefore, moment of restoring couple or torque is given by
∴ τ = force × perpendicular distance = qE × BC BC = AB sinθ = 2l sinθ
∴ τ = qE × 2l sinθ = pE sinθ ( ∵ p = q × 2l), where p is electric dipole moment.
Section B
17. i. Consider an electric dipole whose length is 2a and center at O. From the mid-point O, consider a point at the distance r, where
the electric field intensity is to be determined.

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 ii. Graph of E versus r

iii.
18. Electric dipole moment of an electric dipole is equal to the product of its either charge and the length of the electric dipole. It is
denoted by p.
Unit of dipole moment is C-m.
It is a vector quantity and its direction is from a negative charge to positive charge.
Let an electric dipole AB consists of two charges +q and -q separated by a distance 2a.
Electric field at point P due to charge +q,
1 q
E1 = 4πε 0
×
[√ r2 + a2 ] 2

1 q
E1 = 4πε 0
× along AP
( r2 + a2 )

Electric field at point P due to charge -q placed at B

1 q
E2 = × along PB
4πε 0 r2 + a2
On resolving E1 and E2 into rectangular components, we get the resultant electric field at point P. Here vertical components of
electric field will cancel each other, so resultant electric field will be towards left which can be calculated as -
E = E 1cosθ + E 2cosθ
1 q 1 q
= 4πε 0
× cosθ + 4πε 0
× cosθ
( r2 + a2 ) ( r2 + a2 )
1 q a
=2× 4πε 0
× ×
(r + a )
2 2 √ ( r2 + a2 )
1 q.2a
= 4πε 0
×
(r +a )
2 2 3/2

1 p
∴ E= 4πε 0
×
(r +a )2 2 3/2

If r >> a, i.e., for short dipole we have

1 p
E= ×
4πε 0 r3
This equation shows that electric field due to dipole at a distance 'r' from its perpendicular bisector decreases with r and
proportional to dipole moment.
19. When an electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field, the torque acting on the dipole is given by
→ →
τ =→
p×E

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 → → → →
In the above expression, one pair of perpendicular vectors is τ and p the other is τ and E .
The magnitude of the torque on the dipole is given by τ = p E sin θ
i. It follows that the torque will be maximum (= p E), when the dipole is placed perpendicular to the direction of the electric
field as shown in Fig. (a).

ii. For the torque to be half the maximum value,

p E sin θ = p E/2
or sin θ = 1/2
or θ = 30°
Therefore, torque on the dipole will be half the maximum value, when it is placed making an angle of 30° to the direction of
the electric field as shown in Fig. (b).
iii. It follows that the torque will be zero when the dipole is placed along the direction of the electric field as shown in Fig. (c).
→ → q
20. By Gauss's law, ϕ E = ∮ E ⋅ d S = ε0

i. In the space between the two cylinders, field is due to charge on inner cylinder only.
→ →
λ 1l λ 1l
∴ ϕE = ∮
S 1E 1 ⋅ dS = ε0
or E 1 × 2πr 1l = ε0
→
λ1
∴ E1 = 2πε 0t 1

ii. In the region outside the larger cylinder,

→ → ( λ1 − λ2 ) l
ϕE = ∮
S 2E 2 ⋅ dS =
ε0

( λ1 − λ2 ) l
or E 2 × 2πr 2l =
ε0

→ ( λ1 − λ2 )
∴ E2 = r̂ 2
2πεr 2

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21.

Let us consider q is displaced slightly by z along the axis of the ring. The motion is simple harmonic if q must be proportional to Z
and is directed towards O.
a. A slight push on q along the axis of the ring gives rise to the situation shown in Fig (b). A and B are two points on the ring at
the end of a diameter
−Q
Force on q due to line elements 2πR
at A and B is
−Q 1 1
FA + B = 2 ⋅ ⋅ q⋅ ⋅ cosθ
2πR 4πε 0 r2
− Oq 1 z
= πR ⋅ 4πε o
⋅ ⋅

(z +R ) (z +R )
2 2 2 2 1/2

Total force due to ring on q = (FA+B)(π R)

− Qq 1 z
= 4πε o
⋅ ⋅

(z +R ) (z +R )
2 2 2 2 1/2

− Qq
= 4πε 0
forz << R

Thus, the force is proportional to the negative of displacement. The motion under such forces is harmonic.
b. From results in option (a),
d 2z Qqz d 2z Qq
m = − or = − z
dt 2 4πε o R3 dt 2 4πε omR 3
Qq
That is, ω 2 =
4πε omR 3
4πε omR
Therefore, T = 2π
√ Qq

22. i.

Now,
τ = either force × perpendicular distance BC between parallel forces
τ = qE(2l sin θ)
τ = (q × 2l)Esinθ or τ = ρEsinθ
In vector notation,
τ=p×E
SI unit of torque is newton-metre (N-m) and its dimensional formula is [ML2T-2]. The torque acts perpendicular to both p and
E.
ii. If the field is non-uniform the net force is not zero.
iii. a) If the field is increasing parallel to p, the torque would also increase in the same direction.
b) When the ​field is increasing anti parallel to p, the torque would also increase in the opposite direction.

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23. Electric flux: The electric flux may be defined as the number of electric lines of force crossing through a surface normal to the
surface. It can be measured as the surface integral of the electric field over that surface, i.e.
¯ ¯
ϕ = ∫ sE ⋅ d s
Electric flux ϕ is a scalar quantity.
Now to calculate the electric flux passing through the square of side d, draw a cube of side d such that it completely encloses the
charge q. Now by using Gauss's law.

Total flux through the all the six surfaces of a cube is given as
total charge enclosed
ϕ total = 6 × ϕ square face = ϵ0
q
⇒ 6ϕ square = ϵ0
q
⇒ ϕ square face =
6ϵ 0
Hence the flux through the square of side d with charge q at a distance d/2 directly above the head is q/6ϵo.
If a charge is now moved to the distance d from the center of square and side of the square is doubled, then electric flux remains
unchanged because electric flux in a closed surface depends only on the amount of charge contained inside the closed surface and
is independent of the distance of charge.
24. Consistency of the inverse square law with the electric field lines: As shown in Fig., the number of radial lines of force
originating from a point charge q in a given solid angle ΔΩ is constant. Consider two points P1 and P2 at distances r1 and r2 from
2 2
the charge q. The same number of lines (say n) cut an element of area r 1 ΔΩ at P1 and an element of area r 2 ΔΩ at P2.

n
∴ Number of lines of force cutting unit area element at P1 =
r 21 ΔΩ
n
Number of lines of force cutting unit area element at P2 = 2
r 2 ΔΩ
As electric field strength ∝ Density of lines of force
2 2
E1 n r 2 ΔΩ r2
∴
E2
= 2 ⋅
n
= 2
r 1 ΔΩ r1
1
i.e., E ∝
r2

25. a. The charge density of a long cylinder having length l and radius r1 is λ1 while other cylinders having a similar length which
surrounds the first cylinder having radius r2. If E is the electric field in a space between the two cylinders, then as per Gauss
law, electric flux through Gaussian surface will be:
ϕ = 2πrlE
where,
r = distance of a point from the common axis of cylinders. Further, if q is the total charge on the cylinder, so electric flux will
be

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 q
ϕ= ε0
where,
q = charge on inner cylinder
ε 0 = permittivity of free space
Further,
λ 1l
2πrlE =
ε0
Hence, the electric field between two cylinders is
λ1
E= 2πε 0r

b. Also, when q is the total charge on cylinder, then electric flux will be
ϕ = 2πRlE
q
ϕ=
ε0
where, q = charge, ε 0 = permittivity of free space
Now, the electric field at a point outside the larger cylinder will be
( λ1 − λ2 ) l
2πr 2lE = ε0
λ1 − λ2
Electric field, E = 2πε 0r 2

So, the electric field is proportional to the difference of their charge density and inversely proportional to the distance (radius) of
the cylinder.
26. a. The electrostatic force exerted by the line charge on the electron provides the centripetal force for the revolution of the
electron.
∴ Force exerted by electric field = Centripetal force

mv 2
eE = r
Here v is the orbital velocity of the electron
λ
But E = 2πε 0r
eλ mv 2 eλ
∴
2πε 0r
= r
or v2 = 2πε 0m
Kinetic energy of the electron will be
1 eλ
Ek = 2
mv2 = 4πε 0
b. As Ek ∝ λ, the graph of kinetic energe Ek vs. charge density λ will be straight line as shown in Fig.

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27. Consider a dipole of length 2l is placed at angle θ with the direction of uniform electric field E. Force acts on positive and
negative charges in the direction of field and opposite to the field direction as shown in the diagram.

Magnitude of force on the charges at A and B are given by

F = qE
As the forces are equal and opposite, so net force is zero but due to different lines of action these produce torque.
Torque = Force × perpendicular distance
τ = qE × AM
Now, AM = AB sinθ = 2l sinθ
τ = qE × 2l sinθ = pE sinθ
Two perpendicular vectors are force vector and component of dipole moment along AM.
28. Consider an electric dipole whose length is 2a and centre at O. From the mid-point O, consider a point P at a distance r, where the
electric field intensity is to be determined.

1 q
We have E = ⋅ , general formula
4πε 0 r2
1 9
Case I, E1 = ⋅
4πε 0 ( r − a )2
1 q
Case II, E2 = ⋅
4πε 0 ( r + a )2
Then E at point p is given by = E1 - E2

E=
q
4πε 0 [ 1
( r − a )2
−
1
( r + a )2 ]
E=
q
4πε 0

q
[ ( r + a )2 − ( r − a )2
( r − a )2 ⋅ ( r + a )2

4ar
]
E= 4πε 0
⋅

(r −a )
2 2 2

for, r2>>>a2,( if dipole is short)

E=
q
4πε 0

1
||
4ar
r4

2 × q × 2a × r
E= ⋅
4πε 0 r4
qx2a=p,the dipole moment
→
1 2p
E= ⋅ N / C[ ∵ p = 2qa]2
4πε 0 r3
1
29. Gauss' law states that the total flux through a closed surface is times to the net charge enclosed by the closed surface.
ε0
q
Mathematically, ϕ E = ∮
sE ⋅ dS = ε0
.

Here, ε 0 is the absolute permittivity of the free spaced, q is the total charge enclosed and E is the electric field at the area element
dS.

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 Consider a thin cylindrical Gaussian surface S with charged wire on its axis and point P on its surface.

Then net electric flux through surface S is

ϕ= ∮
sE ⋅ ds = ∫ EdScos90 ∘ + ∫ EdScos0 ∘ + ∫ EdScos90 ∘
Upper plane face Curved surface Lower plane face
ϕ = 0 + EA + 0 or ϕ = E ⋅ 2πl
But by Gauss's theorem, ϕ = q / ε 0 = λl / ε 0 where, q is the charge on length l of wire enclosed by cylindrical surface S and λ is
uniform linear charge density of wire.
λl
∴ E × 2πl = ε0
λ
⇒ E= 2πε 0r
Thus, electric field of a line charge is inversely proportional to distance directed normal to the surface of charged wire.
30. The dipole in a uniform electric field is shown in the figure.

According to the figure, if we consider an electric dipole consisting of charges -q and +q and of length 2a placed in a uniform
electric field E making an angle θ with electric field, then
Force exerted on a charge -q at A will be given by , F = -q E (oppsosite to E)
Force exerted on charge +q at A= q E (along E)
Hence, the net translating force on a dipole in a uniform electric field is zero. But the two equal and opposite forces act at different
points and form a couple which exerts a torque τ on a dipole in clockwise direction.
τ = Force × Perpendicular distance between the two forces
τ = qE(AN) = qE(2asinθ)
τ = q(2a)Esinθ ⇒ τ = pEsinθ ⇒ τ = p × E
When the dipole is placed in a non-uniform electric field, it experiences a net force and torque, which will depend on the
magnitude of electric field at those points.
31. Consider two infinite plane sheets A and B separated by a distance d having surface charge densities + σ and − 2σ respectively as
→ →
shown in the figure. Let E 1and E 2 be the electric field intensities due to sheets A and B.
σ σ
Magnitude of Electric Fields E1 = 2ε 0
and E2 = ε0

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 i. Electric field in the region left of the first sheet,
σ σ
EI = − 2ε + εo
o
σ
EI = + 2ε
0

It's direction is towards right.

ii. Electric field in the region to the right of second sheet,
σ σ
EII = 2ε 0
− ε0
σ
EII = − 2ε
0

It's direction is towards left.

iii. Electric field between the two sheets,
σ σ
EIII = ε0
+ 2ε 0
3σ
EIII =
2ε 0
Here, electric field is towards the right.
32. In the figure, if a is uniform surface charge density of an infinite plane sheet with x-axis to be normal to the plane, then by
symmetry, the electric field will not depend on y and z coordinates and their directions. Considering the Gaussian rectangular
parallelepiped surface with cross-sectional area A, two faces 1 and 2 will contribute to flux where electric field lines result as
parallel to other faces which do not contribute to total flux.
It is analyzed that the unit vector which is normal to the first surface will be in the negative x-direction while the unit vector which
is normal to the second surface will be in positive +x direction, so flux E. ΔS by the surfaces will results equal and will add up.
Consider an infinite sheet of positive charge having a density σ on sheet. Let P be the point on which
net flux through Gaussian surface = 2EA
charge enclosed by closed surface = σA
As per Gauss's law,
→
→ q
∮ E ⋅ ds =
ε 0
σA
∴ 2EA = ε0
σ
or E =
2ε 0
This shows that the electric field around an infinite plane of charge does not vary with distance from the plane.
In terms of vector,
→ σ
E= 2ε 0
n̂

where,
n̂ = unit vector normal to plane and going away from it
→
E = directed away from the plate if σ is (+) positive and toward the plate if σ is (-) negative.
Since the two charged infinite plates have identical charges, so the electric field between two identical charged sheets will be as
shown in the figure:

Now the electric field due to surface 1

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 → σ
E1 = 2ε 0
Now the electric field due to surface 2
→ σ
E2 = −
2ε 0
Now the resultant electric field between the uniformly charged infinite plates
→ →
= E 1 + E 2, θ = 180 ∘

√E
2 2
So, E = 1 + E 2 + 2E 1E 2cosθv

= E1 - E2
σ σ
= 2ε 0
− 2ε 0
=0

33. Gauss's Law: It states that the total electric flux crossing through a closed surface is equal to times the total charge contained
inside the closed surface.

E = Cxî
Electric field at left face of cube = E 1 = Caî
Electric field at the right surface = E 2 = 2Caî
Electric flux through left surface of cube = E1A cos 180 = -E1A = - Ca.a2 = -Ca3 units

Electric flux through right surface of cube = E2A cos 0 = E2 A = 2Ca.a2 = 2Ca3 units

i. Net flux through the cube = 2Ca3 - Ca3 = Ca3 units

q
ii. Using gauss law net flux inside the cube = ε0

From (i),
q = Ca 3ε 0
This is the net charge inside the cube.

34.

2πa
From the given figure it is clear that net Electric Field at point P = ∫ 0 dEcosθ
dE = Electric field due to a small element having charge dq
1 dq
= 4πε 0 r 2
Let λ = Linear charge density
dq
= dl
dq = λdl
2πa 1 λdl x x
Hence E = ∫ 0 ⋅ × r , where cosθ =
4πε 0 r2 r
λx
= (2πa)
4πε 0r 3

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Whatsapp - 7006497301
 1 Qx
= 4πε 0 3 ,
( x2 + a2 ) 2

where total charge Q = λ × 2πa

At large distance i.e., x >> a
1 Q
E= ⋅
4πε 0 x2
This is the Electric field due to a point charge at distance x.
35. a. Electric flux is defined as the number of electric field lines passing through an area normal to the surface. Alternatively,
surface integral of the electric field is defined as the electric flux through a closed surface
→
→
ϕ = ∮ E ⋅ ds
N ⋅ m2
SI unit: C
or volt.metre
b.

Outward flux through the Gaussian surface,

2EA = σA / ε 0
∴ E = σ / 2ε 0
→ σ
In vector form, E = n̂
2ε 0
where n̂ is a unit vector normal to the plane, away from it.
Hence, electric field is independent of the distance from the sheet.
c. i. For positively charged sheet, the electric field is directed away from the sheet.
ii. For negatively charged sheet, the electric field is directed towards the plane of sheet.
Section C
36. i. The electric flux through an area is defined as the electric field multiplied by the area of the surface projected on a plane,
perpendicular to the field. Its S.I. unit is voltmeter (Vm) or Newton metre square per coulomb (Nm2 C-1). The given statement
is justified because while measuring the flux, the surface area is more important than its volume on its size.
ii. Electric field inside the shell:

The charge resides on the surface of a conductor. Thus, a hollow charged conductor is equivalent to a charged spherical shell.
Let's consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius (r < R). If E is the electric field inside the shell, then by symmetry electric
field strength has the same magnitude Ei on the Gaussian surface and is directed radially outward.
Electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by,
→ →
= ∫ sE i ⋅ d S
= ∫ E idScos0 = E i.4πr 2
Now, Gaussian surface is inside the given charged shell, so charge enclosed by Gaussian surface is zero.
Therefore, using Gauss's theorem, we have
→ → 1
∫ SE i ⋅ d S = ϵ0
× charge enclosed

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 1
⇒ E i ⋅ 4πr 2 = ϵ0
×0
⇒ Ei = 0
Thus, electric field at each point inside a charged thin spherical shell is zero.
→ →
37. i. ϕ = E ⋅ A
Electric flux is the number of electric field lines passing through an area normally.
S.I. unit of electric flux Nm2/C or V-m.

ii.

→
→ q
Consider a uniformly charged sheet, Pass a Gaussian surface through it , From Gauss’s law:- ϕ = ∮ E ⋅ dA = ε0
σA
2EA = ε0
σ
E=
2ε 0

iii. Flux through the left surface ϕ L = Eds cos 180o = -Eds
= - BL2
Flux through the right surface ϕ R = Eds cos 0o = Eds

(AL + B)L2 = AL3 + BL2

q
Net flux = AL 3 = ϵ0
⇒ q = AL 3ϵ 0

38. i.

Flux through the Gaussian surface

∅ = E.2πrl
According to Gauss’s law
q
E.2πrl = ϵ0
∵ q = λl electric field =
λ
E= 2π ∈ 0r
λ
ii. E =
2πϵ 0r
mv 2
r
= eE

1
∴ Kinetic energy K = 2
mv2

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Whatsapp - 7006497301
 1
= 2
eEr
1 λ⋅r eλ
= e =
2 2πϵ 0r 4πϵ 0
eλ
iii. Kinetic energy K = 4πϵ 0
∴ K ∝ λ kinetic energy as a function of linear charged debnsity

→
39. i. Let us consider two charges +q and -q separated by a distance 2a.Obtaining expression for torque τ experienced by electric
dipole in uniform electric field
Effect of non-uniform electric field
→ →
a. Force on + q, F = q E
→
Force on -q, F = -q E
→
Magnitude of torque τ = qE × 2asin θ
= 2qaEsin θ
→ → →
τ= p × E
here p is the dipole moment.
ii. If the electric field is non-uniform, the dipole experiences a translatory force as well as a torque.

Consider electric dipole kept in a uniform electric field. Consider electric dipole kept in a uniform electric field at an angle θ
where a dipole experience a torque, so, the torque generated by parallel forces qE will act as a couple as
→
| τ | = qE2lsinθ
= pE sin θ [as p = 2ql]
→ → →
| τ | = |p × E|
When the field is non-uniform, the force acting on both ends will not be equal, hence they result in a mixture of couple and net
force. With this, dipole experiences rotational as well as linear force.
40. a. Let Surface charge density of spherical shell = λ
Radius = R, Consider Spherical Gaussian surface of radius = r

from Gauss Law

q in
ϕ= ϵ0
λ × 4πr 2
= ∈
0
4πλR 2
ϕ= ϵ0
...(i)

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 →
Also, ϕ = E ⋅ A = E 4πr 2 ...(ii)
→
( )
From equation (i) and (ii)
4πλR 2
( )
E 4πr 2 = ϵ0
λR 2
E= 2 ...(iii)
∈
0r
θ θ
∴ λ= 2 or λR 2 = 4π
4πR
θ
E= ......(iv) hence, From equation (iv)
4πϵ 0r 2
Electric field only depend on charge enclosed and location of point.
Therefore charge with either on canter or surface enclose charge by Gaussian surface (r > R) will not change
∴ Hence it is proved.
Case(1) If r < R

this graph shows the variation of electric field with radius r

Charge enclose, qin = 0

E=0
Case(2) If r > R
θ
E=
4πϵ or 2
b. Given that,
First point charge = +1 μC
Second point charge = +4 μC
Distance = 30 cm
Let us consider the net electric field zero at x distance from first charge.
Using formula of electric field
Ex = E30-x
kq 1 kq 2
=
r2 r ′2
Put the value into the formula
1 × 10 − 6 4 × 10 − 6
=
x2 ( 30 − x ) 2
( 30 − x ) 2 4 × 10 − 6
=
x2 1 × 10 − 6
30 − x 4
x
=
√ 1
,

30 - x = 2x
x = 10 cm
41. i. Let P be a point at distance r from the centre of the dipole on the side of charge -q so its distance from +q will be r+d and from
+q its distance will be r-d.

q
Then, the Electric field at point P due to charge -q of the dipole is given by, E − q = − p̂
4πε 0 ( r + d ) 2
where, p̂ is the unit vector along the dipole axis (from -q to q) as shown in the figure.

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 q
Also, the electric field at point P due to charge +q of the dipole is given by, E + q = p̂
4πε 0 ( r − d ) 2
The total field at point P will be the vector sum of all the electric fields

E = E +q + E −q =

q
q
4πε 0

4dr
[ 1
( r − d )2
−
1
( r + d )2 ]
p̂

⇒ E= ⋅ p̂
4πε 0
(r −d )
2 2 2

4qd
For r >> d, E = p̂
4πε 0r 3
Now, electric dipole moment vector, p = q × 2d p̂
2p
Thus, E =
4πε 0r 3
So, electric field due to a dipole decreases as cube of the distance from the centre of the dipole.

ii.

As per the problem, electric field has only x component, for faces normal to X -direction. The magnitude of the electric field
at the left face will be
E L = 0 (as, x = 0 at the left face).
The magnitude of the electric field at the right face is ER = 2a (as, x = a at the right face).
The corresponding fluxes are:
ϕ L = E L ⋅ ΔS = 0

ϕ R = E R ⋅ ΔS = E RΔScosθ = E RΔS (: θ = 0 ) ∘

⇒ ϕ R = E Ra 2
Net flux (ϕ) through the cube
= ϕ L + ϕ R = 0 + E Ra 2 = E Ra 2 = 2a(a) 2 = 2a 3 (since E = 2xî)
Now,
ϕ = q / ε0 ∴ q = ϕε 0 = 2a 3ε 0
42. Consider a long thin wire of uniform linear charge density λ. Let us find the electric field due to the wire at the point P at a normal
distance PN = r from the wire. Let AB = dx be a small elementary portion of the wire at a distance x form the point N. Let ∠OPN
= θ as shown in the figure.

Then, charge on the elementary portion AB is given by,

dq = λdx
Therefore, the electric field due to the small portion AB at the point P is given by,
1 dq 1 λdx
dE = ⋅ = ⋅
4πε 0 OP 2 4πε 0
(r +x ) 2 2

The component dE sin θ due to the different small portions, such as AB will cancel each other. Therefore, effective electric field
due to the small portion AB is given by,

20 / 32
Whatsapp - 7006497301
 dE ′ = dEcosθ
1 λdx
or dE ′ = 4πε 0
⋅ cosθ ....(i)
(r +x ) 2 2

From the right angled ΔONP, we have

x = r tanθ
∴ dx = rsec 2θdθ
Also ,we have r2 + x2 = r2 + r2 tan θ = r2 sec2θ
Therefore, the equation (i) becomes
1 λrsec 2 θdθ
dE ′ = ⋅ cosθ
4πε 0 r 2sec 2 θ
1 λ
= 4πε 0
⋅
r
cosθdθ
The electric field due to the whole long wire can be found by integrating the above between the proper limits
π π
is given by, θ = − 2
to θ = + 2
+π
2 1 λ
∴ E′ = ∫ 4πε 0
. r cosθdθ
−π
2
+π
+π
1 λ 2 1 λ
= .
4πε 0 r − π
∫ cosθdθ = 4πε 0
⋅
r
| sinθ | −2π
2
2
1 λ π −π
= 4πε 0
⋅
r
| sin 2 − sin( 2
)|
1 λ
= ⋅ | 1 − ( − 1) |
4πε 0 r
Hence, electric field is given by-
λ
E' =
2πε 0r

43. a.

From diagram shown above

Magnitude of Torque = (qE)(2a sinθ)
= (2qa) (E sinθ)
= pE sinθ
→ → →
For direction τ = p × E
i. for maximum Torque, dipole should be placed perpendicular to the direction of electric field
π
θ = 90o =
2
ii. For the torque to be half the maximum,
π
θ = 30o =
6

b.

kq
The electric field at P point should be equal and opposite, therefore EPA = EPB ; E =
r2
kq A kq B
=
x2 ( 2 − x )2
1 4
=
x2 2 − x )2

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 1 2
x
= 2−x
2
x = m therefore, at distance 2/3 m from point A, the electric field should be zero.
3
44. i. Electric dipole moment: The strength of an electric dipole is measured by the quantity of electric dipole moment. Its
magnitude is equal to the product of the magnitude of either charge and the distance between the two charges.
or Electric dipole consists of equal and opposite charges separated by a small distance.
Electric dipole moment, p = q × 2a
→ → →
It is a vector quantity. In vector form, it is written as p = q × 2 a p̂ where the direction of 2 a p̂ is from a negative charge to a
positive charge.
The electric field of the dipole at points on the equatorial plane:

The magnitudes of the electric field due to the two charges +q and -q are given by,
q 1
|E + q | = 4πε
→
⋅
0
(r +a )
2 2

→ q 1
|E − q| = 4πε 0
⋅

(r +a )
2 2

|E + q | = |E − q |
→ →

| | | |
→ →
The direction of E + q and E − q are shown in the figure. The components normal to the dipole axis cancel out. The
components along the dipole axis add up
∴ Total electric field

( )
→
E = − E + q + E − q cosθp̂
[Negative sign shows that field is opposite to p]
→ − 2qa
E= ...(i)
(
4πε 0 r 2 + a 2 ) 3/2

At large distances (r >>a) this reduces to

→ − 2qa
E= p̂
4πε 0r 3
q 1
|E + q | = 4πε
→
⋅
0
(r +a )
2 2

→ q 1
|E − q| = 4πε 0
⋅

(r +a )
2 2

|E + q | = |E − q |
→ →
∴

→
∵ p = 2qap̂
→
→ −p
∴ E=
4πε 0r 3

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Whatsapp - 7006497301
 ii. Equipotential surface due to electric dipole :

The potential due to the dipole is zero at the line bisecting the dipole length. Equipotential surfaces are that at every point of
which electric potential is the same.
45. a. Suppose universe is a perfect sphere of radius R and its constituents are Hydrogen atom are distributed uniformly.
As hydrogen atom contains one proton and one electron, charge on each hydrogen atom
eH = eP + e = -(1 + y)e + e = -ye = |ye|
q
According to Gauss' theorem.∮ E ⋅ ds =
ε0

⇒
(
E 4πR 2 = )
1 N | ye | R
1
ε0 [( 4
3
πR 3N | ye | )]
⇒ E= 3 ε0
...(i)

Let, mass of each hydrogen atom ∼ mp=( mass of a proton ), GR= gravitational field at distance R on the sphere.

Then 4πR 2G R = 4πGm p ( )

4
3
πR 3 N
−4
⇒ GR = 3
πGm pNR ...(ii)
−4
∴ Gravitational force on this atom is F σ = G R × m p = πGm 2pNR ...(iii)
3
1 Ny 2e 2R
Coulomb force on hydrogen atom at R is F C = E(ye) = [from Eq.(i)]
3 ε0
Expansion of the universe will start when coulomb repulsion FC > FG on the hydrogen atom.
Now, the critical value of y (say y2 to start expansion would be when, FC = FO
1 Ny 2e 2R 4π 2
⇒
3 ε0
= 3
Gm p NR

() ( ( 1.66 × 10 )
)
− 27 2
mp 2 1
⇒ y 2 = 4πε 0 G( ) e
=
9 × 10 9 (
× 6.67 × 10 − 11 ) ( 1.6 × 10 )
− 19 2
= 79.8 × 10 − 38

⇒ y= √79.8 × 10 − 39 = 8.910 − 19
y=10-18
Hence 10-18 is the required critical value of y corresponding to which expansion of universe would start.
b. Net force experience by the hydrogen atom is given by:
1 Ny 2e 2R 4π 2
F Nr = F e − F C = 3 ε0
− 3
GNm p R
d 2R
Due to net force, the hydrogen atom experiences an acceleration given by m p
dt 2
d 2R 1 NY 2e 2 4π 2
F = mp = R− Gm p NR
dt 2 3 ε0 3

mp
d 2R
dt 2 =
( 1 NY 2e 2R
3 ε0
−
4π
3
Gm p N R
2
)
d 2R
dt 2
=
1
mp [ 1 NY 2e 2R
3 ε0
−
4π
3
2
]
Gm p N R = α 2R ...(iv)

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Whatsapp - 7006497301
 Where, α 2 =
1
mp [ 1 NY 2e 2R
3 ε0
−
4π
3
2
Gm p N
]
The general solution of Eq (iv) is given by R = Ae αt + B − at
Here, we are looking for expansion, here, so B = 0 and R = Ae αt
dR
⇒ Velocity of expansion,v = dt
= Ae αt(α) = αAe at = αR
Hence, v ∝ R i.e., the velocity of expansion is proportional to the distance from the centre.
46. i. Consider an infinite thin plane sheet of positive charge with uniform charge density σ on both sides of the sheet. Let a point be
at a distance of 'a' from the sheet at which the electric field is required.
The gaussian cylinder is of area of cross section A.
Electric flux crossing the gaussian surface,
ϕ = E × Area of the cross section of the gaussian cylinder.
Here, electric lines of force area parallel to the curved surface area of the cylinder, the flux due to the electric field of the plane
sheet of charge passes only through two circular section of the cylinder.
ϕ = E × 2A ..... (i)
According to Gauss's Theorem,
q
ϕ= ϵ0
Here, charge enclosed by the gaussian surface,
q = σA
σA
∴ ϕ= ..... (ii)
ϵ0
From equations (i) and (ii), we get
σA
E × 2A = ϵ0
σ
E= 2ϵ 0
The direction of electric field for positive charge is in the outward direction and perpendicular to the plane of infinite sheet.
σ
ii. As we know, electric field to a uniformly charged infinitely large plane thin sheet with surface charge density σ is E = 2ε o
.

Therefore, the amount of work done (against the electric field E) in bringing a point charge q from infinity to a point, distance
r, in front of the charged plane sheet is
W = ∫ r0 F ⋅ dr
where, F is the force experience by the charge q due to electric field E.
or W = F.r
Now,
F = Eq
⇒ W = Eqr
σ
Here, E = 2ε o
σqr
Therefore, W = 2ε o

47. The electric dipole of charges + q and - q separated by distance 2a is shown in the figure.

It is placed in a uniform electric field at an angle θ with it.

→ → → → → →
i. Force on charge + q, F 1 = qEin the direction of E Force on charge − q, F 2 = − qE in the opposite direction of E
→ →
∴ Net translatory force on dipole = F 1 + F 2

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Whatsapp - 7006497301
 → → →
= + qE − qE = 0
Hence, no translatory force acts on it.
ii. But the two equal, parallel and unlike forces form a couple which rotates the dipole in a direction, thus the moment of the
couple is known as torque which is given by:
τ = Force × perpendicular distance between the two forces
τ = qE × 2asin θ
τ = pEsin θ
where, p = q × 2a = dipole moment.
iii. Work done in rotating the dipole through 180° is given by:
w = ∫ dW
180 ∘ 180 ∘
w = ∫0 τdθ = pE∫ 0 ∘ sinθdθ
180 ∘

w = pE[ − cosθ] 0 ′

[
w = − pE cos180 ∘ − cos0 ∘ ]
W = pE [1 + 1] = 2pE
48. i. The derivation of expression of the electric field on the equatorial line of the electric dipole can be explained as follows:

Let the point 'P' be at a distance V from the midpoint of the dipole.
q
|E + q | = 4πε
0 (r +a )
2 2

q
|E − q | = 4πε
0 (r +a )
2 2

Both are equal and their directions are as shown in the figure, hence the net electric field

[ − (E + q + E − q )cosθ ]p̂
→
E=
2qa
= −
(
4πε 0 r 2 + a 2 ) 3/2

The electric field =p / 4π ∈ 0(r 2 + a 2) ( 3 / 2)

If the dipole is short then 2a<<<<r
Hence electric field= p / 4π ∈ 0(r 3)
where p is the dipole moment.
ii.
a. Stable equilibrium θ = 0

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 b.

49.

Consider a point P outside the shell at a distance r. Consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius r.
Then by Gauss law :
Flux enclosed by the surface
q
ϕ = ∮ E. ds = εo
q
E × 4πr 2 = εo
q
E=
4πε or 2

Let the electric field be zero at x cm from 1micro coulomb charge

At p the electric field due to 1 and 2 are in the opposite direction

E1 - E2 = 0
kq 1 kq 2
=
x2 ( 30 − x ) 2
k1μC k4μC
=
x2 ( 30 − x ) 2
30 - x = 2x
x = 10 cm
50. Electric field due to a system of point charges.
→ → →
Consider a system of N point charges q1, q2, ..., qN, having position vectors r 1, r 2, …, r N with respect to origin O. We wish to
→
determine the electric field at point P whose position vector is r . According to Coulomb's law, the force on charge q0 due to
charge q1 is
→ 1 q 1q 0
F1 = 4πε 0
⋅
2 r̂ 1P
r 2p

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 where r̂ 1P is a unit vector in the direction from q1 to P and r 1P is the distance between q1 and P. Hence the electric field at point P
due to charge q1 is
→

→
F1 1 q1
E1 = q0
= 4πε 0
⋅
2 r̂ 1P
r 1P
Similarly, electric field at P due to charge q2 is
→ 1 q2
E2 = 4πε 0
⋅
2 r̂ 2P
r 2P
According to the principle of superposition of electric fields, the electric field at any point due to a group of point charges is equal
to the vector sum of the electric fields produced by each charge individually at that point, when all other charges are assumed to
be absent.
Hence, the electric field at point P due to the system of N charges is
→ → → →
E = E1 + E2 + … + EN

=
1
4πε 0
[ q1

r 1P
2 r̂ 1P +
q2
2
r 2P
r̂ 2P + … +
qN
2
r NP

51. Electric field due to a uniformly charged thin spherical shell:

]
r̂ NP =
1
4πε 0
N
∑
qi
2
i = 1 r iP
r̂ iP

i. When point P lies outside the spherical shell: Suppose that we have to calculate electric field at the point P at a distance r (r
> R) from its centre.
→
→
Let E be the electric field at point P, then the electric flux through area element dS is given by,
→
→
Δϕ = E ⋅ ΔS
→
Since ΔS is also along normal to the surface,
Δϕ = EdS
∴ Total electric flux through the Gaussian surface is given by.

ϕ = ∮ EdS = E∮ dS
Now, ∮ dS = 4πr 2
∴ ϕ = E × 4πr 2 .....(i)
Since the charge enclosed by the Gaussian surface is q, according to the Gauss's law,
q
ϕ= ε0
....(ii)

From equation (i) and (ii), we obtain

q
E × 4πr 2 = ε0
1 q
E= ⋅ (for r > R)
4πε 0 r2
ii. When point P lies inside the spherical shell: In such a case, the Gaussian surface encloses no charge. According to Gauss's
law,
E × 4πr 2 = 0
i.e., E = 0 (r > R)

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Whatsapp - 7006497301
 A graph showing the variation of electric field as a function of r is shown in figure.

52. i. Consider a dipole of length 2a as shown in the figure

q 1
E+ = ×
q 4πϵ o r2 + a2
q 1
E −q = ×
4πϵ o r2 + a2
Now break the electric field into its components. The components normal to dipole axis cancel away. The components along
the dipole axis add up.
Total electric field is opposite to dipole moment.

( )
→
E = − E + q + E − q cosθp̂
− 2qa
= p̂
(
4πϵ 0 r 2 + a 2 ) 3/2

→
−p
=
(
4π ∈ o r 2 + a 2 ) 3/2

ii. At far off point r >> a

→
→ −p
E=
4π ∈ or 3
When distance is halved.
→
→ −p
E=
4π ∈ o
→
() r
2
3

− 8p
=
4π ∈ or 3
→
Therefore E becomes 8 times

iii.

p1 = q × 2 Cm (along OA)
p2 = q × 2 Cm (along OD)

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 2 2
pnet =
√p 1 + p2

= 2√2q Cm
Electric field at centre O
kpp net
E=
(r + a )
2 2 3/2

at point O, r = 0 , a = 1 m
k × 2√2q 2√2q
E= = 2√2kq =
13 4π ∈ o
Along DC

53.

Consider a circular loop of a wire of negligible thickness having radius a. Let P be a point at a distance x from the centre of the
loop on its axis OX, where electric field due to the loop is to be determined.
q
dq = 2πa
dl
→
Let dE be electric field at point P due to charge dq on the elementary portion AB of the ring.
→
→ 1 dq
dE = | dE | = ⋅ (along CP)
4πε 0 CP 2

Now, CP = (x2 + a2)1/2

Thus,
1 qdl
dE = 4πε 0
⋅

(
2πa x 2 + a 2 )
Now, net electric field at point P due to the whole loop of charge will be only along X-axis.
→
If dE makes angle θ with X-axis, then
dEx = dE cos θ
1 qdl x
Hence, dE x = 4πε 0
⋅ ⋅

(
2πa x 2 + a 2 ) (x +a ) 2 2 1/2

1 qxdl
or dE x = ⋅
4πε 0
(
2πa x 2 + a 2 ) 3/2

Electric field due to whole of the circular loop is given by

1 qxdl
E=∫ dE x = ∫ ⋅
4πε 0
total
loop
total
loop
(
2πa x 2 + a 2 ) 3/2

1 qx 1 qx ( 2πa )
= 4πε 0
⋅ ∫ dl = 4πε 0
⋅

(
2πa x 2 + a 2 ) 3/2
total
loop
(
2πa x 2 + a 2 ) 3/2

1 qx
or E = 4πε 0
⋅ (along PX)
(x + a )2 2 3/2

54. a. Important characteristics of equipotential surfaces are

i. Potential has the same value at all points on the surface.
ii. Electric field is normal to the equipotential surface at all points

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 b.

Electric field due to any elemental (point) charge dq, at point P.

1 dq
= dE = 4πε 0
(x +r ) 2 2

This is directed along AP

Its component along the axis OP of the ring is
x
= dE cosθ = dE
√ x2 + r2

The component, perpendicular to the axis gets cancelled by the elemental electric field due to another elemental charge
symmetrically located on the other side of the axis.
Hence total electric field
E = ∫ dEcosθ
1 dq x
= 4πε 0
∫
(x +r ) √
2 2 x2 + r2

1 x
= 4πε 0 3 ∫ λdl
( x2 + r2 ) 2

1 xλ
= 4πε 0 3 × 2πr
( x2 + r2 ) 2

Q x
= 4πε 0 3

(x +r )
2 2 2

Where Q = λ × 2πr = total charge on the ring

This field is directed along the axis.
When x is much larger than r, we have
Q x 1 Q
E= 4πε 0 3 = 4πε 0 x 2
(x ) 2 2

This corresponds to the expression for the electric field due to a point charge. Thus at large distances the ring behaves like a
point charge.
→ →
55. E e E e

The magnitudes of the electric fields due to the two charges +q and -q are given by

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 q 1
E+q = 4πε 0
(r +a )
2 2

q 1
E-q =
4πε 0
(r +a )
2 2

∴ both are equal.

The directions of E+q and E-q are as shown in the figure. Clearly, the components normal to the dipole axis cancel out. The
components along the dipole axis add up. The total electric field is opposite to p̂. We have
Ee = -(E+q + E-q) cosθ p̂
− 2qa
Ee = 3 p̂
(
4πε 0 r 2 + a 2 ) 2

At large distances (r >> a), this reduces to

− 2qa
Ec = p̂(r >> a)
4πε 0r 3
Thus, the graph takes the form as shown below
Electric dipole of charges +q and -q separated by distance 2a is shown in figure. It is placed in uniform electric field at in angle θ
with it.

Torque on dipole = force × perpendicular distance

τ = qE × 2πsinθ
τ = 2qa Esinθ
τ = pEsinθ
→ →
τ= →
p×E
1
56. Gauss Theorem: The net outward electric flux through a closed surface is equal to ε0
times the net charge enclosed within the

surface.
→
→ 1
∮ E. dS = ∑q
ε0
Electric field due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet:
Let electric charge be uniformly distributed over the surface of a thin, non-conducting infinite sheet. Consider a cylindrical
Gaussian surface having two plane faces A and B lying on the opposite sides and parallel to the charged sheet and the cylindrical
surface perpendicular to the sheet as shown in figure.
By symmetry, the electric field strength at every point on the flat surface is the same and its direction is normal outwards at the
points on the two plane surfaces and parallel to the curved surface.

Total electric flux,

→
→ →
→ →
→
∮ E. dS = ∫
S E. dS 1 + ∫ S E. dS 2 + ∫ S E. dS 3
1 2 3

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∮ E. dS = ∫ S E. dS 1cos 0 + ∫ S E dS 2cos 0 + ∫ S EdS 3cos90
1 2 3

∮ E. dS = E∫ S dS 1 + E∫ S dS 2 + 0
1 2

∮ E. dS = 2E∫ S dS 1 = 2Ea ...... (i)

1

If σ is charge per unit area of sheet and 'a' is the intersecting area,
the charge enclosed by Gaussian surface = σa
According to Gauss’s theorem
1
Total electric flux = ∮ E. dS = ε0
q
1
∮ E. dS = ε0
σa ..... (ii)

From (i) and (ii) we have,

σ
E= 2ε 0
Thus electric field strength due to an infinite flat sheet of charge is independent of the distance of the point and is directed
normally away from the charge.

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