Advanced Mechanics Phys 3400 Lecture Notes E Poisson download
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Advanced Mechanics Of Materials And Applied Elasticity 5th Edition
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Advanced mechanics
PHYS*3400
Lecture notes (January 2008)
15
10
5
p
-5
-10
-15
-3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3
θ
Eric Poisson
Department of Physics
University of Guelph
Contents
1 Newtonian mechanics 1
1.1 Reference frames 1
1.2 Alternative coordinate systems 3
1.3 Mechanics of a single body 6
1.3.1 Line integrals 6
1.3.2 Conservation of linear momentum 8
1.3.3 Conservation of angular momentum 8
1.3.4 Conservation of energy 9
1.3.5 Case study #1: Particle in a gravitational field 11
1.3.6 Case study #2: Particle in a gravitational field subjected to
air resistance 12
1.3.7 Case study #3: Motion of a pendulum 13
1.4 Mechanics of a system of bodies 19
1.4.1 Equations of motion 19
1.4.2 Centre of mass 20
1.4.3 Total linear and angular momenta 21
1.4.4 Conservation of energy 22
1.5 Kepler’s problem 26
1.5.1 Gravitational force 26
1.5.2 Equations of motion 27
1.5.3 Conservation of angular momentum 28
1.5.4 Polar coordinates 29
1.5.5 Kepler’s second law 30
1.5.6 Conservation of energy 30
1.5.7 Qualitative description of the orbital motion 31
1.5.8 Circular orbits 33
1.5.9 Shape of orbits 33
1.5.10 Motion in time 36
1.5.11 Summary 38
1.6 Appendix: Numerical integration of differential equations 38
1.7 Problems 41
1.8 Additional problems 45
2 Lagrangian mechanics 47
2.1 Introduction: From Newton to Lagrange 47
2.2 Calculus of variations 50
2.2.1 Curve of maximum area 50
2.2.2 Extremum of a functional 51
2.2.3 Curve of maximum area (continued) 55
2.2.4 Path of minimum length 56
2.2.5 Brachistochrone 58
2.2.6 Multiple paths 61
i
ii Contents
1
2 Newtonian mechanics
r1
r0
b
S1
S0
Figure 1.1: Two reference frames, S0 and S1 , separated by a displacement b.
z0 = z1
y1
α
y0
x0 x1
Figure 1.2: The frame S1 is obtained from S0 by a rotation around their common z
axis.
and y1 (t) differ from x0 (t) and y0 (t). But it is an important fact that the position
vector r(t) is not affected by the rotation:
This conclusion follows simply from the fact that r = r1 = r0 is a vector which
points from O to the particle, independently of the orientation of the reference
frame. So although the basis vectors and the coordinates all change separately under
a rotation of the frame, the position vector is invariant. From this observation it
follows that v1 = v0 = v and a1 = a0 = a: the velocity and acceleration vectors also
are invariant under a rotation of the reference frame. Similar considerations reveal
that the vector F is invariant, and we conclude that the form of Newton’s equation
F = ma is not affected by a rotation of the reference frame. (These invariance
properties are exactly what motived the formulation of Newton’s mechanics in terms
of vectorial quantities.)
Exercise 1.1. Determine how the coordinates x and y, as well as the basis vectors x̂ and
ŷ, change under a rotation around the z axis by an angle α. Then show mathematically
that r is invariant under the transformation.
F = ma? The answer, as we shall see in this section, is that while the law itself
does not change, its concrete mathematical form may actually look very different.
To keep things specific we choose here to work in the x-y plane (we set z = 0)
and to consider a specific example of an alternative coordinate system, the polar
coordinates r and φ. These are defined by
the radial coordinate r measures the distance from the origin to the particle, and
φ is the angle relative to the x axis. In terms of the new coordinates the position
vector is
r = (r cos φ)x̂ + (r sin φ)ŷ, (1.2.2)
and it is now a function of r and φ. We may express this as r = r(r, φ), and the
vector r points to the position identified by the coordinates (r, φ). Notice that r is
the magnitude of the position vector: r · r = r2 .
As the particle moves in the plane its coordinates r and φ vary with time, and
the particle’s velocity vector is v = ṙ, or
v = (ṙ cos φ − rφ̇ sin φ)x̂ + (ṙ sin φ + rφ̇ cos φ)ŷ. (1.2.3)
Notice that the magnitude of the velocity vector is not equal to ṙ; instead v · v =
ṙ2 + r2 φ̇2 . The acceleration vector is then a = v̇, or
As presented here, these vectors are resolved in the Cartesian basis x̂ and ŷ. It is
more convenient to resolve them instead in the polar basis r̂ and φ̂, where
and
φ̂ = unit vector pointing in the direction of increasing φ. (1.2.6)
It is important to note that these new basis vectors, unlike x̂ and ŷ, are not constant
vectors: their directions change as we move from point to point in the plane.
To find an expression for r̂ we observe that by construction, the infinitesimal
vector
∂r
δr ≡ r(r + δr, φ) − r(r, φ) = δr
∂r
points in the direction of increasing r. This means that r̂ must be proportional to
∂r/∂r. Looking back at Eq. (1.2.2), we see that this is given by cos φ x̂ + sin φ ŷ,
and we find that this vector already has a unit norm: (∂r/∂r) · (∂r/∂r) = cos2 φ +
sin2 φ = 1. We conclude that
∂r
r̂ = = cos φ x̂ + sin φ ŷ (1.2.7)
∂r
is the desired basis vector. We proceed similarly to find an expression for φ̂. We
observe that the infinitesimal vector
∂r
δr ≡ r(r, φ + δφ) − r(r, φ) = δφ
∂φ
points in the direction of increasing φ. (Be careful: this is a different δr from the
one considered before!) This means that φ̂ must be proportional to ∂r/∂φ, which
is given by −r sin φ x̂ + r cos φ ŷ. The squared norm of this vector is (∂r/∂φ) ·
1.2 Alternative coordinate systems 5
(∂r/∂φ) = r2 sin2 φ + r2 cos2 φ = r2 , and to get a unit vector we must divide ∂r/∂φ
by r. We conclude that
1 ∂r
φ̂ = = − sin φ x̂ + cos φ ŷ (1.2.8)
r ∂φ
is the desired basis vector.
Let us now work out the components of the vectors r, v, and a in the basis
(r̂, φ̂). According to Eqs. (1.2.2) and (1.2.7) we have
£ ¤ £ ¤
r · r̂ = (r cos φ)x̂ + (r sin φ)ŷ · cos φ x̂ + sin φ ŷ
= r cos2 φ + r sin2 φ
= r.
Similarly, Eqs. (1.2.2) and (1.2.8) give
£ ¤ £ ¤
r · φ̂ = (r cos φ)x̂ + (r sin φ)ŷ · − sin φ x̂ + cos φ ŷ
= −r sin φ cos φ + r sin φ cos φ
= 0.
From these results we infer that
r = r r̂, (1.2.9)
and this expression should not come as a surprise, given the meaning of the quanti-
ties involved. Proceeding similarly with the vectors v and a, we find that they are
decomposed as
v = ṙ r̂ + rφ̇ φ̂ (1.2.10)
and
1 d¡ 2 ¢
a = r̈ − rφ̇2 r̂ +
¡ ¢
r φ̇ φ̂ (1.2.11)
r dt
in the new basis. As we have pointed out, the components of r in the polar basis
are obvious, and the components of v also can be understood easily: The radial
component of the velocity vector must clearly be vr = ṙ, and the tangential compo-
nent must be vφ = rφ̇ because the factor of r converts the angular velocity φ̇ into
a linear velocity.
The components of the acceleration vector are not so easy to interpret. It is im-
portant to notice that the radial component of the acceleration vector is not simply
ar = r̈, and the angular component is not simply aφ = φ̈. It is a general observation
that the components of the acceleration vector are not simple in nonCartesian coor-
dinate systems. It should be observed that the radial component of the acceleration
vector contains both a radial part r̈ and a centrifugal part −rφ̇2 = −vφ2 /r.
Exercise 1.3. Verify by explicit calculation that Eqs. (1.2.10) and (1.2.11) are correct.
Suppose now that the force F has been resolved in the polar basis (r̂, φ̂). We
have
F = Fr r̂ + Fφ φ̂, (1.2.12)
and Newton’s law F = ma breaks down into two separate equations, the radial
component
Fr
r̈ − rφ̇2 = (1.2.13)
m
6 Newtonian mechanics
Exercise 1.4. Consider the spherical coordinates (r, θ, φ) defined by x = r sin θ cos φ,
y = r sin θ sin φ, and z = r cos θ. Show that in this alternative coordinate system, the basis
vectors are given by
∂r
r̂ = = sin θ cos φ x̂ + sin θ sin φŷ + cos θ ẑ,
∂r
1 ∂r
θ̂ = = cos θ cos φ x̂ + cos θ sin φŷ − sin θ ẑ,
r ∂θ
1 ∂r
φ̂ = = − sin φ x̂ + cos φŷ.
r sin θ ∂φ
the line integral of the vector field A between point 1 and point 2 on the curve C.
Such integrals occur often in physics. In the present context the force F will play
the role of the vector field A, and the particle’s trajectory will play the role of the
curve C; we then have ds = dr = vdt and the line integral will be the work done
by the force as the particle moves from point 1 to point 2.
It is a fundamental theorem of vector calculus that if a line integral between
two fixed points in space does not depend on the curve joining the points, then the
vector field A must be the gradient ∇f of some scalar function f . This theorem is
essentially a consequence of the identity
2 2
df
Z Z
∇f · ds = ds = f (2) − f (1) independently of the curve,
1 1 ds
1.3 Mechanics of a single body 7
A
x = −1 x=1
A
θ
x = −1 x=1
Figure 1.3: Line integrals of a vector field A.
Rb
which is a generalization of the statement a (df /dx) dx = f (b) − f (a) from ordinary
Hcalculus. Another way of presenting this result is to say that if A = ∇f , then
A · ds = 0 for any closed curve C in three-dimensional space. This last statement
follows
H because if the curve C is closed, point 2 is identified with point 1, and
∇f · ds = f (1) − f (1) = 0.
To illustrate these notions let us work through a concrete example. Consider
the vector field A = (x, y) in two-dimensional space. We wish first to evaluate the
line integral of A along the x axis, from x = −1 to x = +1 (see Fig. 1.3). The safest
way to proceed is to first obtain a parametric description of the curve C, which in
this case is the line segment that links the points x = ∓1. We may describe this
curve in the following way:
x(u) = −1 + 2u, y(u) = 0,
where the parameter u is restricted to the interval 0 ≤ u ≤ 1. (The choice of param-
eterization is arbitrary; we might just as well have chosen x as the parameter, but it
is generally a good idea to keep the parameter distinct from the coordinates.) From
these equations it follows that the displacement vector on C has the components
dx = 2 du and dy = 0, so that ds = (2 du, 0). The vector field evaluated on C is
A = (−1 + 2u, 0), and we have A · ds = 2(−1 + 2u) du. The line integral is then
Z Z 1
A · ds = 2(−1 + 2u) du.
C 0
Evaluating this ordinary integral is straightforward, and the result is zero. We
therefore have Z
A · ds = 0
C
for this choice of curve linking the points (x = −1, y = 0) and (x = 1, y = 0).
Let us now evaluate the line integral of A along a different curve C ′ which joins
the same two endpoints (refer again to Fig. 1.3); we choose for C ′ a semi-circle of
unit radius, which we describe by the parametric relations
x(θ) = − cos θ, y(θ) = sin θ,
8 Newtonian mechanics
R
Exercise 1.5. Evaluate the line integral C ′′
A · ds for the vector field A = (x, y), for
a curve C ′′ that consists of a line segment that goes from (−1, 0) to (0, −1) and another
line segment that goes from (0, −1) to (1, 0).
Because the line integral is independent of the path, A must be the gradient
of a scalar function f . We must have Ax = ∂f /∂x = x and Ay = ∂f /∂y = y.
Integrating the first equation gives
1 2
f= x + unknown function of y,
2
where we indicate that the “constant of integration” can in fact depend on y, which
is held fixed during integration with respect to x. Integrating instead the second
equation gives
1
f = y 2 + unknown function of x.
2
These results are compatible only if the unknown function of y is in fact 12 y 2 , and
the unknown function of x is 21 x2 . We may still add a true constant to the result,
and we find that the function f must be given by
1¡ 2
x + y 2 + f0 ,
¢
f=
2
where f0 = constant. It is then easy to verify that ∇f = A. It now becomes clear
why the line integral had to be zero for any path linking the points (−1, 0) and
(1, 0): Irrespective of the path the integral has to be equal to f (1, 0) − f (−1, 0) =
( 21 + f0 ) − ( 12 + f0 ) = 0, as we have found for C and C ′ .
The angular-momentum vector changes if the origin of the reference frame is shifted
to a different point in space. The torque acting on the particle is defined by
N = r × F. (1.3.3)
(This is also called the moment of force.) We have, as a consequence of Newton’s
equation, dL/dt = m(v ×v +r ×a) = r ×F , since the first term obviously vanishes.
This gives
dL
= N, (1.3.4)
dt
and we obtain a statement of angular-momentum conservation: In the absence of a
torque acting on the particle, the angular momentum L is a constant vector. It is
clear that N = 0 when F = 0, but it is possible to have a vanishing torque even
when F 6= 0; this occurs when F always points in the direction of r.
This is the same statement as in Eq. (1.3.7), and we have established the work-
energy theorem. R2
In very many situations the line integral 1 F · dr is actually independent of the
trajectory adopted by the particle to go from point 1 to point 2. In these situations
we must have that F is the gradient of some scalar function f (r). We write f = −V ,
inserting a minus sign for reasons of convention, and express the force as
The scalar function V is known as the potential energy of the particle. When F is
expressed as in Eq. (1.3.8) the line integral of Eq. (1.3.5) becomes
Z 2 £ ¤
W12 = − ∇V · dr = − V (2) − V (1) ,
1
and this is clearly independent of the particle’s trajectory: The total work done is
equal to the difference V (1) − V (2) no matter how the particle moves from 1 to 2.
Equation (1.3.7) then becomes V (1) − V (2) = T (2) − T (1), or T (1) + V (1) = T (2) +
V (2). This tells us that the quantity T + V stays constant as the particle moves
from point 1 to point 2. We therefore have obtained the statement of conservation
of total mechanical energy
1
E =T +V = mv 2 + V (r) (1.3.9)
2
for a particle moving under the action of a force F that derives from a potential V .
We can verify directly from Eq. (1.3.9) that the total energy is a constant of the
motion. We have
dE 1 dv 2 dV
= m + .
dt 2 dt dt
As we have seen,
dv 2 dv
=2 · v.
dt dt
The potential energy V depends on time only through the changing position of the
particle: V = V (r(t)) = V (x(t), y(t), z(t)). We therefore have
dV ∂V dx ∂V dy ∂V dz
= + +
dt ∂x dt ∂y dt ∂z dt
= ∇V · v.
as expected.
An example of a force that derives from a potential is gravity: The force
mechanical energy E is conserved when a particle moves under the action of the
gravitational force.
An example of a force that does not derive from a potential is the frictional force
where k > 0 is the coefficient of friction; this force acts in the direction opposite to
the particle’s motion and exerts a drag. It is indeed easy to see that Ffriction cannot
be expressed as the gradient of a function of r. (The expression Vfriction = kv · r
might seem to work, but this potential depends on both r and v, and this is not
allowed.) This implies that in the presence of a frictional force, the total mechanical
energy of a particle is not conserved. The reason is that the friction produces heat,
which is rapidly dissipated away; because this heat comes at the expense of the
particle’s mechanical energy, E cannot be conserved. Energy conservation as a
whole, of course, applies: the amount by which E decreases matches the amount of
heat dissipated into the environment.
It is important to understand that the work-energy theorem of Eq. (1.3.7) is
always true, whether or not the force F derives from a potential. But whether
E is conserved or not depends on this last property: When F = −∇V we have
dE/dt = 0 and the total mechanical energy is conserved; but E is not in general
conserved when the force does not derive from a potential.
ẍ = 0, ÿ = 0, z̈ = −g. (1.3.13)
1
x(t) = x(0) + vx (0)t, y(t) = y(0) + vy (0)t, z(t) = z(0) + vz (0)t − gt2 .
2
(1.3.14)
These equations describe parabolic motion. Here x(0), y(0), z(0) are the positions
at time t = 0, and vx (0), vy (0), and vz (0) are the components of the velocity vector
at t = 0; these quantities are the initial conditions that must be specified in order
for the motion to be uniquely known at all times. The velocity vector at time t is
obtained by differentiating Eqs. (1.3.14); we get
With Eqs. (1.3.14) and (1.3.15) we have sufficient information to compute the total
mechanical energy E = T + V of the particle. After some simple algebra we obtain
1 h
m vx (0)2 + vy (0)2 + vz (0)2 + mgz(0)
¤
E= (1.3.16)
2
for all times t; this is clearly a constant of the motion.
Exercise 1.6. Verify that Eqs. (1.3.14) really give the solution to the equations of
motion r̈ = g. Then compute E and make sure that your result agrees with Eq. (1.3.16).
12 Newtonian mechanics
r̈ + ṙ/τ = g. (1.3.18)
We assume that the particle is released from a height h with a zero initial
velocity. The initial conditions are therefore z(0) = h and ż(0) = 0. We assume
also, for simplicity, that there is no motion in the x and y directions. The only
relevant component of Eq. (1.3.18) is therefore
where we have set v = ż. To arrive at Eq. (1.3.19) we have used the fact that
g = g(0, 0, −1).
Our task is to solve the first-order differential equation of Eq. (1.3.19). We use
the method of variation of parameters. Suppose first that g = 0. In this case the
equation becomes dv/dt = −v/τ or dv/v = −dt/τ . This is easily integrated, and we
get ln(v/c) = −t/τ , or v = c e−t/τ . This is the solution for g = 0, and the constant
of integration c is the solution’s parameter. To handle the case g 6= 0 we allow c to
depend on time — we vary the parameter — and we substitute the trial solution
v(t) = c(t)e−t/τ
into Eq. (1.3.19). We have v̇ = ċe−t/τ − v/τ and −g = v̇ + v/τ = ċe−t/τ . The
differential equation for c(t) is therefore
ċ = −get/τ ,
so that
c(t) = −gτ et/τ + c0 ,
where c0 is a true constant of integration. The result for v(t) is then
This is ż, the z component of the particle’s velocity vector. Integrating Eq. (1.3.20)
gives z(t), the position of the particle as a function of time.
Exercise 1.7. Integrate Eq. (1.3.20) and obtain z(t). Make sure to impose the initial
condition z(0) = h.
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