General Structure and Function of the Digestive System

Every body cell needs a constant supply of nutrients. Cells use the energy contained in nutrients to do their work. In
addition, they rearrange the nutrients’ chemical building blocks to manufacture materials the body needs for metabolism,
growth, and repair. Food in its ingested form is too large to enter cells. It must first be broken down into particles small
enough to pass through the cells’ plasma membrane. This breakdown process is known as digestion. After digestion, the
circulation must carry nutrients to the cells in every part of the body. The transfer of nutrients into the circulation is
called absorption. Finally, undigested waste material must be eliminated. Digestion, absorption, and elimination are the
three chief functions of the digestive system. For our purposes, the digestive system may be divided into two groups of
organs:
■ digestive tract, a continuous passageway beginning at the mouth, where food is taken in, and terminating
at the anus, where the solid waste products of digestion are expelled from the body. The remainder of the digestive tract
consists of the pharynx, esophagus, stomach, and small and large intestines.
■ accessory organs, which are necessary for the digestive process but are not a direct part of the digestive
tract. They release substances into the digestive tract through ducts. These organs are the salivary glands,
liver, gallbladder, and pancreas.
THE WALL OF THE DIGESTIVE TRACT
Although modified for specific tasks in different organs, the wall of the digestive tract, from the esophagus to the anus,
is similar in structure throughout .
1. Mucous membrane, or mucosa
2. Submucosa
3. Smooth muscle, the muscularis externa
4. Serous membrane, or serosa
The Peritoneum
The peritoneum is a thin, shiny serous membrane that lines the abdominopelvic cavity and also folds back to cover
most of the organs contained within the cavity. the outer portion of this membrane, the layer that lines the cavity, is
called the parietal peritoneum; the layer that covers the organs is called the visceral peritoneum. This slippery
membrane 1-allows the organs to slide over each other as they function. 2- Also carries blood vessels, lymphatic
vessels, and nerves. 3- In some places, it supports the organs and binds them to each other. The peritoneal cavity is the
potential space between the membrane’s two layers and contains serous fluid (peritoneal fluid).
Its, located in the abdominal cavity and pelvic cavity. The lesser peritoneal cavity is formed by a smaller extension of
these membranes dorsal to the stomach and liver to the posterior attachment of the diaphragm. Subdivisions of the
peritoneum around the various organs have special names. The mesentery is a double-layered portion of the
peritoneum shaped somewhat like a fan. The handle portion is attached to the posterior abdominal wall, and the
expanded long edge is attached to the small intestine. Between the two membranous layers of the mesentery are the
vessels and nerves that supply the intestine. The section of the peritoneum that extends from the colon to the posterior
abdominal wall is the mesocolon .A large double layer of the peritoneum containing much fat hangs like an apron over
the front of the intestine. This greater omentum extends from the lower border of the stomach into the pelvic cavity
and then loops back up to the transverse colon. A smaller membrane, called the lesser omentum, extends between the
stomach and the liver.
Organs of the Digestive Tract
The digestive tract is a muscular tube extending through the body. It is composed of several parts: the mouth,
pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. The digestive tract is sometimes called the
alimentary tract, from the word aliment, meaning “food.” It is more commonly referred to as the gastrointestinal (GI)
tract because of the major importance of the stomach and intestine in the digestive process.
THE MOUTH
The mouth, also called the oral cavity, is where a substance begins its travels through the digestive tract. The mouth
has the following digestive functions:
■ It receives food, a process called ingestion.
■ It breaks food into small portions mainly by the teeth in the process of chewing or mastication, but the tongue,
cheeks, and lips are also used.
■ It mixes the food with saliva, produced by the salivary glands and secreted into the mouth. Saliva1- lubricates the
food and 2- Has a digestive enzyme called salivary amylase, which begins starch digestion.
■ It moves proper amounts of food toward the throat to be swallowed, a process called deglutition.

THE TONGUE
a muscular organ that projects into the mouth, aids in chewing and swallowing, and is one of the principal organs of
speech. The tongue has a number of special surface receptors, taste buds, (e.g., bitter, sweet, sour, or salty).

THE TEETH
The oral cavity also contains the teeth. A child between 2 and 6 years of age has 20 teeth, known as the baby teeth or
deciduous teeth means “falling off at a certain time”. A complete set of adult permanent teeth numbers 32. The cutting
teeth, or incisors 8‫القواطع‬occupy the anterior part of the oral cavity. The cuspids,‫ انياب‬4 commonly called the canines
or eyeteeth, are lateral to the incisors. They are pointed teeth with deep roots that are used for more forceful gripping
and tearing of food. The posterior molars ‫ االضراس‬20 are the larger grinding teeth. There are two premolars and three
molars.
In an adult, each quadrant (quarter) of the mouth, moving from anterior to posterior, has two incisors, one cuspid, and
five molars.
The first eight deciduous (baby) teeth to appear through the gums are the incisors. Later, the cuspids and molars
appear. Usually, the 20 baby teeth all have appeared by the time a child has reached the age of 2 to 3 years.
During the first 2 years, the permanent teeth develop within the upper jaw (maxilla) and lower jaw (mandible) from
buds that are present at birth. The first permanent teeth to appear are the four 6-year molars, which come in before any
baby teeth are lost. Because decay and infection of deciduous molars may spread to new, permanent teeth, deciduous
teeth need proper care.
As a child grows, the jawbones grow, making space for additional teeth. After the 6-year molars have appeared, the
baby incisors loosen and are replaced by permanent incisors. Next, the baby canines (cuspids) are replaced by
permanent canines, and finally, the baby molars are replaced by the permanent bicuspids (premolars).At this point, the
larger jawbones are ready for the appearance of the 12-year, or second, permanent molar teeth. During or after the late
teens, the third molars, or so-called wisdom teeth, may appear. In some cases, the jaw is not large enough for these
teeth, or there are other abnormalities, so that the third molars may not erupt or may have to be removed. Figure 17-5
shows the parts of a molar. The main substance of the tooth is dentin, a calcified substance harder than bone. Within
the tooth is a soft pulp containing blood vessels and nerves. The tooth’s crown projects above the gum, the gingiva,
and is covered with enamel, the hardest substance in the body. The root or roots of the tooth, located below the gum
line in a bony socket, are covered with a rigid connective tissue (cementum) that helps to hold the tooth in place. A
fibrous periodontal ligament joins the cementum to the tooth socket. Each root has a canal containing extensions of the
pulp.
THE PHARYNX
The pharynx is commonly referred to as the throat. It is a combined pathway for the respiratory and digestive
systems. The oral part of the pharynx, the oropharynx, is visible when you look into an open mouth and depress the
tongue. The palatine tonsils may be seen at either side of the oropharynx. The pharynx also extends upward to the
nasal cavity, where it is referred to as the nasopharynx and downward to the larynx, where it is called the
laryngopharynx. The soft palate is tissue that forms the posterior roof of the oral cavity. From it hangs a soft, fleshy,
V-shaped mass called the uvula .In swallowing, the tongue pushes a bolus of food, a small portion of chewed food
mixed with saliva, into the pharynx. Once the food reaches the pharynx, swallowing occurs rapidly by an involuntary
reflex action. At the same time, the soft palate and uvula are raised to prevent food and liquid from entering the nasal
cavity, and the tongue is raised to seal the back of the oral cavity. The entrance of the trachea is guarded during
swallowing by the leaf-shaped cartilage, the epiglottis, which covers the opening of the larynx. The swallowed food is
then moved into the esophagus.
THE ESOPHAGUS
The esophagus is a muscular tube about 25 cm (10 in.) long. Its musculature differs slightly from that of the other
digestive organs because it has voluntary striated muscle in its upper portion, which gradually changes to smooth
muscle along its length. In the esophagus, food is lubricated with mucus and moved by peristalsis into the stomach. No
additional digestion occurs in the esophagus. Before joining the stomach, the esophagus must pass through the
diaphragm. It travels through an opening in the diaphragm called the esophageal hiatus.
THE STOMACH
The stomach is an expanded J-shaped organ in the superior left region of the abdominal cavity. In addition to the two
muscle layers already described, it has a third, inner oblique (angled) layer that aids in grinding food and mixing it
with digestive juices. The left-facing arch of the stomach is the greater curvature, whereas the right surface forms the
lesser curvature. The superior rounded portion under the left side of the diaphragm is the stomach’s fundus. The region
of the stomach leading into the small intestine is the pylorus. The stomach’s body is the largest part of the organ,
located between the fundus and the pylorus.
Sphincters
A sphincter is a muscular ring that regulates the size of an opening. There are two sphincters that separate the stomach
from the organs above and below. Between the esophagus and the stomach is the lower esophageal sphincter (LES).
This muscle has also been called the cardiac sphincter because it separates the esophagus from the region of the
stomach that is close to the heart. We are sometimes aware of the existence of this sphincter when it does not relax as
it should, producing a feeling of being unable to swallow past that point. Between the distal, or far, end of the stomach
and the small intestine is the pyloric sphincter. This sphincter and the stomach’s pylorus, which leads to it, are
important in regulating how rapidly food moves into the small intestine.
Functions of the Stomach
The stomach serves as a storage pouch, digestive organ, and churn. When the stomach is empty, the lining forms
many folds called rugae . These folds disappear as the stomach expands. (The stomach can stretch to hold one-half of a
gallon of food and liquid.)
Special cells in the stomach’s lining secrete substances that mix together to form gastric juice. Some of the cells
secrete a great amount of mucus to protect the organ’s lining from digestive secretions. Other cells produce the active
components of the gastric juice, which are:
■ Hydrochloric acid (HCl), a strong acid that unwinds proteins to prepare them for digestion and also destroys
foreign organisms. HCl is produced in anticipation of eating and is produced in greater amounts when food
enters the stomach.
■ Pepsin, a protein-digesting enzyme. Pepsin is produced in an inactive form called pepsinogen, which is activated
only when it contacts HCl.
Chyme , from a Greek word meaning “juice,” is the highly acidic, semiliquid mixture of gastric juice and food that
leaves the stomach to enter the small intestine.
THE SMALL INTESTINE
The small intestine is the longest part of the digestive tract . It is known as the small intestine because,
although it is longer than the large intestine, it is smaller in diameter, with an average width of approximately 2.5 cm
(1 in.). After death, when relaxed to its full length, the small intestine is approximately 6 m (20 ft) long. In life,
the small intestine averages 3 m (10 ft) in length.
The first 25 cm (10 in.) or so of the small intestine make up the duodenum (named for the Latin word for “twelve,”
based on its length of 12 finger widths). Beyond the duodenum are two more divisions: the jejunum which forms the
next two-fifths of the small intestine, and the ileum(, which constitutes the remaining portion.
Functions of the Small Intestine
The duodenal mucosa and submucosa contain glands that secrete large amounts of mucus to protect the small
intestine from the strongly acidic chyme entering from the stomach.
Mucosal cells of the small intestine also produce enzymes that digest proteins and carbohydrates. These enzymes are
inserted into the cells’ plasma membrane and act on nutrients that come in contact with the intestinal lining.
Digestive juices from the liver and pancreas enter the small intestine through a small opening in the duodenum. Most
digestion takes place in the small intestine under the effects of these juices
Minimal peristalsis occurs in the small intestine. This form of motility is too rapid to allow for effective digestion and
absorption in the small intestine.
A type of muscular activity termed segmentation operates here instead. In segmentation, the circular muscle in the
organ’s wall regularly contracts and relaxes in place, dividing the digestive contents and pushing portions back and
forth. In this way, the material is thoroughly mixed with digestive juices and is placed in contact with the enzymes at
the mucosal surface. Segmentation is regulated so that proximal segments contract before distal segments, slowly
propelling the intestinal contents from the duodenum to the end of the ileum. Most absorption of digested food, as well
as water and electrolytes, also occurs through the walls of the small intestine Note that the lining, in addition to large
circular folds, has millions of small extensions at the surface that aid in the absorption of nutrients.
Role of the Villi
To increase the small intestine’s surface area for absorption, the mucosa is formed into millions of tiny, fi ngerlike
projections, or villi , which give the inner surface a velvety appearance. The epithelial cells of the villi also have small
projecting folds of the plasma membrane known as microvilli (see Fig. 17-7D). These extensions create a remarkable
increase in the total surface area available for absorption in the small intestine. Each villus contains blood vessels
through which most digestion products are absorbed into the blood. Each one also contains a specialized lymphatic
capillary called a lacteal through which fats are absorbed into the lymph.
THE LARGE INTESTINE
The large intestine is approximately 6.5 cm (2.5 in.) in diameter and approximately 1.5 m (5 ft) long (see Fig. 17-7A).
It is named for its wide diameter, rather than its length. The outer longitudinal muscle fi bers in its wall form three
separate surface bands. These bands, known as teniae(TENe-e) coli,draw up the organ’s wall to give it its distinctive
puckered appearance. (The name is also spelled taeniae; the singular is teniaor taenia).Subdivisions of the Large
Intestine The large intestine begins in the lower right region of the abdomen. The first part is a small pouch called the
cecum(SE-kum). Between the ileum of the small intestine and the cecum is a sphincter, the ileocecal(il-e-o-SE-kal)
valve, which prevents food from traveling backward into the small intestine. Attached to the cecum is a small, blind
tube containing lymphoid tissue; its full name is vermiform(VER-mih-form) appendix(vermiformmeans “wormlike,”)
but usually just “appendix” is used.
The second portion, the ascending colon, extends superiorly along the right side of the abdomen toward the liver. It
bends near the liver at the right colic (hepatic) flexure and extends across the abdomen as the transverse colon. It bends
again sharply at the left colic (splenic) flexure and extends inferiorly on the left side of the abdomen into the pelvis,
forming the descending colon. The distal colon bends backward into an S shape forming the sigmoid colon(named for
the Greek letter sigma), which continues downward to empty into the rectum, a temporary storage area for indigestible
or nonabsorbable food residue (see Fig. 17-7A). The narrow terminal portion of the large intestineis the anal canal,
which leads to the outside of the body through an opening called the anus(A-nus). Visual examination of the colon is a
part of Adam’s physical examination in the case study. Box 17-2provides more information about procedures such as
the one Adam had.
Functions of the Large Intestine
The large intestine secretes a great quantity of mucus, but no enzymes. Minimal digestion occurs in this organ, but
some water is reabsorbed, and undigested food is stored, formed into solid waste material, called feces or stool, and
then eliminated. At intervals, usually after meals, the involuntary muscles within the large intestine’s walls propel
solid waste toward the rectum. Stretching of the rectum stimulates smooth muscle contraction in the rectal wall. Aided
by voluntary contractions of the diaphragm and the abdominal muscles, the feces are eliminated from the body in a
process called defecation . An anal sphincter provides voluntary control over defecation .While food residue is stored
in the large intestine, bacteria that normally live in the colon act on it to produce vitamin K and some of the B-
complex vitamins.
The Accessory Organs
The accessory organs release secretions through ducts into the digestive tract. Specifi cally, the salivary glands deliver
their secretions into the mouth. The liver, gallbladder, and pancreas release secretions into the duodenum.
THE SALIVARY GLANDS
While food is in the mouth, it is mixed with saliva(sahLI-vah), which moistens the food and facilitates mastication
(chewing) and deglutition (swallowing). Saliva helps to keep the teeth and mouth clean. It also contains some
antibodies and an enzyme (lysozyme) that help reduce bacterial growth.This watery mixture contains mucus and an
enzyme called salivary amylase(AM-ih-laze), which begins the digestive process by converting starch to sugar. Saliva
is manufactured by three pairs of glands (Fig. 17-8):
■ The parotid(pah-ROT-id) glands, the largest of the group, are located inferior and anterior to the ear.
■ The submandibular(sub-man-DIB-u-lar) glands, also called submaxillary(sub-MAK-sih-ler-e) glands, are
located near the body of the lower jaw.
■ The sublingual(sub-LING-gwal) glandsare under the tongue.
All these glands empty through ducts into the oral cavity.
THE LIVER
The liver(LIV-er), often referred to by the word root hepat, is the body’s largest glandular organ (Fig. 17-9). It is
located in the superior right portion of the abdominal cavity under the dome of the diaphragm. The lower edge of a
normalsized liver is level with the ribs’ lower margin. The humanliver is the same reddish brown color as animal liver
seen in the supermarket. It has a large right lobe and a smaller left lobe; the right lobe includes two inferior smaller
lobes. The liver is supplied with blood through two vessels: the portal vein and the hepatic artery (the portal system
and blood supply to the liver were described in Chapter 14). These vessels deliver about 1.5 quarts (1.6 L) of blood to
the liver every minute. The hepatic artery carries blood high in oxygen, whereas the venous portal system carries blood
that is low in oxygen and rich in digestive end products.Functions of the Liver This most remarkable organ has many
functions that affect digestion, metabolism, blood composition, and elimination of waste. Some of its major activities
are:
■ The manufacture of bile, a substance needed for the digestion of fats, discussed shortly.
■ The storage of glucose (a simple sugar) in the form of glycogen, the animal equivalent of the starch found in
plants. When the blood glucose level falls below normal, liver cells convert glycogen to glucose, which is released
into the blood to restore a normal concentration.
■ The modifi cation of fats so that they can be used more efficiently by cells all over the body. The liver is also an
important site for fat storage.
■ The storage of some vitamins and iron.
■ The formation of blood plasma proteins, such as albumin, globulins, and clotting factors.
■ The destruction of old red blood cells and the recycling or elimination of their breakdown products. One
byproduct, a pigment called bilirubin(BIL-ih-ru-bin), is eliminated in bile and gives the stool its characteristic
dark color.
■ The synthesis of urea(u-RE-ah), a waste product of protein metabolism. Urea is released into the blood and
transported to the kidneys for elimination.
■ The detoxifi cation(de-tok-sih-fih-KA-shun) (removal of toxicity) of harmful substances, such as alcohol and
certain drugs.
Bile The liver’s main digestive function is the production of bile, a substance needed for the processing of fats. The
salts contained in bile act like a detergent to emulsifyfat; that is, to break up fat into small droplets that can be acted
on more effectively by digestive enzymes. Bile also aids in fat absorption from the small intestine.
Bile leaves the lobes of the liver by two ducts that merge to form the common hepatic duct. After collecting bile from
the gallbladder, this duct, now called the common bile duct, delivers bile into the duodenum. These and the other
accessory ducts are shown in Figure 17-9.
THE GALLBLADDER
The gallbladder(GAWL-blad-er) is a muscular sac on the inferior surface of the liver that stores bile. Although the
liver may manufacture bile continuously, the body needs it only a few times a day. Consequently, bile from the liver
flows into the hepatic ducts and then up through the cystic(SIS-tik) duct, connected with the gallbladder (see Fig. 17-
9). When chyme enters the duodenum, the gallbladder contracts, squeezing bile through the cystic duct and into the
common bile duct, leading to the duodenum.
THE PANCREAS
The pancreas(PAN-kre-as) is a long gland that extends from the duodenum to the spleen (see Fig. 17-9). The pancreas
produces enzymes that digest fats, proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic acids. The protein-digesting enzymes are
produced in inactive forms which must be converted to active forms in the small intestine by other enzymes.The
pancreas also releases large amounts of sodium bicarbonate (NaHCO3), an alkaline (basic) fl uid that neutralizes the
acidic chyme in the small intestine, thus protecting the digestive tract’s lining. These juices collect in a main duct that
joins the common bile duct or empties into the duodenum near the common bile duct. Most people have an additional
smaller pancreatic duct that opens into the duodenum.As described in Chapter 11, the pancreas also functions as an
endocrine gland, producing the hormones insulin and glucagon that regulate glucose metabolism. These islet cell
secretions are released into the blood.
Enzymes and the Digestive Process
Although the individual organs of the digestive tract are specialized for digesting different types of food, the
fundamental chemical process of digestion is the same for fats, proteins, and carbohydrates. In every case, this process
requires enzymes. Recall from Chapter 2 (see Fig. 2-11) that enzymes are catalysts, substances that speed the rate of
chemical reactions, but are not themselves changed or used up in the reaction.Almost all enzymes are proteins, and
they are highly specific in their actions. In digestion, an enzyme acts only in a certain type of reaction involving a
certain type of nutrient molecule. For example, the carbohydrate-digesting enzyme amylase only splits starch into the
disaccharide (double sugar) maltose. Another enzyme is required to split maltose into two molecules of the
monosaccharide (simple sugar) glucose. Other enzymes split fats, or triglycerides, into their building blocks, glycerol,
and fatty acids. Still others split proteins into smaller units called peptidesand into their building blocks, amino acids
(see Chapter 2)
THE ROLE OF WATER
Because water is added to nutrient molecules as they are split by enzymes, the process of digestion is referred to
chemically as hydrolysis(hi-DROL-ih-sis), which means “splitting (lysis) by means of water (hydr/o).” In this
chemical process, water’s hydroxyl group (OH−) is added to one fragment and the hydrogen ion (H+) is added to the
other, splitting the molecule. Figure 17-10shows the hydrolysis of a disaccharide into two monosaccharides. The
building blocks of fats and proteins are separated in the same manner. Each hydrolysis reaction requires a specifi c
enzyme and uses one molecule of water. About 7 L of water are secreted into the digestive tract each day, in addition
to the nearly 2 L taken in with food and drink. You can now understand why so large an amount of water is needed.
Water is not only used to produce digestive juices and to dilute food so that it can move more easily through the
digestive tract, but is also used in the chemical process of digestion itselfDIGESTION, STEP-BY-STEP
Let us see what happens to a mass of food from the time it is taken into the mouth to the moment that it is ready to be
absorbed (see Table 17-1).In the mouth, the food is chewed and mixed with saliva, softening it so that it can be
swallowed easily. Salivary amylase initiates the digestive process by changing some of the starches into maltose.
Digestion in the Stomach
When the food reaches the stomach, it is acted on by gastric juice, with its hydrochloric acid (HCl) and enzymes. The
hydrochloric acid has the important function of denaturing proteins, that is, unfolding them to prepare them for
digestion. In addition, HCl activates the enzyme pepsin, which is secreted by gastric cells in an inactive form, as
previously noted. Once activated by hydrochloric acid, pepsin works to digest protein; this enzyme is the first to digest
nearly every type of protein in the diet. The stomach also secretes a fat-digesting enzyme (lipase), but it is of little
importance in adults.
The food, gastric juice, and mucus (which is also secreted by cells of the gastric lining) are mixed to form
chyme. This semiliquid substance is released gradually from
the stomach through the pyloric sphincter into the small
intestine for further digestion.
Digestion in the Small Intestine
In the duodenum, the first part of the small intestine, chyme is mixed with the greenish-yellow bile delivered from the
liver and the gallbladder through the common bile duct. Bile does not contain enzymes; instead, it contains bile salts
that emulsify fats to allow the powerful secretions from the pancreas to act on them most efficiently.
Pancreatic juice contains a number of enzymes, including:
■ Lipase. After bile divides fats into tiny particles, the pancreatic enzyme lipase digests almost all of them.
In this process, the triglycerides, composed of glycerol and three fatty acids, are broken down into free fatty
acids (two from each triglyceride) and monoglycerides (glycerol combined with one fatty acid). These breakdown
products are more readily absorbable. If pancreatic lipase is absent, fats are expelled with the feces in
undigested form.
■ Amylase. This enzyme changes starch to maltose.
■ Trypsin(TRIP-sin). This enzyme splits proteins into amino acids, which are small enough to be absorbed
through the intestine.
■ Nucleases(NU-kle-ases). These enzymes digest the nucleic acids DNA and RNA.
------- tables 17-1 and 17-2 -------------------------
It is important to note that most digestion occurs in the small intestine under the action of pancreatic juice, which has
the ability to break down all types of foods. When pancreatic juice is absent, serious digestive disturbances always
occur.The small intestine also produces a number of enzymes, including three that act on complex sugars to transform
them into simpler, absorbable forms. These enzymes are maltase, sucrase, and lactase, which act on the disaccharides
maltose, sucrose, and lactose, respectively.
Table 17-2summarizes the main substances used in digestion. Note that, except for HCl, sodium bicarbonate,
and bile salts, all the substances listed are enzymes.
Absorption
The means by which digested nutrients reach the blood is known as absorption. Most absorption takes place through
the villi in the mucosa of the small intestine (see Fig. 17-7D). Within each villus is an arteriole and a venule bridged
with capillaries. Simple sugars, small proteins (peptides), amino acids, a few simple fatty acids, and most of the water
in the digestive tract are absorbed into the blood through these capillaries. From here, they pass by way of the portal
system to the liver, to be processed, stored, or released as needed.
ABSORPTION OF FATS
Most fats have an alternative method of reaching the blood. Instead of entering the blood capillaries, they are absorbed
by the villi’s more permeable lymphatic capillaries, the lacteals. The absorbed fat droplets give the lymph a milky
appearance. The mixture of lymph and fat globules that drains from the small intestine after fat has been digested is
called chyle(kile). Chyle merges with the lymphatic circulation and eventually enters the
blood when the lymph drains into veins near the heart. The absorbed fats then move to the liver for further processing.
ABSORPTION OF VITAMINS AND MINERALS
Minerals and vitamins ingested with food are also absorbed from the small intestine. The minerals and some of the
vitamins mix with water and are absorbed directly into the blood. Other vitamins are incorporated in fats and are
absorbed along with the fats. Vitamin K and some B vitamins are produced by bacterial action in the colon and are
absorbed from the large intestine.
Control of Digestion and Eating
As food moves through the digestive tract, its rate of movement and the activity of each organ it passes through must
be carefully regulated. If food moves too slowly or digestive secretions are inadequate, the body will not get enough
nourishment. If food moves too rapidly or excess secretions are produced, digestion and absorption may be incomplete
or the digestive tract’s lining may be damaged.
CONTROL OF DIGESTION
There are two types of control over digestion: nervous and hormonal. Both illustrate the principles of feedback
control.The nerves that control digestive activity are located in the submucosa and between the muscle layers of the
organ walls (see Fig. 17-1). Instructions for action come from the autonomic (visceral) nervous system. In general,
para-sympatheticstimulation increases activity, and sympathetic stimulation decreases activity. Excess sympathetic
stimulation, as can be caused by stress, can slow food’s movement through the digestive tract and inhibit mucus
secretion, which is crucial to protecting the digestive tract’s lining.The digestive organs themselves produce the
hormones involved in regulating digestion. The following is a discussion of some of these controls (Table 17-3).The
sight, smell, thought, taste, or feel of food in the mouth stimulates, through the nervous system, the secretion of saliva
and the release of gastric juice. Once in the stomach, food stimulates the release into the blood of the hormone gastrin,
which promotes stomach secretions and motility.When chyme enters the duodenum, nerve impulses inhibit stomach
motility, so that food will not move too rapidly into the small intestine. This action is a good example of negative
feedback. At the same time, hormones released from the duodenum not only stimulate intestinal activity, but also feed
back to the stomach to reduce its activity. Gastricinhibitory peptide (GIP)is one such hormone. It acts on the stomach
to inhibit the release of gastric juice. Its more important action is to stimulate insulin release from the pancreas when
glucose enters the duodenum. (GIPs alternate name is glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide, which stresses its role
in glucose metabolism while keeping the same acronym). Another of these hormones, secretin(se-KRE-tin), stimulates
the pancreas to release water and bicarbonate to dilute and neutralize chyme. Cholecystokinin(ko-le-sis-toKI-nin)
(CCK), stimulates the release of enzymes from the pancreas and causes the gallbladder to release bile.CONTROL OF
HUNGER AND APPETITE
Hunger is the desire for food, which can be satisfi ed by the ingestion of a fi lling meal. Hunger is regulated by
hypothalamic centers that respond to nutrient levels in the blood. When these levels are low, the hypothalamus
stimulates a sensation of hunger. Strong, mildly painful contractions of the empty stomach may stimulate a feeling of
hunger. Messages received by the hypothalamus reduce hunger as food is chewed and swallowed and begins to fi ll the
stomach. The short-term regulation of food intake works to keep the amount of food eaten within the limits of what the
intestine can process. The long-term regulation of food intake maintains appropriate blood nutrient levels.Appetite
differs from hunger in that, although it is basically a desire for food, it often has no relationship to the need forfood.
Even after an adequate meal that has relieved hunger, a person may still have an appetite for additional food. A variety
of factors, such as emotional state, cultural influences, habit, and memories of past food intake, can affect appetite.
The regulation of appetite is not well understood. Despite day-to-day variations in food intake and physical activity, a
healthy individual maintains a constant body weight and energy reserves of fat over long periods. With the discovery
of the hormone leptin (from the Greek word leptos, meaning “thin,”) researchers have been able to piece together one
long-term mechanism for regulating weight. Leptin is produced by adipocytes in adipose tissue. When fat is stored
because of excess food intake, the cells release more leptin. Centers in the hypothalamus respond to the hormone by
decreasing food intake and increasing energy expenditure, resulting in weight loss. If this feedback mechanism is
disrupted, obesity will result. Early hopes of using leptin to treat human obesity have dimmed, however, because obese
people do not have a leptin defi ciency. This system’s failure in humans appears to be caused by the hypothalamus’
inability to respond to leptin rather than our inability to make the hormone.
CHECKPOINTS
17-16 What are the two types of control over the digestive process?
17-17 What is the difference between hunger and appetite?
Effects of Aging on the Digestive System
With age, receptors for taste and smell deteriorate, leading to a loss of appetite and decreased enjoyment of food. A
decrease in saliva and poor gag reflex make swallowing more difficult. Tooth loss or poorly fitting dentures may make
chewing food more difficult.Activity of the digestive organs decreases. These changes can be seen in poor absorption
of certain vitamins and poor protein digestion. Slowing of peristalsis in the large intestine and increased consumption
of easily chewed, refined foods contribute to the common occurrence of constipation.The tissues of the digestive
system require constant replacement. Slowing of this process contributes to a variety of digestive disorders, including
gastritis, ulcers, and diverticulosis. As with many body systems, tumors and cancer occur more frequently with age.