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Cambridge (CIE) A Level Physics Your notes

Standard Candles
Contents
Luminosity & Radiant Flux
Standard Candles & Stellar Distances

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Luminosity & Radiant Flux

Your notes
Defining luminosity
Luminosity is defined as:
The total power output of radiation emitted by a star
It is measured in units of watts (W)
Radiant flux intensity is defined as:
The observed amount of intensity, or the radiant power transmitted normally through a surface per
unit of area, of radiation measured on Earth
The difference between luminosity and radiant flux is:
luminosity is the total radiation that leaves the star
radiant flux intensity is the amount of radiation measured on Earth
by the time the radiation reaches the Earth, it will have spread out a great deal, therefore, it will only
be a fraction of the value of the luminosity

Luminosity and radiant flux of a star

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The luminosity is the total power output of the star, whereas the radiant flux is what is measured on Earth

Inverse square law of flux Your notes

Light sources which are further away appear fainter because the light it emits is spread out over a
greater area
The moment the light leaves the surface of the star, it begins to spread out uniformly through a
spherical shell

The surface area of a sphere is equal to 4πr 2

The radius r of this sphere is equal to the distance d between the star and the Earth

By the time the radiation reaches the Earth, it has been spread over an area of 4πd 2

The inverse square law of flux can therefore be calculated using:

L
F=
4πd 2
Where:
F = radiant flux intensity, or observed intensity on Earth (W m-2)
L = luminosity of the source (W)
d = distance between the star and the Earth (m)
This equation assumes:
The power from the star radiates uniformly through space
No radiation is absorbed between the star and the Earth
This equation tells us:
For a given star, the luminosity is constant
The radiant flux follows an inverse square law
The greater the radiant flux (larger F) measured, the closer the star is to the Earth (smaller d)

The inverse square law of flux

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Your notes

Inverse square law; when the light is twice as far away, it has spread over four times the area, hence the
intensity is four times smaller

Worked Example
A star has a known luminosity of 9.7 × 1027 W. Observations of the star show that the radiant flux
intensity of light received on Earth from the star is 114 nW m–2.
Determine the distance of the star from Earth.
Answer:
Step 1: Write down the known quantities
Luminosity, L = 9.7 × 1027 W
Radiant flux intensity, F = 114 nW m–2 = 114 × 10–9 W m–2
Step 2: Write down the inverse square law of flux

L
F=
4πd 2
Step 3: Rearrange for distance d, and calculate

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L 9 . 7 × 1027
d= =
4πF 4π× (114 × 10−9) Your notes
d = 8.2 × 1016 m

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Standard Candles & Stellar Distances

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Standard candles
A standard candle is defined as:
An astronomical object which has a known luminosity due to a characteristic quality possessed by
that class of object
Examples of standard candles include:
cepheid variable stars
type 1a supernovae

Cepheid variable stars

A cepheid variable is a type of pulsating star which increases and decreases in brightness over a set
time period
This variation has a well-defined relationship to the luminosity

Type 1a supernovae
A type 1a supernova is an explosion involving a white dwarf
The peak luminosity of the explosion is always the same

Using standard candles as a distance indicator

Measuring astronomical distances accurately is an extremely difficult task
A direct distance measurement, e.g. using parallax measurements, is only possible if the object is
close enough to the Earth
For more distant objects, indirect methods must be used e.g. using standard candles
If the luminosity of a source is known, then the distance can be estimated based on how bright it
appears from Earth
Astronomers measure the radiant flux intensity, of the electromagnetic radiation arriving at the
Earth
Since the luminosity is known (as the object is a standard candle), the distance can be calculated
using the inverse square law of flux
Each standard candle method can measure distances within a certain range

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Collating the data and measurements from each method allows astronomers to build up a larger
picture of the scale of the universe
Your notes
This is known as the cosmic distance ladder
Cosmic distance ladder

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Your notes

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Your notes

A combination of methods involving standard candles allows astronomers to build up a cosmic distance
ladder from nearby stars to distant galaxies

Worked Example
Cepheid variable stars and type 1a supernovae are both used by astronomers as standard candles.
(a) Explain how standard candles are used to determine distances to galaxies.
(b) Suggest why type 1a supernovae are more suitable than Cepheid variable stars to determine
distances to the most distant galaxies.
Answer:
Part (a)
Step 1: State what is meant by a standard candle
A standard candle is an object of known luminosity
Step 2: Identify the quantities required to calculate distance
The inverse square law of flux is:
L
F=
4πd 2

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Where:
F = radiant flux intensity of an object in the galaxy Your notes
L = luminosity of an object in the galaxy
d = distance to the object in the galaxy
Step 3: Explain how the distance to a galaxy is determined
A standard candle in the galaxy of interest is identified
The standard candle's radiant flux intensity (i.e. its observed brightness on Earth) is measured
Using this and its known luminosity, the distance to the standard candle (and, therefore, galaxy)
is calculated using the inverse square law of flux
Part (b)
Step 1: Identify how each object is used as a standard candle
A Cepheid variable star is an object whose radius varies periodically, and this period of variation
is related to its luminosity
A type 1a supernova is an explosive outburst of a binary pair containing a white dwarf and
another star. The peak luminosity of the explosion reaches the same value each time
Step 2: Suggest why the type 1a supernova can be used to measure greater distances
A type 1a supernova has a much greater luminosity than a Cepheid variable star
As a result, the radiant flux intensity (observed brightness) of a type 1a supernova is much
greater
Therefore, type 1a supernovae are more likely to be observed and measured in the most distant
galaxies

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