Environmental

Science

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SYLLABUS

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SYLLABUS

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Essential/recommended readings

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Essential/recommended readings

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Essential/recommended readings

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SYLLABUS

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Unit 1: Introduction to environmental studies

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 The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
The environment is constituted by the interacting systems of physical, biological and cultural elements inter-
related in various ways, individually as well as collectively. These elements are
1. Physical Elements: Space, landforms, water bodies, climate, soils, rocks and minerals. They determine
the variable character of the human habitat, its opportunities as well as limitations
2. Biological Elements: Plants, animals, microorganisms and human beings constitute the biosphere.
3. Cultural Elements: Economic, social and political elements are essentially manmade features, which
constitute the cultural milieu.

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 The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
 Ecology is the branch of biology that deals with  Environmental science provides an integrated,
the study of interactions between organisms and quantitative, and interdisciplinary approach to the
their environment. study of environmental systems.
 It is important to distinguish ecology from  Example: Global warming phenomena, physicists
environmental science. create computer models of atmospheric circulation
and IR radiation transmission,
 Ecology deals with the interrelationships of all
organisms with their environment.  Chemists examine the inventory of atmospheric
chemicals and their reactions, biologists analyse the
 Environmental science is an applied science with
plant and animal contributions to carbon dioxide
an emphasis on the analysis of human impacts on
fluxes.
the physical, chemical and biological environment
of Earth.  Specialists such as meteorologists and
oceanographers add additional breadth in
 Environmental science is a multidisciplinary field
understanding the atmospheric dynamics.
that integrates ecology, geology, climatology,
environmental economics, political science and  However, ecology must be at the core of
philosophy. environmental science programme in view of
increasing environmental problems and an urgent
need for conserving natural resources
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 The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
 Environmental studies deals with every issue  The industrial development and intensive
that affects an organism. agriculture that provides the goods for
increasingly consumer-oriented society uses large
 It is essentially a multidisciplinary approach
amounts of natural resources such as water,
that brings about an appreciation of our
minerals, petroleum products, wood, etc.
natural world and human impacts on its
integrity.  Nonrenewable resources, such as minerals and oil
are those which will be exhausted in the future if
 Its components include biology, geology,
we continue to extract these without a thought for
chemistry, physics, engineering, sociology,
subsequent generations.
health, anthropology, economics, statistics,
computers and philosophy.  Renewable resources, such as timber and water,
can be regenerated by natural processes such as
 Our dependence on nature is so great that we
regrowth or rainfall. But these too will be depleted
cannot continue to live without protecting the
if we continue to use them faster than nature can
earth’s environmental resources.
replace them.

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 The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
 Importance: Environment is not a single subject. It  Needs for awareness: Environmental pollution cannot
is an integration of several subjects that include be prevented by laws alone. Public participation is
both Science and Social Studies. equally important with regards to environmental
protection.
Thus, the scope of environmental studies is extremely
wide and covers the following aspects:  Environmental Education (EE) is a process of learning
by giving an overall perspective of knowledge and
 Developing an awareness and sensitivity to the awareness of the environment.
environment and its related problems.
 It sensitizes the society about environmental issues and
 Motivating people for active participation in challenges interested individuals to develop skills and
environmental protection. expertise, thereby providing appropriate solutions.
 Developing skills to find solutions to environmental  Climate change, loss of biodiversity, declining fisheries,
problems. ozone layer depletion, illegal trade of endangered
 Imbibe and inculcate in others the necessity for species, destruction of habitats, land degradation,
conservation of natural resources. depleting ground water supplies, introduction of alien
species, environmental pollution, solid waste disposal,
storm water and sewage disposal pose a serious threat
to ecosystems in forest, rural, urban and marine
ecosystems.

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 The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
 Both formal and informal education on the  Institutions in Environment: There have been several
environment will give the interested individual Government and Non-government organizations
the knowledge, values, skills and tools needed that have led to environmental protection in our
to face the environmental challenges on a local country.
and global level.
 Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS), Mumbai
 This can only be made possible through mass began as a small society of six members in 1883. It
public awareness. If each of us feels strongly grew into a major research organization that
about the environment, the press and media will substantially influenced conservation policy in the
add to our efforts. country. It is India’s oldest conservation research
based NGO.
 Politicians in a democracy always respond
positively to a strong publicly supported  The BNHS publishes a popular magazine called
movement. Hornbill and also an internationally well-known
Journal on Natural History. The BNHS has over the
years helped Government to frame wildlife related
laws and has taken up battles such as the ‘Save the
Silent Valley’ campaign.

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 The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
 World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF-I), initiated in  The CSE also publishes a popular magazine, ‘Down to
1969 in Mumbai after which the headquarters were Earth’.
shifted to Delhi with several branch offices all over
India.  It is involved in the publication of material in the form
of books, posters, video films and also conducts
 The early years focused attention on wildlife workshops and seminars on biodiversity related issues.
education and awareness.
 Centre for Environment Education (CEE), was initiated
 It runs several programs including the Nature in 1989. It has a wide range of programs on the
Clubs of India program for school children and environment and produces a variety of educational
works as a think tank and lobby force for material. CEE’s Training in Environment Education
environment and development issues. program has trained many environment educators.
 Center for Science and Environment (CSE),  Zoological Survey of India (ZSI) was established in
organizes campaigns, holding workshops and 1916. Its mandate was to do a systematic survey of
conferences, and producing environment related fauna in India. Its origins were collections based at the
publications. Indian Museum at Calcutta, which was established in
1875. Today it has over a million specimens! This makes
 It published a major document on the ‘State of it one of the largest collections in Asia. It has done an
India’s Environment’, the first of its kind to be enormous amount of work on taxonomy and ecology. It
produced as a Citizen’s Report on the Environment. currently operates from 16 regional centers.

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 The Multidisciplinary Nature of Environmental Studies
 Botanical Survey of India (BSI) was established in  Kalpavriksh, is NGO, initially Delhi based, is now
1890 at the Royal Botanic Gardens, Calcutta. working from Pune and is active in several other parts
However it closed down in 1939 and was reopened of India. Kalpavriksh works education and awareness;
in 1954. investigation and research; direct action and lobbying;
and litigation about environment and development
 By 1955 the BSI had its headquarters in Calcutta
issues.
with Circle Offices at Coimbatore, Shillong, Pune
and Dehra Dun. The BSI currently has nine regional  It is involved with the preparation of site-specific,
centers. It carries out surveys of plant resources in environmental manuals for schoolteachers.
different regions.
 Kalpavriksh was responsible for developing India’s
 Uttarkhand Seva Nidhi (UKSN), is a Nodal Agency National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan in 2003
which supports NGOs in need of funds for their
environment related activities. Its major program
is organizing and training school teachers to use
its locale specific Environment Education
Workbook Program.
 Its environment education program covers about
500 schools.

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 Components of Environment
 Environment refers to the sum total of all
conditions which surround man at a given point
in space and time.
 Environment is argued as an inseparable whole
and is constituted by the interacting systems of
physical, biological and cultural elements, which
are interlinked
 The 4 basic components of the environment are
atmosphere or the air, lithosphere or the rocks
and soil, hydrosphere or the water, and the living
component of the environment or the biosphere.

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Components of Environment
 Lithosphere is derived from the word "sphere,"
combined with the Greek word "lithos" which
means rock.
 It is the solid outer section of Earth which
includes Earth's crust as well as the underlying
cool, dense, and fairly rigid upper part of the
upper mantle.
 The lithosphere extends from the surface of
Earth to a depth of about 70-100 km. The main
component of lithosphere is earth’s tectonic
plates.

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 Components of Environment
 Hydrosphere comprises of all forms of
water bodies on earth including marine
(oceans, seas) freshwater (rivers, lakes,
ponds, streams) and groundwater
resources etc. It covers 71% of earth’s
surface.
 97% of water found on Earth is in the
oceans in the form of salt water. Only 3 %
of water on Earth is freshwater. Out of
this, 30.8% is available as groundwater
and 68.9% is in frozen forms as in
glaciers.
 Amount of 0.3% is available in rivers,
reservoirs and lakes and is easily
accessible to man.

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 Components of Environment
 Atmosphere is gaseous layer enveloping the Earth. The
atmosphere with oxygen in abundance is unique to Earth
and sustains life.
 It mainly comprises 78.08% nitrogen, 20.95% oxygen, 0.93%
argon, 0.039% carbon dioxide, and traces of hydrogen,
helium, and noble gases.
 The amount of water vapor present is variable (0-3%).
 Earth's atmosphere has a series of layers, each with its own
specific traits.
 Moving upward from ground level, these layers are named
the troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere
and exosphere.

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 Components of Environment
 The troposphere is the lowest layer of our atmosphere. Starting at ground level, it extends upward to about
11 km (about 33,000 feet) above sea level.
 The stratosphere extends from the top of the troposphere to about 52 km (32 miles) above the ground. The
ozone layer is found within the stratosphere. Ozone molecules in this layer absorb high-energy ultraviolet
(UV) light from the Sun, converting the UV energy into heat.
 Mesosphere extends upward to a height of about 85 km (53 miles) above our planet. Most meteors burn up
in the mesosphere.
 The layer of very rare air above the mesosphere is called the thermosphere. High energy X-rays and UV
radiation from the Sun are absorbed in the thermosphere, raising its temperature to hundreds or at times
thousands of degrees. At the top of the thermosphere temperatures can be found anywhere between 500
and 1,000 km (311 to 621 miles) above the ground. Temperatures in the upper thermosphere can range
from about 500°C (932° F) to 2,000°C (3,632° F) or higher. The aurora, the Northern Lights and Southern
Lights, occur in the thermosphere.
 Exosphere is the final frontier of the Earth’s gaseous envelope. There is no clear upper boundary where the
exosphere finally fades away into space.
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 Components of Environment
 Biosphere refers to all the regions on Earth where
life exists.
 The ecosystems that support life could be in soil,
air, water or land. The term Biosphere was coined
by Geologist Edward Suess who used this term for
place on Earth where life can be found.
 Biosphere refers to the sum total of all living
matter, the biomass or biota. It extends from the
polar ice caps to the equator, with each region
harboring some life form suitable to the conditions
there.

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 Environmental Sustainability
 During the 20th century, global human population has
increased by 3.7 fold and consumption of resources has
increased twenty—fold world over.
 Current trends in climate change, food production, and
energy supplies confronting human society, population
growth is critical to the future sustainability of the planet.
 Sustainability implies that humans can manage natural
resources indefinitely without the environment going into
a decline from the stresses imposed by human society on
the natural systems (such as fertile soil, water, and air)
that maintain life.
 Environmental sustainability: The ability to meet the
current human need for natural resources without
compromising the ability of future generations to meet
their needs.

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 Environmental Sustainability
 As defined in the Brundtland Commission Report  Economic/profits 一 This pillar centers on the idea
(WCED, 1987), sustainable development is meeting of an efficient and responsible use of resources
the needs of the present without compromising the that leads to long-term profitability. In business,
ability of future generations to meet their own profitability can equal longevity. In other words,
needs. transitioning to a sustainable business can improve
a company’s chances of operating over the long
 This was further strengthened at the United
term.
Nations Conference on Environment and
Development held at Rio de Janeiro in 1992, and  Environmental/planet 一 In business, reducing
the World Summit on Sustainable Development carbon footprints, waste, and water usage while
held at Johannesburg in 2002. maximizing energy efficiency can provide both
environmental and financial benefits, and shows
 The Pillars of Sustainability and Sustainable
responsiveness to community opinion. According
Development Sustainability encompasses three
to Pew Research, 63% of Americans believe that
pillars: economic, environmental, and social, also
climate change affects their local community.
represented as profits, planet, and people.

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 Environmental Sustainability
 Social/people 一 The social pillar of sustainability
focuses on the interrelationship of systems and
processes that support the creation of healthy and
livable communities that can sustain themselves.
In business, social sustainability initiatives often
include promoting fair labor practices and wages;
employee health, safety, wellness, and work-life
balance; and diversity and equity.

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 Global plans for sustainable development
 In 1987, the World Commission on Environment and  In 2000, representatives from 189 countries met
Development released a groundbreaking report, at the U.N. Millennium Summit and committed
Our Common Future. ( or Brundtland report
brought the concept of sustainable development their countries to a global partnership with goals
into the mainstream of business and political known as the Millennium Development Goals.
thought.)
 Despite the lofty goals of international summits,
 A few years later, in 1992, representatives from
most of the world’s countries met in Rio de Janeiro, we have made only limited progress in improving
Brazil, for the U.N. Conference on Environment and the quality of life for poor people or in solving
Development. the world’s most serious environmental
 In addition, the Rio participants adopted Agenda 21, problems.
an action plan of sustainable development in which
future economic development, particularly in
developing countries, will be reconciled with
environmental protection.
 The goals of sustainable development are achieving
improved living conditions for all people while
maintaining a healthy environment in which natural
resources are not overused and excessive pollution
is not generated.
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 Brief History of Environmentalism
 Concern for the environment has very much been a  The American environmental movement began in
part of human history and is reflected in many the late 19th century with the consideration of
religious systems which consider Nature to be
sacred. preservationist issues.
 The impact of air and water pollution on human life  Nature was considered as something to be
and health was noted even in the Roman times. enjoyed and valued and not merely a factor of
Between the late 14th century and the mid-16th
century AD, pollution was seen to be associated production.
with the spread of epidemics.
 Because of the preservationist's agenda in 1960s
 Soil conservation was practiced in China, India, and the Land and the Wilderness Act and the Water
Peru as early as 2,000 years ago. However, these
concerns did not lead to social movements and
Conservation Fund of 1964 and the National
activism like the contemporary environmental Trails System Acts and the Wild and Scenic
movements. Rivers Acts of 1968, the first wave of national
 The Industrial Revolution and its impact upon the environmental legislation started.
natural environment and on human health, can be
considered as the key factor in the emergence of
the contemporary environmental movement in the
late 19thcentury Europe and America.

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 KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ACTS
Environmental movements prompted people to  1968 National Scenic Trails Act & Wild and Scenic
conserve and protect the earths precious natural Rivers Act: This Act designated 8 rivers for
resources. Some key environmental acts enacted in immediate introduction and other 27 to be
the United States are listed below: evaluated.
 1963 Clean Air Act provided funds for federal
government research. This Act was the first  1970 National Environmental Policy Act: NEPA was
environmental law enacted in the United States important to require Federal agencies for
which included citizen suits and was designed to evaluating the environmental effects; all executive
control air pollution. federal agencies are required to prepare
environmental assessments (EAs) and
 1964 Wilderness Act conserved nine million acres
of wilderness in national forest areas in US. The environmental impact statements (EISSs).
current number of areas designated as wilderness  1970 Resource Conservation and Recovery Act:
areas is 757. controls the disposal of solid as well as hazardous
 1965 Water Quality Act: Objectives included waste in the US.
maintaining and restoring the biological, chemical
and physical quality of water; governing the states  1972 Federal Environmental Pesticide Control Act:
to address pollution and providing assistance to do Started in United States which was set up to
so in the US. regulate pesticide and to control its applicators,
consumers, and thereby environment.

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 KEY ENVIRONMENTAL ACTS
 1973 Endangered Species Act approved to protect The modern-day multifaceted environmental
critically endangered species. “Consequence of movement in the United States began in 1970s.
economic growth and development untendered by
adequate concern and conservation”. The best-seller “Silent Spring” by Rachel Carson, who
came to be known as the “mother of the
 1976 Toxic Substances Control Act ensures that
manufacturers test their products for risk to human environmental movement” was published in 1962 and
health and the environment. drew attention to pesticides and their noxious effects
on nature.
 1980 Comprehensive Environmental Response,
Compensation, and Liability Act: Formed to regulate In the first decades of the 20th century,
and clean up sites which are contaminated with environmentalism was commonly called as
hazardous substances; these are called as conservationism and differed from the modern
"Superfund“ sites. There are total 40,000 federal environmental movement.
Superfund sites across the country.
Therefore, the conservationists of that era put more
 1980 Alaska National Interest Lands Conservation focus on the effective use of natural resources.
Act: Preserved 104 million acres of wilderness in
Alaska. Consumer activity is regarded as the origin of modern
environmentalism that demanded safe, healthy and
 1990 Clean Air Act strengthened regulation of air attractive environment as part of a higher living
pollution. standard for managing natural resources

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 Indian Environmental movements
The history of environmentalism in India is believed Local communities are dependent on the resources
to have started in 1900’s, during the British colonial for their survival but are also used for urban and
period. industrial interests which use them for profit.
The policies incline towards the latter, which then
The protests in rural communities have initiated
leads to the protests for sustainability of nature.
environmentalism in India whereas in the West it
was started by scientists. The Chipko movement in the Kumaon, the struggles of
tribals of Chhotanagpur, protests by tribals of
On the 27th of March 1973, a group of peasants in a Gandhamardan (Orissa) due to damage caused to
remote Himalayan village stopped a group of their local environment because of bauxite mining all
loggers from felling trees. Thus was born the point out to environmental degradation.
Chipko movement, and through it the modern in 1980, a Department of Environment was
Indian environmental movement was born. established at the Centre. It is presently the Ministry
of Environment and Forests and climate change.
In the West, the desire to keep places unpolluted
New laws were enacted to control pollution and to
and beautiful initiated the green movement while in
protect natural forests. In 1986, The Environment
India environmentalism was necessary for survival Protection Act was enacted.
not only for leisure.

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 Indian Environmental movements
At the same time, journalists had begun to analyse
studying the impact of environmental degradation
on social life across India.
The pioneering reports were from Anil Agarwal,
Darryl D’ Monte, Kalpana Sharma, Usha Rai, and
Nagesh Hegde.
They played an important role in making the
citizens aware of environmental problems. Thus,
environmentalism of the poor entered educational
institutions.
Courses were offered on environmental sociology
and environmental history. In this way, elements of
an environmental consciousness had, finally, begun
to take an important place in the Indian society.

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 Preservation & Conservation Strategies
 Biodiversity conservation refers to the  In-situ conservation is the conservation of
protection, upliftment, and management of species within their natural habitat. Thus, the
biodiversity in order to derive sustainable natural ecosystem is maintained and protected.
benefits for present and future generations.  It has several advantages such as:

Biodiversity conservation has three main 1. Cost-effective and convenient method

objectives: 2. Many living organisms can be conserved
simultaneously.
 To preserve the diversity of species.
3. Since the organisms are in a natural
 Sustainable utilization of species and ecosystem, they can evolve better and can
ecosystem. easily adjust to different environmental
conditions.
 To maintain life-supporting systems and
essential ecological processes. 4. Certain protected areas where in-situ
conservation takes place include national
 It can be conserved in the following ways: parks, wildlife sanctuaries and biosphere
In-situ Conservation & Ex-situ Conservation reserves.

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 Preservation & Conservation Strategies
 National Parks are small reserves maintained  Ex-situ Conservation of biodiversity involves
by the government. Its boundaries are well the breeding and maintenance of endangered
demarcated and human activities such as
species in artificial ecosystems such as zoos,
grazing, forestry, habitat and cultivation are
prohibited. For eg., Kanha National Park, and nurseries, botanical gardens, gene banks, etc.
Bandipur National Park.  There is less competition for food, water and
 Wildlife Sanctuaries are the regions where space among the organisms.
only wild animals are found. Human activities
such as timber harvesting, cultivation,  Ex-situ conservation has the following
collection of woods and other forest products advantages:
are allowed here if they do not interfere with
1. The animals are provided with a longer
the conservation project. Also, tourists visit
these places for recreation. time and breeding activity.
 Biosphere Reserves are multi-purpose 2. The species bred in captivity can be
protected areas where the wildlife, traditional reintroduced in the wild.
lifestyle of the inhabitants and domesticated
plants and animals are protected. Tourist and 3. Genetic techniques can be used for the
research activities are permitted here. preservation of endangered species.

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Unit 2: Ecosystems
• Definition and concept of Ecosystem
• Structure of ecosystem (biotic and abiotic components); Functions of Ecosystem:
Physical (energy flow), Biological (food chains, food web, ecological succession),
and Biogeochemical (nutrient cycling) processes. Concepts of productivity,
ecological pyramids and homeostasis
• Types of Ecosystems: Tundra, Forest, Grassland, Desert, Aquatic (ponds, streams,
lakes, rivers, oceans, estuaries); importance and threats with relevant examples from
India
• Ecosystem services (Provisioning, Regulating, Cultural, and Supporting); Ecosystem
preservation and conservation strategies; Basics of Ecosystem restoration

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Concept of an Ecosystem
 An ‘Ecosystem’ is a region with a specific  At a global level, the thin skin of the earth on
and recognizable landscape form such as the land, the sea and the air, forms the
forest, grassland, desert, wetland or coastal biosphere.
area.
 At a sub-global level, this is divided into
 The geographical, climatic and soil biogeographical realms, eg. Eurasia called
characteristics form its non-living (abiotic) the palaeartic realm; South and South-East
component. Asia (of which India forms a major part) is
the Oriental realm; North America is the
 The living part of the ecosystem is referred
Nearctic realm; South America forms the
to as its biotic component.
Neotropical realm; Africa the Ethiopian
 Ecosystems are divided into terrestrial or realm; and Australia the Australian realm.
land-based ecosystems, and aquatic
ecosystems in water.

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 At a national level, this forms biogeographic  At an even more local level, each area has
regions. several structurally and functionally
identifiable ecosystems such as different
 There are several distinctive geographical
types of forests, grasslands, river
regions in India-
catchments, mangrove swamps in deltas,
1. the Himalayas,
seashores, islands, etc.
2. The Gangetic Plains
3. The Highlands of Central India
4. the Western and Eastern Ghats  Ecosystems have been formed on land and in
5. The semi-arid desert in the West the sea by evolution that has created species
6. The Deccan Plateau to live together in a specific region. Thus,
7. The Coastal Belts
ecosystems have both non-living and living
components
8. The Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Definition: The living community of plants and animals in any area together with the non-
living components of the environment such as soil, air and water, constitute the
ecosystem.

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Some ecosystems are robust and are less affected by a certain level of human disturbance.
Others are highly fragile and are quickly destroyed by human activities.

 Mountain ecosystems- extremely  Natural ecosystems include the forests,

fragile as degradation of forest cover grasslands, deserts, and aquatic
leads to severe erosion of soil and ecosystems such as ponds, rivers, lakes,
changes in river courses. and the sea.
 Island ecosystems- are easily affected  Man modified ecosystems include
by any form of human activity which can agricultural land and urban or industrial
lead to the rapid extinction of several of land use patterns
their unique species of plants and
animals.
 River and wetland ecosystems- can be
seriously affected by pollution and
changes in surrounding land use.

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Each ecosystem has a set of common features that can be observed in the field:

 ‘What does the ecosystem look like?’  What is the composition of its plant and
 specific features of the different animal species?
ecosystems in one's own surroundings.  The well-known plants and animals you can
Field observations must be made in both see. Their abundance in nature: very common,
urban and natural surroundings common, uncommon, rare.
 What is its structure?  Wild mammals will not be seen in large
numbers, cattle would be common.
 Is it a forest, a grassland, a water body, an
agricultural area, a grazing area, an urban  How does the ecosystem work?
area, an industrial area, etc.?  The ecosystem functions through several
biogeochemical cycles and energy transfer
mechanisms.

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STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS OF AN ECOSYSTEM

 Structural aspects  Functional aspects

 Components that make up the 1. Energy cycles.
structural aspects of an ecosystem 2. Food chains.
include: 3. Diversity-interlinkages between organisms.
1. Inorganic aspects – C, N, CO2, H2O. 4. Nutrient cycles-biogeochemical cycles.
2. Organic compounds – Protein, 5. Evolution
Carbohydrates, Lipids – link abiotic to
biotic aspects.
3. Climatic regimes – Temperature,
Moisture, Light & Topography.
4. Producers – Plants.
5. Macro consumers – Phagotrophs –
Large animals.
6. Micro consumers– Saprotrophs
absorbers – fungi.
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PRODUCERS, CONSUMERS AND DECOMPOSERS

 Plants are the ‘producers’ in the  At a higher tropic level, there are
ecosystem as they manufacture their food carnivorous animals, or secondary
by using energy from the sun. In the forest consumers, which live on herbivorous
these form communities of plant life. In animals.
the sea these include tiny algal forms to  In our forests, the carnivorous animals
large seaweed. are tigers, leopards, jackals, foxes and
 The herbivorous animals are primary small wild cats.
consumers as they live on the producers.
 In the sea, carnivorous fish live on other
 In grasslands, there are herbivores such fish and marine animals.
as the blackbuck. In the semiarid areas,
there are species such as the chinkara or
Indian gazelle. In the sea, there are small
fish that live on algae and other plants

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 Decomposers or detrivores are a group of organisms consisting of small animals like
worms, insects, bacteria and fungi, which break down dead organic material into smaller
particles and finally into simpler substances that are used by plants as nutrition.

 Decomposition thus is a vital function in nature, as without this, all the nutrients would be
tied up in dead matter and no new life could be produced.

 When human activities alter the balance in these ecosystems, the “perturbation” leads to
the disappearance of these uncommon species. When this happens to an endemic species
that is not widely distributed, it becomes extinct for all time.

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ENERGY FLOW IN THE ECOSYSTEM

 Every ecosystem has several interrelated

mechanisms that affect human life. These
are the water cycle, the carbon cycle, the
oxygen cycle, the nitrogen cycle and the
energy cycle.
 While every ecosystem is controlled by
these cycles, in each ecosystem its abiotic
and biotic features are distinct from each
other.

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The Water Cycle

 When it rains, the water runs along the  As it is lighter than air, water vapour rises
ground and flows into rivers or falls and forms clouds. Winds blow the clouds
directly into the sea. for long distances and when the clouds
 A part of the rainwater that falls on land rise higher, the vapour condenses and
percolates into the ground. This is stored changes into droplets, which fall on the
underground throughout the rest of the land as rain.
year.  This is an endless cycle on which life
Water is drawn up from the ground by depends, man’s activities are making

plants along with the nutrients from the drastic changes in the atmosphere.
soil. The water is transpired from the  This is leading to prolonged drought
leaves as water vapour and returned to periods extending over years in countries
the atmosphere. such as Africa, while causing floods in
countries.

43
44
45
The Carbon cycle

 The carbon, which occurs in organic  In this process, plants release oxygen into
compounds, is included in both the abiotic the atmosphere on which animals depend
and biotic parts of the ecosystem. for their respiration.
 Carbon is a building block of both plant and  Plants therefore help in regulating and
animal tissues. monitoring the percentage of Oxygen and
Carbon dioxide in the earth’s atmosphere.
 In the presence of sunlight, plants take up
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere  Herbivorous animals feed on plant material,
through their leaves. The plants combine which is used by them for energy and for
carbon dioxide with water, which is their growth.
absorbed by their roots from the soil.
 They also return fixed carbon to the soil in
 In the presence of sunlight they can form the waste they excrete.
carbohydrates that contain carbon. This
 When plants and animals die they return
process is known as photosynthesis.
their carbon to the soil. These processes
complete the carbon cycle.

46
47
The Nitrogen Cycle

 Carnivorous animals feed on herbivorous animals  Nitrogen fixing bacteria and fungi in soil gives
that live on plants. When animals defecate, this this important element to plants, which absorb it
waste material is broken down by worms and as nitrates.
insects mostly beetles and ants.
 The nitrates are a part of the plant’s metabolism,
 These small ‘soil animals’ break the waste which help in forming new plant proteins.
material into smaller bits on which microscopic
 This is used by animals that feed on the plants.
bacteria and fungi can act. This material is thus
broken down further into nutrients that plants  The nitrogen is then transferred to carnivorous
can absorb and use for their growth. animals when they feed on the herbivores.
 Thus, nutrients are recycled back from animals to  Nitrogen-fixing bacteria are prokaryotic
plants. Similarly, the bodies of dead animals are microorganisms that are capable of transforming
also broken down into nutrients that are used by nitrogen gas from the atmosphere into “fixed
the plants for their growth. nitrogen” compounds, such as ammonia, that are
usable by plants.
 Thus the nitrogen cycle on which life is dependent
is completed.

48
 As lightning blasts through the atmosphere, it breaks apart nitrogen molecules. This allows them to
combine with oxygen in the air to form nitrogen oxides. The rain dissolves these into nitrates, then
carries them to Earth and into the soil. Nitrates are considered a “super fertilizer.” So, in addition to
providing a spectacular light show, lightning also helps fertilize the soil and plants green up faster.

49
The Oxygen Cycle

 Oxygen is taken up by plants and animals

from the air during respiration. The plants
return oxygen to the atmosphere during
photosynthesis.
 This links the Oxygen Cycle to the Carbon
Cycle.
 Deforestation is likely to gradually reduce
the oxygen levels in our atmosphere.
 Thus plant life plays an important role in
our lives which we frequently do not
appreciate. This is an important reason to
participate in afforestation programs.

50
The Energy Cycle

 The energy cycle is based on the flow of  This energy is utilized by animals for
energy through the ecosystem. breathing, digesting food, supporting
growth of tissues, maintaining blood flow
 Energy from sunlight is converted by
plants themselves into growing new plant and body temperature etc.
material which includes leaves, flowers,  The carnivores in turn depend on
fruit, branches, trunks and roots of plants. herbivorous animals on which they feed.
 Since plants can grow by converting the  Thus, the different plant and animal
sun’s energy directly into their tissues, species are linked to one another through
they are known as producers in the food chains.
ecosystem.
 The plants are used by herbivorous
animals as food, which gives them energy.

51
 Since, each plant or animal can be
linked to several other plants or
animals through many different
linkages, these inter-linked chains
can be depicted as a complex food
web.
 This is thus called the ‘web of life’
that shows that there are thousands
of interrelationships in nature.

52
FOOD CHAINS, FOOD WEBS AND ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

 These trophic levels together form the

 The transfer of energy from the source in
ecological pyramid.
plants through a series of organisms by
eating and being eaten constitutes food
chains.
 At each transfer, a large proportion of
energy is lost in the form of heat.
 These food chains are not isolated
sequences, but are interconnected with
each other. This interlocking pattern is
known as the food web.
 Each step of the food web is called a
trophic level

53
The Food Chains

 Each chain usually has only four to five

 The most obvious aspect of nature is that
such links. However a single species may
energy must pass from one living
be linked to a large number of species
organism to another.
 When herbivorous animals feed on plants,
energy is transferred from plants to
animals.
 In an ecosystem, some of the animals feed
on other living organisms, while some
feed on dead organic matter.
 At each linkage in the chain, a major part
of the energy from the food is lost for
daily activities.

54
The food webs

 In an ecosystem there are a very large

number of interlinked chains.
 This forms a food web. If the linkages in
the chains that make up the web of life
are disrupted due to human activities that
lead to the loss or extinction of species,
the web breaks down.

55
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The ecological pyramids

 In an ecosystem, green plants – the  Only a few animals form the third trophic
producers, utilize energy directly from level consisting of carnivores at the apex
sunlight and convert it into matter. of the food pyramid.
 A large number of these organisms form  This is how energy is used by living
the most basic, or first ‘trophic level’ of creatures and flows through the
the food pyramid. ecosystem from its base to the apex.
 The herbivorous animals that eat plants  Much of the energy is used up in activities
are at the second trophic level and are of each living organism.
called primary consumers.
 The predators that feed on them form the
third trophic level and are known as
secondary consumers.

57
58
 The energy in the ecosystem can be
depicted in the form of a food pyramid or
energy pyramid.
 The food pyramid has a large base of plants
called ‘producers’.
 The pyramid has a narrower middle section
that depicts the number and biomass of
herbivorous animals, which are called ‘first
order consumers’. The apex depicts the
small biomass of carnivorous animals
called ‘second order consumers’.

59
 When plants and animals die, this material is returned to the soil after being broken
down into simpler substances by decomposers such as insects, worms, bacteria and
fungi so that plants can absorb the nutrients through their roots.
 Animals excrete waste products after digesting food, which goes back to the soil.
This links the energy cycle to the Nitrogen cycle.

60
Integration of cycles in nature

 These biogeochemical cycles have specific  Together the cycles are responsible for
features in each of the ecosystems. maintaining life on earth.
 These cycles are however linked to those  If mankind disturbs these cycles beyond
of adjacent ecosystems. the limits that nature can sustain, they will
 Their characteristics are specific to the eventually break down and lead to a
degraded earth on which man will not be
plant and animal communities in the
region. able to survive

 This is related to the geographical

features of the area, the climate and the
chemical composition of the soil.

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ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

 Ecological pyramids are the graphical  Pyramid of number: In this type of

representations of trophic levels in an ecological pyramid, the number of
ecosystem. organisms in each trophic level is
 The base of each pyramid represents the considered as a level in the pyramid.
producers or the first trophic level while  The pyramid of numbers is usually upright
the apex represents tertiary or top level except for some situations like that of the
consumer. detritus food chain, where many
The three ecological pyramids that are organisms feed on one dead plant or

usually studied are (a) pyramid of number; animal.
(b) pyramid of biomass and (c) pyramid of
energy.

62
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ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

 Pyramid of biomass: In this particular

type of ecological pyramid, each level
takes into account the amount of biomass
produced by each trophic level.
 The pyramid of biomass is also upright
except for that observed in oceans where
large numbers of zooplanktons depend on
a relatively smaller number of
phytoplanktons.

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65
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

 Pyramid of energy: Pyramid of energy is

the only type of ecological pyramid, which
is always upright as the energy flow in a
food chain is always unidirectional.
 Also, with every increasing trophic level,
some energy is lost into the environment.

66
ECOLOGICAL PYRAMIDS

 Ecosystem homeostasis: Ecosystem

homeostasis is equilibrium, or a balance
of the organisms in an ecosystem.
 This means the populations of species in
the ecosystem are relatively stable.
 Over time, these populations will change,
but in the short term, they should move up
and down in cycles around an average
value.

67
ECOLOGICAL SUCCESSION

 Ecological succession is a process  One can predict that an opened up area

through which ecosystems tend to change will gradually be converted into a
over a period of time. grassland, a shrubland and finally a
 Succession can be related to seasonal woodland and a forest if permitted to do
environmental changes, which create so without human interference.
changes in the community of plants and  There is a tendency for succession to
animals living in the ecosystem. produce a more or less stable state at the
end of the successional stages
 Other successional events may take much
longer periods of time extending to  Developmental stages in the ecosystem
several decades. thus consist of a pioneer stage, a series of
changes known as seral stages, and
finally a climax stage.

68
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 The successive stages are related to the
way in which energy flows through the
biological system.
 The most frequent example of
successional changes occur in a pond
ecosystem where it fluctuates from a dry
terrestrial habitat to the early
colonization stage by small aquatic
species after the monsoon, which
gradually passes through to a mature
aquatic ecosystem, and then reverts back
to its dry stage in summer where its
aquatic life remains dormant.

70
 Concept of Productivity
 In ecology, productivity refers to the rate of  Primary productivity can be divided into two
formation of biomass in the ecosystem. aspects:
 It can also be referred to as the energy  Gross primary productivity is the solar
accumulated in the plants by photosynthesis. energy trapped by the photosynthetic
organism. This depends upon the
 There are two types of productivity: Primary
photosynthetic activity and environmental
Productivity and Secondary Productivity.
factors.
 Primary Productivity refers to the generation of
 Net primary productivity is estimated by the
biomass from autotrophic organisms such as
gross productivity minus energy lost in
plants.
respiration.
 Photosynthesis is the primary tool for the
 NPP = GPP – Energy lost by respiration
creation of organic material from inorganic
compounds such as carbon dioxide and water.  It the net energy stored in the plants. This
energy serves as food for the animals that
feed on plants. It is measured as the amount
of organic matter produced in a community
in a given time.

71
 Concept of Productivity
 Secondary Productivity: Heterotrophs such as
animals influence Secondary Productivity.
 It is the accumulation of energy at the
consumer’s level.
 It keeps moving from one organism to another,
unlike primary productivity.
 This process occurs as a result of organic
materials being transferred between various
trophic levels.
 It is also referred to as the rate of increase in
the biomass of heterotrophs.
 Organisms such as animals, fungi, bacteria and
numerous protists influence Secondary
Production.
 Typically, productivity is expressed in units of
mass per unit volume (or surface) per unit time.
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INTRODUCTION, TYPES, CHARACTERISTIC
FEATURES, STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

73
Ecosystem goods and services

 Direct Values: These are resources that  Indirect Values: These are uses that do not
people depend upon directly and are easy have easy ways to quantify them in terms
to quantify in economic terms. of a clearly definable price.

 Consumptive Use Value - Non-market value  Non-consumptive use value – scientific

of fruit, fodder, firewood, etc. that are used research, bird-watching, ecotourism, etc.
by people who collect them from their
surrounds.  Option value - maintaining options for the
future, so that by preserving them one could
 Productive Use Value – Commercial value of reap economic benefits in the future
timber, fish, medicinal plants, etc. that
people collect for sale.  Existence value - ethical and emotional
aspects of the existence of wildlife and
nature.
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Types of Ecosystems

 For each of these ecosystems we need to

understand 4 basic issues:
1. What is the nature of the ecosystem?
What is its structure and its functions?
2. Who uses the ecosystem and for what
purpose?
3. How are these ecosystems degraded?
4. What can be done to protect it from
deteriorating in the long-term? How can
the ecosystem be conserved?

75
Terrestrial ecosystems

 It is found in different types of forests,  Though this has increased production of

grasslands, semiarid areas, deserts and food and provides the raw material for
sea coasts. ‘consumer’ goods that we use, the overuse
and misuse of land and natural
 Where the land is intensively used, these
ecosystems has led to a serious
have been gradually modified over
degradation of our environment.
several thousand years into agricultural
and pastoral regions.  The unsustainable use of environmental
goods such as soil, water, fuelwood,
 In the recent past they have been rapidly
timber from forest, grasses and herbs
converted into intensively irrigated
from grasslands for grazing and
agricultural ecosystems or into urban and
repeatedly burning the grass, degrades
industrial centers.
these natural ecosystems.

76
 Consequently, improper use of resources  As industrial ‘development’ led to a very
can destroy the services that the natural great increase in consumption of
ecosystems provide. resources, the short term economic gains
for people became an indicator of
 These processes of nature such as
progress, rather than long term
photosynthesis, climate control,
ecological benefits.
prevention of soil erosion are disturbed by
many human activities.  This has resulted in an ‘unsustainable use’
of natural resources.
 When our human population was small,
most ecosystems could supply all our  Forests thus disappear, rivers run dry,
needs. deserts begin to spread, and air, water
and soil become increasingly polluted as
by-products of development.

77
Forest ecosystem

 Forests are formed by a community of  The landscapes that make up various

plants which is predominantly structurally types of forests look very different from
defined by its trees, shrubs, climbers and each other. Their distinctive appearance is
ground cover. a fascinating aspect of nature. Each forest
type forms a habitat for a specific
 The most ‘natural’ undisturbed forests are
community of animals that are adapted to
located mainly in our National Parks and
live in it.
Wildlife Sanctuaries.

78
 The forest ecosystem has two parts: 2. The living or the biotic aspects of the
1. The non-living or abiotic aspects of the forest: The plants and animals form
forest: forests on mountains and hills differ communities that are specific to each
from those along river valleys. Vegetation forest type.
is specific to the amount of rainfall and the For example, coniferous trees occur in the
local temperature which varies according Himalayas. Mangrove trees occur in river
to latitude and altitude. Forests also vary in deltas. Thorn trees grow in arid areas.
their plant communities in response to the
type of soil. The snow leopard lives in the Himalayas while
the leopard and tiger live in the forests of
the rest of India.

Evergreen forests of the Western Ghats and North East India are most rich in plant
and animal species.

79
 The biotic component includes both the  Man is a part of these forest ecosystems
large (macrophytes) and the microscopic and the local people depend directly on
plants and animals. the forest for several natural resources
 Plants include the trees, shrubs, climbers, that act as their life support systems.
grasses, and herbs in the forest.  People who do not live in the forest buy
forest products such as wood and paper,
 The animals include species of mammals,
birds, reptiles, amphibians, fish, insects which has been extracted from the forest.
and other invertebrates and a variety of Thus they use forest produce indirectly
from the market.
microscopic animals.
 As the plant and animal species are
closely dependent on each other, together
they form different types of forest
communities.

80
Forest types in India

 Forests in India can be broadly divided  The landscapes that make up various
into Coniferous forests and Broadleaved types of forests look very different from
forests. each other. Their distinctive appearance is
a fascinating aspect of nature. Each forest
 They can also be classified according to
type forms a habitat for a specific
the nature of their tree species –
community of animals that are adapted to
evergreen, deciduous, xerophytic or thorn
live in it.
trees, mangroves, etc.
 They can also be classified according to
the most abundant species of trees such
as Sal or Teak forests.
 In many cases a forest is named after the
first three or four most abundant tree
species.
81
 Coniferous forests grow in the Himalayan
mountain region, where the temperatures
are low.
 These forests have tall stately trees with
needlelike leaves and downward sloping
branches so that the snow can slip off the
branches.
 They have cones instead of seeds and are
called gymnosperms

82
 Broadleaved forests have several types,
such as evergreen forests, deciduous
forests, thorn forests, and mangrove
forests.
 Broadleaved forests have large leaves of
various shapes.

83
 Evergreen forests grow in the high
rainfall areas of the Western Ghats, North
Eastern India and the Andaman and
Nicobar Islands.
 These forests grow in areas where the
monsoon lasts for several months.
 Some even get two monsoons, such as in
Southern India.
 Evergreen plants shed a few of their
leaves throughout the year. There is no
dry leafless phase as in a deciduous
forest.
 The trees overlap with each other to form
a continuous canopy.

84
 Only a few shade loving plants can grow
in the ground layer in areas where some
light filters down from the closed canopy.
 The forest is rich in orchids and ferns. The
barks of the trees are covered in moss.
 The forest abounds in animal life and is
most rich in insect life.

85
 Deciduous forests are found in regions
with a moderate amount of seasonal
rainfall that lasts for only a few months.
 Most of the forests in which Teak trees
grow are of this type. The deciduous trees
shed their leaves during the winter and
hot summer months.
 In March or April they regain their fresh
leaves just before the monsoon, when
they grow vigorously in response to the
rains. Thus there are periods of leaf fall
and canopy regrowth.
 The forest frequently has a thick
undergrowth as light can penetrate easily
onto the forest floor.
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 Thorn forests are found in the semi- arid
regions of India.
 The trees, which are sparsely distributed,
are surrounded by open grassy areas.
 Thorny plants are called xerophytic
species and are able to conserve water.
Some of these trees have small leaves,
while other species have thick, waxy
leaves to reduce water losses during
transpiration.
 Thorn forest trees have long or fibrous
roots to reach water at great depths.
 Many of these plants have thorns, which
reduce water loss and protect them from
herbivores
87
 Mangrove forests grow along the coast
especially in the river deltas.
 These plants are able to grow in a mix of
saline and fresh water. They grow
luxuriantly in muddy areas covered with
silt that the rivers have brought down.
 The mangrove trees have breathing roots
that emerge from the mudbanks.

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 Forest utilisation: Natural forests provide • Natural forest ecosystems play an
local people with a variety of products if important role in controlling local climate
the forest is used carefully. and water regimes.
• It is well-known that under the canopy of a
 Over-exploitation for fuel wood or timber, natural forest, it is cooler than outside the
and conversion to monoculture forest.
plantations for timber or other products, • During the monsoon, the forest retains
impoverishes local people as the moisture and slowly releases it through
economic benefit goes to people who live perennial streams during the rest of the
elsewhere. year. Plantations fail to perform this
function adequately.
 The entire resource base on which local • The loss of forest cover in the catchments of
people have traditionally survived for a river thus leads to irreversible changes
generations, is rapidly destroyed. such as excessive soil erosion, large run-off
Eventually the forest is completely of surface water during monsoons leading
degraded to flash floods, and a shortage of water
once the monsoons are over.

90
 Forest products that are collected by  Wood from different species of trees have
people include food such as fruit, roots, special uses. For instance a soft wood is
herbs and medicinal plants. used for the yok of a bullock cart while a
very hard wood is used for its axil.
 People depend on fuelwood to cook food,
collect fodder for domestic animals, cut  These forest products are of great economic
building material for housing, collect value as they are collected, sold and
medicinal plants that have been known for marketed.
generations for several ailments and use
a variety of non timer forest products  Forest dwellers and agricultural people use
such as fiber, cane, gum, to make these goods directly. Other people get them
household articles. indirectly from the market.

 Traditional types of agriculture needs forest

material such as branches and leaves, which
are burnt to form wood ash which acts as a
fertiliser for crops such as rice.

91
 Forest services include the control of the  The wild relatives of our crop plants and
flow of water in streams and rivers. fruit trees have special characteristics in
their genes which are used to develop
 Forest cover reduces surface runoff of
rainwater and allows ground water to be new crops and newer varieties of fruit.
stored.  These newer varieties developed from
 Forests prevent erosion of soil. Once soil wild relatives give greater yields or are
is lost by erosion, it can take thousands of more resistant to diseases.
years to reform.  New industrial products are being
 Forests regulate local temperature. It is produced from the wild plants of the
cooler and more moist under the shade of forest.
the trees in the forest.  Many of our new medicines come from
wild plants.
 Most importantly, forests absorb carbon
dioxide and release oxygen that we
breathe.

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93
What are the threats to the forest ecosystem?
 As forests grow very slowly, we cannot use  Developmental activities such as rapid
more resources than they can produce population growth together with,
during a growing season. urbanization, industrialization and the
 If timber is felled beyond a certain limit the increasing use of consumer goods, leads
forest cannot regenerate. The gaps in the to over utilization of forest produce.
forest change the habitat quality for its
animals.  Forests are shrinking as our need for
agricultural land increases. It is estimated
 The more sensitive species cannot survive
under these changed conditions. that India’s forest cover has decreased
from about 33% to 11% in the last century.
 We are now creating more and more goods
that are manufactured from raw material  Forests are also lost by mining and
from the forest. This leads to forest building dams. As the forest resources are
degradation and finally changes the exploited beyond what they can produce
ecosystem into wasteland. Wood is illegally
the forest canopy is opened up, the
extracted from many forests leading to a
highly disturbed ecosystem. ecosystem is degraded, and its wildlife is
seriously threatened.
94
What if the forests disappear?
 When forests are cut down tribal people  As their numbers decrease, they are
who depend directly on them for food and unable to effectively pollinate agricultural
fuelwood and other products find it very crops and fruit trees. This leads to a
difficult to survive. decrease in agricultural yields.
 Urban people who depend on food from  The rain that falls on deforested land
agricultural areas, which in turn depend flows directly into nearby rivers. Thus
on neighboring forest ecosystems have to water is not retained under the ground.
pay a higher price for food as human  The exposed soil is rapidly washed away
population grows. during the rains once the protective forest
 Insects that live and breed in the forest cover is removed. Thus agriculture is
such as bees, butterflies and moths seriously affected in such areas.
decrease in abundance once forests are
degraded.

95
 Wild animals lose their habitat. This leads to extinction of our precious
species.
 Residual forests must be protected from being destroyed any further if
all the diverse species of plants and animals are to be kept for future
generations.

96
How can forest ecosystems be conserved?

 We can conserve forests only if we use its  Afforestation needs to be done

resources carefully. This can be done by continuously from which fuelwood and
using alternate sources of energy instead timber can be judiciously used.
of fuelwood.
 The natural forests with all their diverse
 There is a need to grow more trees than species must be protected as National
are cut down from forests every year for Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries where all
timber. the plants and animals can be preserved.

97
Grassland ecosystems

 A wide range of landscapes in which the

vegetation is mainly formed by grasses
and small annual plants are adapted to
India’s various climatic conditions.
 Grasslands cover areas where rainfall is
usually low and/or the soil depth and
quality is poor.
 The low rainfall prevents the growth of a
large number of trees and shrubs, but is
sufficient to support the growth of grass
cover during the monsoon.

98
Types of grassland in India

 The Himalayan pasture belt extends upto

the snowline. The grasslands at a lower-
level form patches along with coniferous
or broadleaved forests.
 The animals migrate up into the high-
altitude grasslands in summer and move
down into the forest in winter when the
snow covers the grassland.
 There are also a large number of
medicinal plants.

99
Types of grassland in India

 The Terai consists of patches of tall

grasslands interspersed with a Sal forest
ecosystem.
 The patches of tall elephant grass, which
grows to a height of about five meters, are
located in the low-lying waterlogged
areas.
 This ecosystem extends as a belt south of
the Himalayan foothills.

100
Types of grassland in India

 The Semi-arid plains of Western India,

Central India and the Deccan are covered
by grassland tracts with patches of thorn
forest.
 Several mammals such as the wolf, the
blackbuck, the chinkara, and birds such as
the bustards and floricans are adapted to
these arid conditions.

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Types of grassland in India

 The Shola grasslands consist of patches

on hillslopes along with the Shola forests
on the Western Ghats, Nilgiri and
Annamalai ranges.
 This forms a patchwork of grassland on
the slopes and forest habitats along the
streams and lowlying areas.

102
How are grasslands used?

 Grasslands are the grazing areas of many

rural communities.
 Fodder is collected and stored to feed
cattle when there is no grass left for them
to graze in summer.
 Grass is also used to thatch houses and
farm sheds. The thorny bushes and
branches of the few trees that are seen in
grasslands are used as a major source of
fuelwood.
 Grasslands have diverse species of
insects that pollinate crops.

103
Threats to grassland ecosystem

 Overutilization and changes in landuse of  When fires are lit in the grasslands in
the ‘common grazing lands’ of rural summer, the burnt grass gets a fresh flush
communities has lead to their degradation. of small green shoots which the domestic
 Conversion of grasslands into irrigated animals graze on. If this is done too
farmlands. After continuous irrigation such frequently the grasslands begin to
land becomes saline and useless in a few deteriorate.
years.
 Many of these residual grassland tracts
have been converted into industrial areas.
 Overgrazing converts grasses into flat stubs
with very little green matter. Degraded
grasslands have fewer grass species as the
nutritious species are entirely used up by
the large number of domestic animals. They
are thus unable to regenerate.

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How can grassland be conserved?

 Grasslands should not be overgrazed and  When fires are lit in the grasslands in
areas of the grasslands should be closed summer, the burnt grass gets a fresh flush
for grazing. of small green shoots which the domestic
 A part of the grassland in an area must be animals graze on. If this is done too
closed every year so that a rotational frequently the grasslands begin to
grazing pattern is established. deteriorate.

 Fires must be prevented and rapidly

controlled.
 To protect the most natural undisturbed
grassland ecosystems, Sanctuaries and
National Parks must be created.

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Desert ecosystems

 Deserts and semi arid areas are located in

Western India and the Deccan Plateau. The
climate in these vast tracts is extremely
dry.
 There are also cold deserts such as in
Ladakh.
 This has sand dunes. There are also areas
covered with sparse grasses and a few
shrubs, which grow if it rains.
 Desert and semi arid regions have a
number of highly specialized insects and
reptiles.  The Great Rann is famous, as it is the only known
breeding colony of the Greater and Lesser
Flamingos in our country. The Little Rann of
Kutch is the only home of the wild ass in India.
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107
How are desert ecosystem used?

 Areas of scanty vegetation with semi-arid

scrubland have been used for camel,
cattle and goat grazing in Rajasthan and
Gujarat, and for sheep grazing in the
Deccan Plateau.
 Areas that have a little moisture, have
been used for growing crops such as
jowar, and bajra.
 The natural grasses and local varieties of
crops have adapted to growing at very
low moisture levels. These can be used
for genetic engineering and developing
arid land crops for the future.

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Threats to desert ecosystem

 Conversion of these lands through

extensive irrigation systems has changed
several of the natural characteristics of
this region.
 The canal water evaporates rapidly
bringing the salts to the surface. The
region becomes highly unproductive as it
becomes saline.
 Human activities destroy the naturalness
of this unique ecosystem. The special
species that evolved here over millions of
years may soon become extinct.

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How can desert ecosystems be conserved?

 The Bishnois in Rajasthan are known to

have protected their Khejdi trees and the
blackbuck antelope for several
generations.
 There is an urgent need to protect
residual patches of this ecosystem within
National Parks and Wildlife Sanctuaries in
desert and semi arid areas.
 Development Projects alter the desert
and arid landscape. There is a sharp
reduction in the habitat available for its
specialized species bringing them to the
verge of extinction.

110
Aquatic ecosystem

 The aquatic ecosystems constitute the  In aquatic ecosystems, plants and animals
marine environments of the seas and the live in water.
fresh water systems in lakes, rivers,  The special abiotic features are its
ponds and wetlands. physical aspects such as the quality of the
water, which includes its clarity, salinity,
oxygen content and rate of flow.

111
Aquatic ecosystem

 Wetlands are special ecosystems in which

the water level fluctuates dramatically in
different seasons. They have expanses of
shallow water with aquatic vegetation,
which forms an ideal habitat for fish,
crustacea and water birds.
 Marine ecosystems are highly saline,
while brackish areas have less saline
water such as in river deltas.
 Coral reefs are very rich in species and
are found in only a few shallow tropical
seas.
 The richest coral reefs in India are around
the Andaman and Nicobar islands and in
the gulf of Kutch.
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 Coral Reefs  Coral polyps live in symbiosis with single-celled
algae called zooxanthellae, which provide them
 Coral reefs are among the most productive coastal with energy through photosynthesis.
ecosystems.
 A variety of biotic and abiotic factors have an impact
on coral reef formation.
 Is coral abiotic or biotic? Coral is a biotic factor within
the reef ecosystem. Although coral may appear to be
inanimate entities, they are in fact living organisms.
The coral reef ecosystem itself comprises both biotic
and abiotic components. The biotic factors include
coral, crabs, vegetation, and fish.
 Corals are living things that thrive within a narrow
temperature range, typically between 23-29°C. High or
low temperatures outside of this range can cause
coral bleaching, which weakens coral health.
 In addition to the effects of temperature on reef
health, rising carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere
lower ocean pH, a process known as ocean
acidification.

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Aquatic ecosystem

 Brackish water ecosystems in river deltas

are covered by mangrove forests and are
among the world’s most productive
ecosystems in terms of biomass
production.
 The largest mangrove swamps are in the
Sunderbans in the delta of the Ganges.

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Pond ecosystem

 Most ponds become dry after the rains

are over and are covered by terrestrial
plants for the rest of the year.
 The vegetation in the water consists of
floating weeds and rooted vegetation on
the periphery which grow on the muddy
floor under water and emerge out of the
surface of the water.
 Algae is eaten by microscopic animals,
which are in turn eaten by small fish on
which larger carnivorous fish depend.
 Aquatic insects, worms and snails feed on
the waste material

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Lake ecosystem

 A lake ecosystem functions like a giant

permanent pond.
 Energy cycles through the lake ecosystem
from the sunlight that penetrates the
water surface to the plants. From plants
energy is transferred to herbivorous
animals and carnivores.
 Animals excrete waste products, which
settle on the bottom of the lake. This is
broken down by small animals that live in
the mud in the floor of the lake.

116
Stream and River ecosystems

 All the living forms are specially adapted

to different rates of flow.
 Snails and other burrowing animals can
withstand the rapid flow of the hill
streams.
 Other species of plants and animals such
as water beetles and skaters can live only
in slower moving water.
 Some species of fish, such as Mahseer, go
upstream from rivers to hill streams for
breeding.
 The community of flora and fauna of streams and rivers depends on the
clarity, flow and oxygen content as well as the nature of their beds. The
stream or river can have a sandy, rocky or muddy bed, each type having its
own species of plants and animals 117
Marine ecosystems

 The Indian Ocean, the Arabian Sea and the

Bay of Bengal constitute the marine
ecosystems around peninsular India.
 Producers- microscopic algae to large
seaweeds.
 Consumers- zooplankton and a large
variety of invertebrates on which live fish,
turtles and marine mammals.
 The marine ecosystem is used by coastal
fisherfolk for fishing which forms their
livelihood.
 Now with intensive fishing by using giant
nets and mechanised boats, fish catch in
the Indian Ocean has dropped significantly
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Marine ecosystems

 The shallow areas near Kutch and around

the Andaman and Nicobar Islands are
some of the most incredible coral reefs in
the world.
 Coral reefs are only second to tropical
evergreen forests in their richness of
species.
 Deforestation of adjacent mangroves
leads to silt being carried out to sea
where it is deposited on the coral which
then dies.

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Seashore ecosystems

 Beaches can be sandy, rocky, shell

covered or muddy.
 There are different crustacea such as
crabs that make holes in the sand.
 Various shore birds feed on their prey by
probing into the sand or mud on the sea
shore.

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How are aquatic ecosystems used?

 We need clean water to drink and for  Construction of dams leads to problems
other domestic uses. Water is also for tribal people as they are displaced to
required for agriculture and industrial build large dams.
use.
 Energy generated by the dam is used by
 Fisherfolk use the aquatic ecosystems to urban people, by agriculturists in irrigated
earn a livelihood. People catch fish and farmlands and in enormous quantities for
crabs. industry.
 Marshes and wetlands are of great
economic importance for people who live
on their fish, crustacea, reeds, grasses
and other produce.

121
What are the threats to aquatic ecosystems?

 Water pollution occurs from sewage and  Chemical pollution from industry kills a
poorly managed solid waste in urban large number of life forms in adjacent
areas when it enters the aquatic aquatic ecosystems.
ecosystem of lakes and rivers.
 Sewage leads to a process called
eutrophication, which destroys life in the
water as the oxygen content is severely
reduced.
 In rural areas the excessive use of
fertilisers causes an increase in nutrients,
which leads to eutrophication.

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  As the algae die and decompose, bacteria
Eutrophication consume oxygen, leading to “dead zones”
where aquatic life struggles to survive.
 Eutrophication is the process in which a This doesn’t only harm fish populations
water body becomes overly enriched with but also devastates entire food chains and
nutrients, leading to the plentiful growth local economies dependent on thriving
of simple plant life. The excessive growth marine ecosystems.
(or bloom) of algae and plankton in a
water body are indicators of this process.
 Eutrophication is considered to be a
serious environmental concern since it
often results in the deterioration of water
quality and the depletion of dissolved
oxygen in water bodies.
 Large algal blooms block sunlight,
restricting the growth of underwater
vegetation and depriving marine life of
essential oxygen.
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How can aquatic ecosystems be conserved?

 For sustainable use of an aquatic  As the proportion of the earth’s surface

ecosystem, water pollution must be that is naturally covered by wetlands is
prevented. very small compared to forests or
 Changing the nature of the aquatic grasslands, the wetland ecosystems are
ecosystem from a flowing water very highly threatened.
ecosystem to a static ecosystem destroys
its natural biological diversity.
 Aquatic ecosystems, especially wetlands,
need protection by including them in
Sanctuaries or National Parks in the same
way in which we protect natural forests.

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Threats to wetlands in Assam

 A survey conducted by the Assam Remote  Though the wetlands of Assam have the
Sensing Application Center (ARSAC), capacity of producing 5,000 tones of fish
Guwahati, and the Space Research Center, per hectare per year, around 20,000 tones
Ahemadabad, has revealed that 1367 out of fish have to be imported to meet local
of 3513 wetlands in Assam are under demands.
severe threat due to invasion of aquatic
weeds and several developmental  This is primarily due to poor wetland
activities. management.

 The wetlands of Assam form the greatest

potential source of income for the State in
terms of fisheries and tourism.

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 Ecosystem Services
 An ecosystem service is any positive benefit that wildlife or ecosystems provide to people. The
benefits can be direct or indirect—small or large.
 There are four types of ecosystem services
 Provisioning: Fruits, vegetables, trees, fish, and livestock are available to us as direct products of
ecosystems. A provisioning service is any type of benefit that can be extracted from nature. Along
with food, other types of provisioning services include drinking water, timber, wood fuel, natural
gas, oils, plants that can be made into clothes and other materials, and medicinal benefits.
 Regulating: Plants, clean air and filter water, bacteria decompose wastes, bees pollinate flowers,
and tree roots hold soil in place to prevent erosion. All these processes work together to make
ecosystems clean, sustainable, functional, and resilient to change. A regulating service is the
benefit provided by ecosystem processes that moderate natural phenomena. Regulating services
include pollination, decomposition, water purification, erosion and flood control, and carbon
storage and climate regulation.

127
 Ecosystem Services
 Cultural: The importance of ecosystems to the human mind can be traced back to the beginning of
mankind with ancient civilizations drawing pictures of animals, plants, and weather patterns on
cave walls. A cultural service is a non-material benefit that contributes to the development and
cultural advancement of people, including how ecosystems play a role in local, national, and
global cultures; the building of knowledge and the spreading of ideas; creativity born from
interactions with nature (music, art, architecture); and recreation.
 Supporting: Ecosystems themselves couldn't be sustained without the consistency of underlying
natural processes, such as photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, the creation of soils, and the water
cycle. These processes allow the Earth to sustain basic life forms, let alone whole ecosystems
and people. Without supporting services, provisional, regulating, and cultural services wouldn't
exist.

128
 Ecosystem Restoration
 Ecological restoration is the exercise aimed at
restoring an ecosystem that has been disturbed,
degraded or impaired to as close its original state
as possible.
 The focus is on multiple aspects like soil alleviation,
hydrology, filling species gaps, etc. Ecosystem
integrity and species integrity are high priorities in
ecological restoration.
 The objective of ecological restoration is to put an
ecosystem back on its original trajectory which
existed before the disturbance or impairment took
place.
 Ecological restoration has a high potential to
involve local communities and thereby generate
alternate livelihoods

129
 Key principles of restoration
 Maintaining ecosystem integrity: One should not try to create an ecosystem that is different
from the original ecosystem type. For instance, one should not try and create a grassland in
place of a dry deciduous forest or vice versa.
 Species integrity: This is about ensuring that only the right types of species that are indigenous
or native to the target ecosystem are introduced in the restoration process.
 Least possible intervention: This involves using passive restoration techniques as far as
possible and using active methods only where passive methods are not feasible. The focus
should be on reviving the ecological processes and bringing the ecosystem to a self-sustaining
level where the rest of the restoration process can be taken over by nature.
 Ecological restoration and wildlife conservation have strong complimentary elements. Many
wildlife conservation projects could include habitat restoration efforts to varying degrees.

130
Unit 3:
Natural resources

131
Introduction

 Our environment provides us with a

variety of goods and services necessary
for our day to day lives.
 These natural resources include, air,
water, soil, minerals, along with the
climate and solar energy, which form the
non-living or ‘abiotic’ part of nature.

132
Land Resources

 Landforms such as hills, valleys, plains,  Furthermore, man needs land resources
river basins and wetlands include to protect wilderness area in forests,
different resource generating areas that grasslands, wetlands, mountains, coasts,
the people living in them depend on. etc. to protect our vitally valuable
 If land is utilized carefully, it can be biodiversity.
considered a renewable resource.  Thus a rational use of land needs careful
 Land on earth is as finite as any of our planning.
other natural resources.  One can develop most of these different
 Man needs land for building homes, types of land uses almost anywhere, but
cultivating food, maintaining pastures for Protected Areas (National Park’s and
domestic animals, developing industries Wildlife Sanctuaries) can only be situated
to provide goods, and supporting the where some of the natural ecosystems
industry by creating towns and cities. are still undisturbed.

133
Changes in land and resource use

 During the last 100 years, a better health  The growth of industrial complexes has
care delivery system and an improved led to a shift of people from their
nutritional status has led to rapid traditional, sustainable, rural way of life to
population growth. urban centers that developed around
 To meet the demand of this growing industry.
population, large stretches of land such as  These forms of intensive land use are
forests, grasslands and wetlands have frequently extended at the cost of ‘wild
been converted into intensive agriculture. lands’, our remaining forests, grasslands,
 These changes have brought about wetlands and deserts.
dramatic alterations in land-use patterns  Thus it is essential to evolve a rational
and rapid disappearance of valuable land-use policy that examines how much
natural ecosystems. land must be made available for different
purposes and where it must be situated.

134
Changes in land and resource use

 Land and water resources are polluted by  Forest regulate oxygen levels in the
industrial waste and rural and urban atmosphere, removes carbon dioxide,
sewage. They are increasingly being control over water regimes, and slow
diverted for short-term economic gains to down erosion an also produce products
agriculture and industry. such as food, fuel, timber, fodder,
 Natural wetlands of great value are being medicinal plants.
drained for agriculture and semi-arid land
is being irrigated.
 In the long term, the loss of these is far
 The most damaging change in landuse is greater than the short-term gains
demonstrated by the rapidity with which produced by converting forested lands to
forests have vanished during recent times, other uses.
both in India and in the rest of the world.

135
Land degradation

 Farmland is under threat due to more and  The use of more and more chemical
more intense utilization. fertilizers poisons the soil so that
 Every year, between 5 to 7 million eventually the land becomes
hectares of land worldwide is added to unproductive.
the existing degraded farmland.  As urban centers grow and industrial
 Over irrigating farmland leads to expansion occurs, the agricultural land
salinization, as evaporation of water and forests shrink.
brings the salts to the surface of the soil
on which crops cannot grow.
 Over irrigation also creates water logging
of the topsoil so that crop roots are
affected, and the crop deteriorates

136
Soil Erosion

 Soils of various types support a wide  The process is more evident in areas
variety of crops. where deforestation has led to erosion on
 The misuse of an ecosystem leads to loss steep hill slopes as in the Himalayas and
of valuable soil through erosion by the in the Western Ghats. These areas are
monsoon rains and, to a smaller extent, by called “ecologically sensitive areas” or
wind. ESAs.
 The roots of the trees in the forest hold  To prevent soil erosion, it is essential to
the soil. Deforestation thus leads to rapid preserve what remains of our natural
soil erosion. forest cover. It is equally important to
reforest denuded areas.
 Soil is washed into streams and is
transported into rivers and finally lost to  The linkage between the existence of
the sea. forests and the presence of soil is greater
than the forest’s physical soil binding.

137
Soil Erosion

 The soil is enriched by the leaf litter of the

forest.
 Further losses of our soil wealth will
impoverish our country and reduce its
capacity to grow enough food in future.

138
Deforestation

 Where civilizations have looked after  One of India’s serious environmental

forests by using forest resources problems is forest degradation due to
cautiously, they have prospered, where timber extraction and our dependence on
forests were destroyed, the people were fuelwood.
gradually impoverished.
 We have not been able to plant enough
 Today logging and mining are serious trees to support the need for timber and
causes of loss of forests in our country fuelwood.
and all over the world.
 The National Forest Policy of 1988 now
 Dams built for hydroelectric power or gives an added importance to Joint Forest
irrigation have submerged forests and Management (JFM).
have displaced tribal people whose lives
are closely knit to the forest.

139
Deforestation

 Joint Forest Management: village  An informal arrangement between local

communities are entrusted with the communities and the Forest Department
protection and management of nearby began in 1972, in Midnapore District of
forests. West Bengal.
 The communities are required to organize  JFM has now evolved into a formal
forest protection committees, village agreement which identifies and respects
forest committees, village forest the local community’s rights and benefits
conservation and development societies, that they need from forest resources.
etc.
 They participate in restoring green cover
and protect the area from being over
exploited.

140
Deforestation

 The States have tried a variety of  Some States have stopped grazing
approaches to JFM. completely; some have rotational grazing
 The share for village forest committees schemes which have helped in forest
ranges from 25 per cent in Kerala to 100 regeneration.
per cent in Andhra Pradesh, 50 per cent in
Gujarat, Maharashtra, Orissa and Tripura.
 In many States non-timber forest
products (NTFPs) are available for people
free of cost.

141
Deforestation

 Timber extraction, mining and dams are  One needs to understand that long-term
invariably parts of the needs of a ecological gains cannot be sacrificed for
developing country. short-term economic gains that
 However, if timber is overharvested the unfortunately lead to deforestation.
ecological functions of the forest are lost.  These forests where development
 Forests also cover the steep projects are planned, can displace
embankments of river valleys, which are thousands of tribal people who lose their
ideally suited to develop hydel and homes when these plans are executed
irrigation projects.
 There is a constant conflict of interests
between the conservation interests of
environmental scientists and the Mining
and Irrigation Departments.

142
Mineral resources

 A mineral is a naturally occurring  Iron, aluminum, zinc, manganese and

substance of definite chemical copper are important raw materials for
composition and identifiable physical industrial use.
properties.
 Important non-metal resources include
 An ore is a mineral or combination of coal, salt, clay, cement and silica. Stone
minerals from which a useful substance, used for building material, such as
such as a metal, can be extracted and granite, marble, limestone, constitute
used to manufacture a useful product. another category of minerals.
 Minerals are formed over a period of  Minerals with special properties that
millions of years in the earth’s crust. humans value for their aesthetic and
ornamental value are gems such as
diamonds, emeralds, rubies. Furthermore.,
gold, silver and platinum is used for
ornaments.
143
Mineral resources

 Minerals and their ores need to be 4. Exploitation: Extracting the minerals

extracted from the earth’s interior so that from the mines
they can be used. This process is known as
mining.  Modern prospecting methods include the
use of sophisticated instruments like
 Mining operations generally involves four Geographic Information System (GIS) to
stages: survey and study the geology of the area.
1. Prospecting: Searching for minerals.  The topography of the region and the
2. Exploration: Assessing the size, shape, physical nature of the ore deposit is
location, and economic value of the studied.
deposit
3. Development: Work of preparing access
to the deposit so that the minerals can
be extracted from it
144
Mining

 Mines are of two types – surface (open cut  Large explosions have occurred in coal
or strip mines) or deep or shaft mines. mines, killing many miners.
 The method chosen for mining will  Mining poses several long-term
ultimately depend on how maximum yield occupational hazards to the miners. Dust
may be obtained under existing conditions produced during mining operations is
at a minimum cost, with the least danger injurious to health and causes a lung
to the mining personnel. disease known as black lung.
 Mine safety: Mining is a hazardous  Methane gas, emanating from coal strata,
occupation, and the safety of mine is hazardous to health although not
workers is an important environmental poisonous in the concentrations usually
consideration of the industry. encountered in mine air.
 Metal mining is less hazardous than coal  Radiation is a hazard in uranium mines.
mining.

145
146
Mining and environmental problems

 Mining operations are considered one of  Public awareness of this problem is of a

the main sources of environmental global nature and government actions to
degradation. stem the damage to the natural
 Depletion of available land due to mining, environment have led to numerous
waste from industries, conversion of land international agreements and laws
to industry and pollution of land, water
and air by industrial wastes, are
environmental side effects of the use of
these non-renewable resources.

147
Water resources

 The water cycle, through evaporation and  At a global level 70% of water is used for
precipitation, maintains hydrological agriculture about 25% for industry and
systems which form rivers and lakes and
only 5% for domestic use.
support in a variety of aquatic
ecosystems.  India uses 90% for agriculture, 7% for
 All aquatic ecosystems are used by a industry and 3% for domestic use.
large number of people for their daily  India is expected to face critical levels of
needs such as drinking water, washing, water stress by 2025. At the global level
cooking, watering animals, and irrigating 31 countries are already short of water
fields.
and by 2025 there will be 48 countries
 Water covers 70% of the earth’s surface facing serious water shortages.
but only 3% of this is fresh water. Of this,
2% is in polar ice caps and only 1% is
usable water in rivers, lakes and subsoil
aquifers.
148
Natural and man-made sources of water

149
Floods

 Floods have been a serious environmental  Deforestation in the Himalayas causes

hazard for centuries. floods that year after year kill people,
 The havoc raised by rivers overflowing damage crops and destroy homes in the
their banks has become progressively Ganges and its tributaries and the
more damaging, as people have Brahmaputra.
deforested catchments and intensified use  Rivers change their course during floods
of river flood plains that once acted as and tons of valuable soil is lost to the sea.
safety valves.
 As the forests are degraded, rainwater no
 Wetlands in flood plains are nature’s flood longer percolates slowly into the subsoil
control systems and act like a temporary but runs off down the mountainside
sponge holding the water and preventing bearing large amounts of topsoil.
fast flowing water from damaging
surrounding land.

150
Drought

 In most arid regions of the world the rains  Under these schemes, people are given
are unpredictable. This leads to periods wages in bad years to build roads, minor
when there is a serious scarcity of water irrigation works and plantation programs.
to drink, use in farms, or provide for urban
and industrial use.  While it is not feasible to prevent the
failure of the monsoon, good
 Drought prone areas are thus faced with environmental management can reduce
irregular periods of famine. It also leads its ill effects.
to food shortages and malnutrition which
especially affects children.  One of the factors that worsens the effect
of drought is deforestation. Once hill
 India has ‘Drought Prone Areas slopes are denuded of forest cover the
Development Programs’, which are used rainwater rushes down the rivers and is
in such areas to buffer the effects of lost.
droughts.

151
Water for Agriculture and Power Generation

 India’s increasing demand for water for  They alter river flows, change nature’s
intensive irrigated agriculture, for flood control mechanisms such as
generating electricity, and for wetlands and flood plains, and destroy the
consumption in urban and industrial lives of local people and the habitats of
centers, has been met by creating large wild plant and animal species.
dams.
 Irrigation to support cash crops like
 Although dams ensure a year round sugarcane produces an unequal
supply of water for domestic use, provide distribution of water. Large landholders
extra water for agriculture, industry, on the canals get the lion’s share of water,
hydropower generation, they have several while poor, small farmers get less and are
serious environmental problems. seriously affected.

152
Non-Renewable & Renewable Resources

 The non-renewable resources, once used,  Renewable resources are the opposite:
remain on earth in a different form and, Their supply replenishes naturally or can
unless recycled, become waste material. be sustained.
 It include fossil fuels such as oil and coal,  The sunlight used in solar energy and the
which if extracted at the present rate, will wind used to power wind turbines
soon be totally used up. replenish themselves. Timber reserves
 A non- renewable resource is a natural can be sustained through replanting.
substance that is not replenished with the
speed at which it is consumed. It is a finite
resource.

153
Energy resources

 An energy resource is something that can  There are 5 fundamental sources of

produce heat, power life, move objects, or energy:
produce electricity.
1. Solar energy
 Matter that stores energy is called a fuel.
2. Gravity generated by the Earth & Moon.
 Today, humans consume as much as 110
times as much energy per person as early 3. Nuclear fission reactions.
humans. 4. Energy in the interior of the Earth.
 Most of the energy we use today come 5. Energy stored in chemical bonds.
from fossil fuels (stored solar energy).
But fossils fuels have a disadvantage in
that they are non-renewable on a human
time scale, and cause other potentially
harmful effects on the environment.

154
Renewable and non-renewable energy resources

 Nonrenewable energy sources:  The major types or sources of renewable

1. Petroleum energy are:
2. Hydrocarbon gas liquids 1. Solar energy from the sun
3. Natural gas 2. Geothermal energy from heat inside the
earth
4. Coal
3. Wind energy
5. Nuclear energy
4. Biomass from plants
5. Hydropower from flowing water

155
156
157
Non-renewable energy sources

 These consist of the mineral-based  Many of these gases also act like a green
hydrocarbon fuels coal, oil and natural house letting sunlight in and trapping the
gas, that were formed from ancient heat inside. This is leading to global
prehistoric forests. These are called ‘fossil warming.
fuels’.
 Oil and gas resources however are likely
to be used up within the next 50 years.
 When these fuels are burnt, they produce
waste products that are released into the
atmosphere as gases such as carbon
dioxide, oxides of Sulphur, nitrogen, and
carbon monoxide, all causes of air
pollution.

158
 Fossil Fuels
 Pollution from oil comes not only from automobile
and truck emissions but also at each stage of
production: pumping, shipping, processing, storage,
and delivery.
 This includes oil spilled in water and on land, as well
as both day-to-day and emergency conditions at
refineries.
 Advantages of an energy source include energy
density, availability, safety, and versatility.
Disadvantages include hazard potential,  Oil: A thick, yellow to black, flammable
environmental damage, and cost. liquid hydrocarbon mixture found in
 Coal: A black, combustible solid composed mainly of Earth’s crust; formed from the remains of
carbon, water, and trace elements found in Earth’s ancient microscopic aquatic organisms.
crust; formed from the remains of ancient plants that
lived millions of years ago

159
 Oil and its environmental impacts:

 Two sets of environmental problems are  During refining oil, solid waste such as
associated with the use of oil and natural gas: salts and grease are produced which also
the problems that result from burning the
damage the environment.
fuels (combustion) and the problems involved
in obtaining them (production and transport).  Oil slicks are caused at sea from offshore
 India’s oil reserves which are being used at oil wells, cleaning of oil tankers and due
present lie off the coast of Mumbai and in to shipwrecks.
Assam.  The most well-known disaster occurred
 The processes of oil and natural gas drilling, when the Exxon Valdez sank in 1989 and
processing, transport and utilisation have birds, sea otters, seals, fish and other
serious environmental consequences, such as marine life along the coast of Alaska was
leaks in which air and water are polluted and seriously affected.
accidental fires that may go on burning for
days or weeks before the fire can be
controlled.
160
Oil and its environmental impacts:

 Oil powered vehicles emit carbon dioxide,  At present 65 percent of the world’s oil
sulphur dioxide, nitrous oxide, carbon reserves are in the Middle East.
monoxide and particulate matter which is
a major cause of air pollution.  Oil related disasters: During the Gulf War,
oil installations burned for weeks
 Leaded petrol, leads to neuro damage and polluting the air with poisonous gasses.
reduces attention spans. Running petrol The fires wasted 5 million barrels of oil
vehicles with unleaded fuel has been and produced over a million tons of
achieved by adding catalytic converters airborne pollutants, including sulphur
on all the new cars, but unleaded fuel dioxide, a major cause of acid rain. The
contains benzene and butadiene which are gases moved to a height of 3km and
known to be carcinogenic compounds. spread as far as India. Oil also polluted
coastlines, killing birds and fish.

161
162
Coal and its environmental impacts:

 Coal is the world’s single largest  Thermal power stations that use coal
contributor of green house gases and is produce waste in the form of ‘fly ash’.
one of the most important causes of
global warming.  The transport of large quantities of fly ash
and its eventual dumping are costs that
 Acid mine drainage: Pollution caused have to be included in calculating the
when sulfuric acid and dangerous cost-benefits of thermal power.
dissolved materials such as lead, arsenic,
and cadmium wash from coal and metal
mines into nearby lakes and streams.
 This kills forest vegetation, and damages
architectural heritage sites, pollutes
water and affects human health.

163
164
Renewable energy sources

 Renewable energy systems use resources  Many of these gases also act like a green
that are constantly replaced and are house letting sunlight in and trapping the
usually less polluting. heat inside. This is leading to global
 Renewable energy technologies will warming.
improve the efficiency and cost of energy
systems. We may reach the point when we
may no longer rely mostly on fossil fuel
energy.

165
Solar Energy

 In one hour, the sun pours as much energy  Today’s fossil fuels were once the forests
onto the earth as we use in a whole year. that grew in prehistoric times due to the
 The sun is the primary energy source in energy of the sun.
our lives. We use it directly for its warmth  The sun’s rays power the growth of plants,
and through various natural processes which form our food material, give off
that provide us with food, water, fuel and oxygen which we breathe in and take up
shelter. carbon dioxide that we breathe out.
 Energy from the sun evaporates water  Solar heating for homes, solar water
from oceans, rivers and lakes, to form heating, other Solar-Powered Devices:
clouds that turn into rain. Solar desalination systems (for converting
saline or brackish water into pure distilled
water) have been developed.

166
  Biomass Energy is an other example. It
Chemical energy involves burning (a chemical reaction) of
wood, or other organic byproducts. Such
 Chemical energy, contained in chemical organic material is produced by
compounds is released when they are photosynthesis, a chemical process which
broken down by animals in the presence derives energy from the Sun and stores
of oxygen. that energy until the material is burned.
 Hydrogen Fuel Cells are one example: A
chemical reaction occurs wherein
Hydrogen reacts with Oxygen in an
electrolyte bath to produce H2O, and
releases electricity and heat. The reaction
is non-polluting, but currently has
problems, such as safely storing and
distributing compressed hydrogen gas,
and producing hydrogen efficiently.

167
168
169
 Hydroelectric power
 This uses water flowing down a natural gradient to turn turbines to generate electricity known
as ‘hydroelectric power’ by constructing dams across rivers.
 The long life of hydropower plants, the renewable nature of the energy source, very low
operating and maintenance costs, and absence of inflationary pressures as in fossil fuels, are
some of its advantages.

170
Hydroelectric power

 However, it has created serious 4. In certain regions large dams can

ecological problems: induce seismic activity which will result
1. large areas of forest and agricultural in earthquakes.
lands are submerged. With large dams causing social problems,
2. The use of rivers for navigation and there has been a trend to develop small
fisheries becomes difficult once the hydroelectric generation units.
water is dammed for generation of
electricity.
3. Resettlement of displaced persons is a
problem for which there is no ready
solution

171
Old Tehri having last breath. Reservoir slowly engulfing
last remains of the town. Iconic clock tower was the last
one to drown. We can see the last remains in this picture.

172
 Nuclear Energy
 Nuclear energy is the energy released by  Nuclear energy has less of an environmental
nuclear fission or fusion. In nuclear energy impact than fossil fuels, particularly coal.
small amounts of matter from atomic nuclei  The combustion of coal releases carbon
are converted into large amounts of energy. dioxide, a greenhouse gas that traps solar
 Radioactive decay is the emission of energetic heat in our atmosphere and may cause global
warming.
particles or rays from unstable atomic nuclei;
it includes positively charged alpha particles,  In comparison, nuclear energy emits few
negatively charged beta particles, and high- pollutants into the atmosphere. Also, nuclear
energy electromagnetic gamma rays. energy provides power without producing
carbon dioxide.
 A nuclear reactor is a device that initiates and
 It generates highly radioactive waste such as
maintains a controlled nuclear fission chain
spent fuel; every country that uses nuclear
reaction to produce energy for electricity. power is seeking a permanent waste disposal
site.
 Safety remains a concern at nuclear power
plants
173
Nuclear Power

 As the nucleus split, some mass was  The nuclear reactors use Uranium 235 to
converted to energy. The nuclear power produce electricity. Energy released from
industry however was born in the late 1kg of Uranium 235 is equivalent to that
1950s. The first large-scale nuclear power produced by burning 3,000 tons of coal.
plant in the world became operational in
1957 in Pennsylvania, US  U235 is made into rods which are fitted
into a nuclear reactor. The control rods
 India has uranium from mines in Bihar. absorb neutrons and thus adjust the
There are deposits of thorium in Kerala fission which releases energy due to the
and Tamil Nadu chain reaction in a reactor unit.
 The heat energy produced in the reaction
is used to heat water and produce steam,
which drives turbines that produce
electricity.

174
 The oldest nuclear facility in India is the Tarapur
Nuclear Reactor in Maharashtra, which started
commercial operations in 1969.

The largest Nuclear Power Plant in India is the

Kudankulam Nuclear Power Plant in Tirunelveli
district, #TamilNadu.

With 22 nuclear plants currently in operation, 12 more

reactors are being built.

175
Nuclear Power

 This has impacts on the environment due  Management, storage and disposal of
to disposal of nuclear waste. radioactive wastes resulting from nuclear
 The cost of Nuclear Power generation power generation are the biggest
must include the high cost of disposal of expenses of the nuclear power industry.
its waste and the decommissioning of old  There have been nuclear accidents at
plants. Chernobyl in USSR and at the Three Mile
 For environmental reasons, Sweden has Island in USA.
decided to become a Nuclear Free  The radioactivity unleashed by such an
Country by 2010. accident can affect mankind for
generations.

176
Gravity Generated by the Earth & Moon

 Gravitational pull of the Moon on the  Energy can be extracted from the wind
Earth causes tides. Tidal flow can be using windmills. Water flowing downhill
harnessed to drive turbines. This is also a has a result of gravity can also be
nearly unlimited source of energy and is harnessed for energy to drive turbines
largely non-polluting. and generate electricity. This is called
hydroelectric energy. This sources of
energy are mostly renewable, but only
locally, and are generally non-polluting.

177
178
179
Geothermal energy

 It is the energy stored within the earth.  In the 20th century geothermal energy
Geothermal energy starts with hot, molten has been harnessed on a large scale for
rock (called magma) deep inside the earth space heating, industrial use and
which surfaces at some parts of the electricity production, especially in
earth’s crust. Iceland, Japan and New Zealand.
 The heat rising from the magma warms  Geothermal energy is nearly as cheap as
underground pools of water known as hydropower and will thus be increasingly
geothermal reservoirs. utilised in future.
 If there is an opening, hot underground  water from geothermal reservoirs often
water comes to the surface and forms hot contains minerals that are corrosive and
springs polluting. Geothermal fluids are a
problem which must be treated before
disposal.

180
181
Energy Consumption

 We use energy to: to heat, cool, and  Energy efficiency: A measure of the
illuminate our homes and workplaces, to fraction of energy used relative to the
plant, water, harvest, process, ship, and total energy available in a given source.
store food.
 An alternative to increasing the amount of
 Energy is required to capture energy—to energy available is to increase energy
drill for and pump oil, to mine coal and efficiency; that is, to use less energy to
uranium, to build solar panels, and to accomplish the same task.
install wind turbines.
 Use of natural gas for heating has an
 Energy density: The amount of energy efficiency of close to 100%, while the
contained within a given volume or mass burning of natural gas to generate
of an energy source. electricity has a maximum efficiency of
 Gasoline has a higher energy density than about 60%
does dry wood.

182
Energy Consumption

 We use energy to: to heat, cool, and  Energy efficiency: A measure of the
illuminate our homes and workplaces, to fraction of energy used relative to the
plant, water, harvest, process, ship, and total energy available in a given source.
store food.
 An alternative to increasing the amount of
 Energy is required to capture energy—to energy available is to increase energy
drill for and pump oil, to mine coal and efficiency; that is, to use less energy to
uranium, to build solar panels, and to accomplish the same task.
install wind turbines.
 Use of natural gas for heating has an
 Energy density: The amount of energy efficiency of close to 100%, while the
contained within a given volume or mass burning of natural gas to generate
of an energy source. electricity has a maximum efficiency of
 Gasoline has a higher energy density than about 60%
does dry wood.

183
Energy Consumption  Energy policy: Energy policy has always been a major
issue in every country.
 An effective energy policy for any country has several
central objectives:
1: Increase Energy Efficiency and Conservation
2: Secure Future Fossil-Fuel Energy Supplies
3: Develop Alternative Energy Sources
4: Meet the First Three Objectives Without Further Damage
to the Environment

184
Growing energy needs

 Energy has always been closely linked to  Electricity is at present the fastest
man’s economic growth and development. growing form of end-use energy
 The rapid economic growth have used worldwide.
energy utilization as an index of economic  Among the commercial energy sources
development. used in India, coal is a predominant
 This index, however, does not consider the source accounting for 55% of energy
long-term ill effects on society of consumption estimated in 2001, followed
excessive energy utilization. by oil (31%), natural gas (8%), hydro (5%)
and nuclear (1%).
 Between 1950 and 1990, the world’s
energy needs increased four-fold. The
world’s demand for electricity has
doubled over the last 22 years!

185
Energy contents of coal, petroleum, natural gas and bio gas

 Coal: The energy content of coal varies  Natural gas: The heat value of natural gas
along with its maturity (older is better), as depends on how effective the thermal
seen in the table below anthracite has the energy coming from the natural gas is.
highest energy content of all the coal The heat content of natural gas is not
types. related to the colour of the flame in the
stove, nor to its colour or price.
 Natural gas (95% methane)- 54.0 MJ/Kg

186
Energy contents of coal, petroleum, natural gas and bio gas

 Biogas: Biogas generated from anaerobic  Petroleum: the main gaseous component
digestion processes is a clean and of petroleum is natural gas - largely
environmentally friendly renewable fuel. methane - whereas the main liquid
 . The energy content of biogas is therefore component is crude oil.
directly related to the methane  Crude oil itself is a complex mixture of
concentration. hydrocarbons, so the exact composition of
petroleum is never the same
 Biogas generally comprise of 55-65 %
methane, 35-45 % carbon dioxide, 0.5-1.0  Secondary fuels such as gasoline,
% hydrogen sulfide and traces of water kerosene, heating oil, and diesel fuel are
vapor. all included in the definition of
 Average calorific value of biogas is 20 "petroleum“.
MJ/m3 (4713 kcal/m3).  Crude Oil- 45.30 MJ/Kg,

187
188
 Agro-residue as Biomass Energy
 Biomass, one of the oldest fuels known to  However, biomass cannot replace fossil fuels.
humans, consists of fast-growing plant and The entire photosynthesis production of the
algal crops, crop wastes, sawdust and wood continental United States amounts to only half
chips, animal wastes, and wood . of our current energy use—and that would
Biomass fuel, which can be a solid, liquid, or mean devoting it to no other uses, including

gas, is burned to release its energy. Solid food, paper, and construction materials.
biomass such as wood is burned directly to  Biomass can also be converted into biogas.
obtain energy.  Biogas, which is usually composed of a
 Biomass is a renewable form of energy when mixture of gases (mostly methane), is stored
used no faster than it is produced. and transported like natural gas. It is a clean
 Deforestation and desertification can result fuel—its combustion produces fewer
when biomass is overused. pollutants than either coal or biomass

189
 Agro-residue as Biomass Energy
 When biogas conversion is complete, the solid  Several companies are currently building
remains are removed from the digester and plants that convert biomass (using cornstalks,
used as fertilizer. rice straw, the fibrous residues from
 Biomass can be converted to liquid fuels, processed sugarcane, and sewage sludge) to
especially methanol (methyl alcohol) and ethanol.
ethanol (ethyl alcohol), which can be used in  However, the cost is high & profitability of
internal combustion engines. ethanol is possible only because of
 Biodiesel, made from plants and animal oils, is government subsidies.
becoming popular as an alternative fuel for
diesel. The oil is often refined from waste oil
produced at restaurants; biodiesel burns much
cleaner than diesel fuel

190
 Agro-residue as Biomass Energy
 Advantages of Biomass Use: reduces  Disadvantages of Biomass Use: Its production
dependence on fossil fuels and often uses requires land, water, and energy. Because use
wastes, thereby reducing our waste disposal of agricultural land for energy crops
problem. competes with the growing of food crops,
It is possible to offset the CO2 released into shifting the balance toward energy production

the atmosphere from biomass combustion by might decrease food production, contributing
increasing tree planting. to higher food prices.

 As trees absorb atmospheric CO2 and lock it

 Unfortunately, in many areas people burn
wood faster than they replant trees.
up in organic molecules that make up the body
of the tree, thereby providing a carbon “sink.”  If all crop residues were removed from the
Thus, if biomass is regenerated to replace the ground, the soil would eventually be depleted
biomass used, no net CO2 is contributed to the of minerals, and its future productivity would
atmosphere. decline.

191
Unit 5: Environmental Pollution

192
Pollution

 Pollution is the effect of undesirable  An average human requires about 12 kg of

changes in our surroundings that have air each day, which is nearly 12 to15 times
harmful effects on plants, animals and greater than the amount of food we eat.
human beings.  Thus even a small concentration of
 During the last few decades we have pollutants in the air becomes more
contaminated our air, water and land on significant in comparison to the similar
which life itself depends with a variety of levels present in food
waste products.
 Pollutants include solid, liquid or gaseous
substances present in greater than
natural abundance produced due to
human activity, which have a detrimental
effect on our environment.

193
Pollution

 From an ecological perspective pollutants 3. Non-degradable pollutants: These

can be classified as follows: cannot be degraded by natural
1. Degradable or non-persistent processes. Once they are released into
pollutants: These can be rapidly broken the environment, they are difficult to
down by natural processes. Eg: eradicate and continue to accumulate.
domestic sewage, discarded vegetables, Eg: toxic elements like lead or mercury.
etc.
2. Slowly degradable or persistent
pollutants: Pollutants that remain in the
environment for many years in an
unchanged condition and take decades
or longer to degrade. Eg: DDT and most
plastics.

194
 Air Pollution

 Air pollution occurs due to the presence  By the early 20th century, the term “smog”
of undesirable solid or gaseous particles was coined to describe the adverse
in the air in quantities that are harmful to combination of smoke and fog in London.
human health and the environment.  Anthropogenic air pollution enters the
 Air may get polluted by natural causes atmosphere from both fixed and mobile
such as volcanoes, which release ash, sources.
dust, sulphur and other gases, or by forest  Fixed sources include factories, electrical
fires that are occasional. power plants, ore smelters, and farms.
 However, unlike pollutants from human  Mobile sources include all forms of
activity, naturally occurring pollutants
transportation that burn fossil fuels.
tend to remain in the atmosphere for a
short time and do not lead to permanent
atmospheric change.

195
 Air Pollution

 Pollutants that are emitted directly from  Pollutants that are produced in the
identifiable sources are produced both by atmosphere when certain chemical
natural events (for example, dust storms reactions take place among the primary
and volcanic eruptions) and human pollutants are called secondary
activities (emission from vehicles, pollutants. E.g. sulfuric acid, nitric acid,
carbonic acid, etc.
industries, etc.). These are called primary
pollutants.  CO is a colorless, odorless and toxic gas
and vehicular exhausts are the single
 There are five primary pollutants that largest source of carbon monoxide.
together contribute about 90 percent of
 Sulfur oxides are produced when sulfur
the global air pollution. These are carbon
containing fossil fuels are burnt.
oxides (CO and CO2), nitrogen oxides,
sulfur oxides, volatile organic compounds  Nitrogen oxides are found in vehicular
(mostly hydrocarbons) and suspended exhausts, they are involved in the
production of secondary air pollutants
particulate matter.
such as ozone.
196
 Air Pollution
 Ozone may be either hazardous or
beneficial, depending largely on where it
is.
 It is hazardous as an oxidant in smog
(smog ozone), but in the O3 layer, it is
beneficial because it absorbs UV radiation.
 Smog ozone reduces the normal
functioning of lungs because it inflames
the cells that line the respiratory tract.
 Other health effects include increased
• Photochemical smog is composed mainly of O3,
peroxyacetyl nitrate (PAN), and other oxidants. incidence of asthma attacks, increased
• In most western U.S. cities, photochemical smog is risk of infection, and reduced heart and
often referred to as brown cloud (O3 PAN NOx) circulatory functions.
 Smog O3 can also damage plant life.

197
Air Pollution

 Hydrocarbons are a group of compounds  Repeated exposure to particulates can

consisting of carbon and hydrogen atoms. cause them to accumulate in the lungs
They either evaporate from fuel supplies and interfere with the ability of the lungs
or are remnants of fuel that did not burn to exchange gases.
completely. Lead is a major air pollutant that remains

 They cause an oily film on the surface and largely unmonitored and is emitted by
do not as such cause a serious issue until vehicles. High lead levels have been
they react to form secondary pollutants. reported in the ambient air in
Particulates are small pieces of solid metropolitan cities. Leaded petrol is the

material (e.g., smoke particles from fires, primary source of airborne lead emissions
in Indian cities.
dust particles and ash from industries)
dispersed into the atmosphere.

198
 Air Pollution
 CO2 is sometimes not considered to be an air  In addition to being very efficient longwave
pollutant because it is not hazardous to absorbers, CFCs are also involved in depleting
human health at ambient atmospheric stratospheric O3.
concentrations; moreover, it is essential for  Fortunately, because of concerted
carbon fixation by plants. international effort resulting in the 1987
 CO2 is by far the most abundant and important Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete
atmospheric trace gas contributing to the the Ozone Layer, CFC emissions to the
natural greenhouse effect. atmosphere have decreased substantially in
recent years.
 CO2 is readily absorbed by water, with warm
water absorbing more than cold water, so it is
removed from the atmosphere by the water
bodies.
 In addition to CO2, the other main greenhouse
gases are CH4, N2O, chlorofluorocarbons
(CFCs), and O3
199
Effects of air pollution on living organisms

 Our respiratory system has a number of  Prolonged smoking or exposure to air

mechanisms that help in protecting us pollutants can overload or breakdown
from air pollution. these natural defenses causing or
 The hair in our nose filters out large contributing to diseases such as lung
particles. The sticky mucus in the lining of cancer, asthma and chronic bronchitis.
the upper respiratory tract captures  Cigarette smoking is responsible for the
smaller particles and dissolves some greatest exposure to carbon monoxide.
gaseous pollutants. Exposure to air containing even 0.001

 When the upper respiratory system is percent of carbon monoxide for several
irritated by pollutants sneezing and hours can cause collapse, coma and even
coughing expel contaminated air and death.
mucus.

200
 As carbon monoxide remains
attached to hemoglobin in
blood for a long time, it
accumulates and reduces the
oxygen carrying capacity of
blood. This impairs perception
and thinking, slows reflexes
and causes headaches,
drowsiness, dizziness and
nausea.
 Carbon monoxide in heavy
traffic causes headaches,
drowsiness and blurred vision.

201
 Sulfur dioxide irritates  Nitrogen oxides especially NO2
respiratory tissues. can irritate the lungs,
aggravate asthma or chronic
 Chronic exposure causes a bronchitis and also increase
condition similar to bronchitis. susceptibility to respiratory
infections such as influenza or
 It also reacts with water,
common colds.
oxygen and other material in
the air to form sulfur-  Suspended particles aggravate
containing acids. bronchitis and asthma.

 The acids can become attached

 Exposure to these particles
over a long period of time
to particles which when inhaled damages lung tissue and
are very corrosive to the lung. contributes to the development
of chronic respiratory disease
and cancer.

202
 Effects of air pollution on plants: Chronic  Effects of air pollution on materials: Every
exposure of the leaves to air pollutants year air pollutants cause damage worth
can break down the waxy coating that billions of rupees.
helps prevent excessive water loss and  Air pollutants break down exterior paint
leads to damage from diseases, pests, on cars and houses.
frost and hampers the process of
photosynthesis.  All around the world air pollutants have
discolored irreplaceable monuments,
 At a higher concentration of sulphur historic buildings, marble statues, etc.
dioxide majority of the flower buds
become stiff and hard. They eventually fall
from the plants, as they are unable to
flower

203
 Control measures for air pollution

 Air pollution can be controlled by two

fundamental approaches: preventive
techniques and effluent control.
 One of the effective means of controlling air
pollution is to have proper equipment in
place.
 This includes devices for removal of
pollutants from the flue gases though
scrubbers, closed collection recovery
systems through which it is possible to
collect the pollutants before they escape,
use of dry and wet collectors, filters,
electrostatic precipitators, etc.

204
Measures to Control Air Pollution

1. Activated carbon: This type of control 3. Change in Fuel: It involves the use of
involves the use of a carbon, to reduce less polluting fuel to reduce air
the amount of pollutants that escape pollution. For e.g. use of low sulfur fuel
into air. These filters absorb pollutants instead of high sulfur fuel by electric
helping to cleanse the air of any utilities. Remember that low sulfur fuel
possible toxins. is much more expensive than high sulfur
2. Biofiltration: It uses microorganisms fuel.
(bacteria and fungi) to dissolve 4. The emissions from the plant are passed
pollutants. Industries such as food and through a control device before
waste plants, pharmaceutical releasing to atmosphere. The pollutants
companies, and wastewater are removed, destroyed or transformed
management facilities, use biofiltration. in the control device before discharging
However, a large space is required in into ambient air.
order to operate a biofiltration system.
205
 Indoor Air Pollution
 Indoor pollution is of particular concern to  There was also suggestive evidence of an
urban residents because they may spend as association between molds, a damp indoor
much as 90% to 95% of their time indoors. environment, and illness in the lower
 The most common contaminants of indoor air respiratory tracts in otherwise healthy
children.
are radon, cigarette smoke, carbon monoxide,
nitrogen dioxide (from gas stoves),  Health effects of indoor air pollution range
formaldehyde (from carpeting, fabrics, and from mild and acute (cold and flu-like
furniture), household pesticides, lead, cleaning symptoms, headaches, and nausea), to severe
solvents, ozone (from photocopiers) etc. and chronic (allergies, asthma, developmental
Viruses, bacteria, fungi (yeasts, molds, and disorders, cancer).

mildews), dust mites, pollen, and other
organisms or their toxic parts are important
forms of indoor air pollution often found in
heating, air-conditioning, and ventilation ducts.

206
Water Pollution

 Although 71% of the earth’s surface is  Any pollutant that is discharged onto the
covered by water only a tiny fraction of land above is also pulled into the aquifer
this water is available to us as fresh and pollutes the groundwater resulting in
water. polluted water in the nearby wells.
 In short if the world’s water supply were  When the quality or composition of water
only 100 liters our usable supply of fresh changes directly or indirectly as a result
water would be only about 0.003 liters of man’s activities such that it becomes
(one-half teaspoon). This makes water a unfit for any purpose it is said to be
very precious resource. polluted.
 Water that is found in streams, rivers,
lakes, wetlands and artificial reservoirs is
called surface water.

207
Point sources of pollution

 When a source of pollution can be readily

identified because it has a definite source
and place where it enters the water it is
said to come from a point source. E.g.,
Municipal and Industrial Discharge Pipes.

 When a source of pollution cannot be

readily identified, such as agricultural
runoff, acid rain, etc., they are said to be
non-point sources of pollution.

208
 Causes of water pollution

 There are several classes of common water  BOD is usually expressed as milligrams of
pollutants. dissolved oxygen per liter of water for a
 These are disease-causing agents (pathogens) specific number of days at a given
which include bacteria, viruses, protozoa and temperature.
parasitic worms that enter water from  The amount of BOD in the water is an indicator
domestic sewage and untreated human and
of the level of pollution.
animal wastes
 Another category of water pollutants is  A large amount of sewage in water generates
oxygen depleting wastes. These are organic a high BOD, which robs the water of dissolved
wastes that can be decomposed by aerobic oxygen. When dissolved oxygen levels are low,
(oxygen requiring) bacteria. anaerobic (without oxygen) microorganisms
The amount of oxygen required to break down produce compounds with unpleasant odors,

a certain amount of organic matter is called further deteriorating water quality.
the biological oxygen demand (BOD).

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 Causes of water pollution
 A third class of pollutants are inorganic plant
nutrients. These are water soluble nitrates and
phosphates that cause excessive growth of
algae and other aquatic plants.
 An oligotrophic lake has clear water and
supports small populations of aquatic
organisms.
 Eutrophication is the enrichment of a lake,
estuary, or slow-flowing stream by inorganic
 As natural eutrophication occurs, these bodies of water are
plant and algal nutrients such as phosphorus; slowly enriched and grow shallower from the immense
an enriched body of water is said to be number of dead organisms.
eutrophic.  Some human activities, however, greatly accelerate
eutrophication.
 In eutrophic lakes, the deeper, colder levels of
water are depleted of dissolved oxygen  Artificial eutrophication: Over nourishment of an aquatic
ecosystem by nutrients such as nitrates and phosphates; due
because when the excessive numbers of algae to human activities such as agriculture and discharge from
die. sewage treatment plants.
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Causes of water pollution

 The chemicals in fertilizers and pesticides

pollute soil and water. While excess
fertilizers cause eutrophication, pesticides
cause bioaccumulation and
biomagnification.

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Causes of water pollution

 At each link in the food chain these  A fourth class of water pollutants is water
chemicals which do not pass out of the soluble inorganic chemicals which are
body are accumulated and increasingly acids, salts and compounds of toxic
concentrated resulting in biomagnification metals such as mercury and lead.
of these harmful substances. High levels of these chemicals can make

 One of the effects of accumulation of high the water unfit to drink, harm fish and
levels of pesticides such as DDT is that other aquatic life, reduce crop yields and
birds lay eggs with shells that are much accelerate corrosion of equipment that
thinner than normal. use this water

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Causes of water pollution

 Another cause of water pollution is a  High levels of soil particles suspended in

variety of organic chemicals, which water, interferes with the penetration of
include oil, gasoline, plastics, pesticides, sunlight.
cleaning solvents, detergent and many  This reduces the photosynthetic activity of
other chemicals. aquatic plants and algae disrupting the
 Sediment of suspended matter is another ecological balance of the aquatic bodies.
class of water pollutants. These are  Water soluble radioactive isotopes are
insoluble particles of soil and other solids another source of water pollution. These
that become suspended in water. can be concentrated in various tissues and
organs as they pass through food chains.
Ionizing radiation emitted by such
isotopes can cause birth defects, cancer
and genetic damage.

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 Causes of water pollution
 Thermal pollution occurs when heated water  Other subtle changes may take place in
produced during certain industrial processes the activities and behavior of aquatic
is released into waterways. organisms in thermally polluted water
 Many industries, such as steam-generated because temperature affects reproductive
electric power plants, use water to remove cycles, digestion rates, and respiration
excess heat from their operations. rates.
 Increasing the temperature of a lake, stream  At warmer temperatures, fishes require
or river leads to several chemical, physical, more food to maintain body weight. They
and biological effects. typically have shorter life spans and
 Chemical reactions, including decomposition smaller populations.
of wastes, occur faster, depleting the water of
oxygen. Moreover, less oxygen dissolves in
 In cases of extreme thermal pollution,
warm water than in cool water, and the fishes and other aquatic organisms die.
amount of oxygen dissolved in water has
important effects on aquatic life.

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Control measures for preventing water pollution

 While the foremost necessity is  This system involves running

prevention, setting up effluent treatment contaminated water through the root
plants and treating waste through these zones of specially designed reed beds.
can reduce the pollution load in the  The reeds, which are essentially wetland
recipient water. plants have the capacity to absorb oxygen
from the surrounding air through their
 The treated effluent can be reused for
stomatal openings.
either gardening or cooling purposes
wherever possible.  The oxygen is pushed through the porous
stem of the reeds into the hollow roots
 A few years ago a new technology called where it enters the root zone and creates
the Root Zone Process has been conditions suitable for the growth of
developed by Thermax. numerous bacteria and fungi. These
micro-organisms oxidize impurities in the
wastewaters, so that the water which
finally comes out is clean
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218
Soil Pollution

 Soil is a thin covering over the land  Soils vary in their content of clay (very
consisting of a mixture of minerals, fine particles), silt (fine particles), sand
organic material, living organisms, air and (medium size particles) and gravel
water that together support the growth of (coarse to very coarse particles).
plant life. The relative amounts of the different sizes

 Mature soils are arranged in a series of and types of mineral particles determine
zones called soil horizons. Each horizon soil texture. Soils with approximately
has a distinct texture and composition that equal mixtures of clay, sand, silt and
varies with different types of soils. A cross humus are called loams.
sectional view of the horizons in a soil is
called a soil profile

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Causes of soil degradation

 Soil erosion can be defined as the  Thus it is essential that proper soil
movement of surface litter and topsoil conservation measures are used to
from one place to another. minimize the loss of top soil.
 While erosion is a natural process often  Today both water and soil are conserved
caused by wind and flowing water it is through integrated treatment methods.
greatly accelerated by human activities  Some of the most commonly employed
such as farming, construction,
methods include the two types of
overgrazing by livestock, burning of grass treatment-
cover and deforestation.
1. Area treatment which involves treating
 Loss of the topsoil makes a soil less
the land
fertile and reduces its water holding
capacity. 2. Drainage line treatment which involves
treating the natural water courses
(nalas)
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Causes of soil degradation

 Continuous contour trenches can be used

to enhance infiltration of water reduce the
runoff and check soil erosion.
 These are actually shallow trenches dug
across the slope of the land and along the
contour lines basically for the purpose of
soil and water conservation.

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