Entrepreneurship

• Entrepreneurship is an act of being an entrepreneur, or "the owner or manager of a

business enterprise who, by risk and initiative, attempts to make profits“.

• Entrepreneurs act as managers and oversee the launch and growth of an enterprise.

• Entrepreneurship is the process by which either an individual or a team identifies a

business opportunity and acquires and deploys the necessary resources required for its
exploitation.

• Every aspect of Horticulture is about agribusiness of crop production, plant propagation

and sales (Local or Export) of either the seeds, seedlings and fruit commodities.

• Even the waste products are used as organic materials for fertilizers and other
household uses.

• We have input suppliers (Whole Sale Suppliers / Retailers), Nursery workers,

Supervisors, and Nursery Managers.
Food Security
• According to the United Nations' Committee on World Food Security, means that all people, at
all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that
meets their food preferences and dietary needs for an active and healthy life

• The five components of Food Security include Availability, Access, Use and Utilization, Stability.

Definition and Measurement of Food Security

• The conceptual definitions of food security, food insecurity, and hunger synthesized by the
LSRO’s expert panel have been stated as follows:

• Food Security: Access by all people at all times to enough food for an active, healthy life.

• Food Insecurity: Limited or uncertain availability of nutritionally adequate and safe foods, or
limited or uncertain access to food.

• Hunger: The uneasy or painful sensation caused by a lack of food. The recurrent and
involuntary lack of access to food . . . Hunger, in its meaning of the uneasy or painful sensation
caused by a lack of food, is . . . a potential, although not necessary, consequence of food
insecurity. Malnutrition is also a potential, although not necessary, consequence of food
insecurity.
The pineapple

The pineapple (Ananas comosus, Bromeliaceae)

• The pineapple (Ananas comosus, Bromeliaceae) was domesticated in preColumbian tropical South
America, probably north of the Amazon River with a possible secondary center in southeast Brazil.

• Selection was based on fruit size, seedlessness and parthenocarpy, long, fibrous smooth leaves
and ease of vegetative propagation. In fact, the pineapple can be propagated in a number of ways
(stumps, offshoots, slips, and the fruit crown).

• The pineapple plant is very tough and desiccation resistant and wide distribution occurred in the
Americas though human migration and exchange. It was present in all adapted areas of the New
World at the time of the European encounter with America.

• There are about 6 cultivar groups (Spanish, Cayenne, Queen, Pernambuco, and Maiopure), but
only two ‘Cayenne’ and ‘Queen’ were commercially important for most of the 20th century despite
the fact that the pineapple became associated with a tremendous processing industry.

• The ‘Cayenne’ cultivar has been the mainstay of the processing industry because of its robust,
large, romboid fruit, which produces many slices, the most valued product.
 Fig. 10.1. Distribution of the pineapple plant leaves, according to age
(A - oldest; F – youngest). (Py, 1969; Malavolta, 1982).

The leaves are classified, according to their shape and their position on the plant, as A, B, C, D, E, F, from the oldest on
the outside, to the youngest towards the centre. The ‘D’ leaf, the youngest amongst the adult leaves and the most
physiologically active, which can be easily separated from the plant is used to evaluate the growth and nutritional state of
the plant. It is the tallest leaf and grows at 45º to the soil surface and it presents its lower borders perpendicular to the
base. Inserted into the stem is the peduncle which supports the flowers and, later on, the sorosis type fruit.
Varieties
• In international trade, the numerous pineapple cultivars are grouped in four main classes: 'Smooth
Cayenne', 'Red Spanish', 'Queen', and 'Abacaxi', despite much variation in the types within each class.

• The ‘Smooth Cayenne’ group is the more productive in tropical conditions, while the ‘Queen’ group is
grown mainly in subtropical areas.

• ‘Smooth Cayenne’ is most sensitive to low-temperature-induced internal browning (chilling injury,

blackheart), while ‘Red Spanish’ is less sensitive.

• Major areas of commercial cultivation are found between 30° N and S latitudes, with some areas
considered marginal for various reasons. Minor plantings extend pineapple production to subtropical
areas with mild climates beyond 30° N and S latitudes and even under protective shelters.

• Pineapple cultivars show considerable variation in their plant growth and fruit size when grown in
different environments. Greater variation in cultivar yield response occurs in less favourable environment.
• Pineapple is in the bromeliad family, which has about 45 genera and 2000 species. The Bromeliaceae
originated in tropical America except for one species, Pitcairnia felicana (Aug. Chev.) Harms & Mildbr., a
native of tropical West Africa. Plants are herbaceous or shrubby and classified as epiphytic or terrestrial.

• The pineapple (Ananas comosus L., Merrill) is a tropical plant, a monocotyledon and a herbaceous
perennial, of the family Bromeliaceae, with about 50 genera and 2,000 known species.
• In addition to the fruit as a food, many species are grown for their leaf fibre from which bagging material is
produced, and other species are grown as ornamentals.
• The plant has a short, thick stem around which grow narrow, rigid trough-shaped leaves, and from which
auxiliary roots develop. The root system is superficial and fibrous and generally grows no deeper than 30
cm and is rarely more than 60 cm from the soil surface. Adult plants of the commercial varieties measure
0.80 m to 1.20 m in height and 1.00 to 1.50 m in diameter.
• Pineapple is one of the tropical fruits in greatest demand on the international market, with world production
in 2004 of 16.1 million mt.
• Of this total, Asia produces 51% (8.2 million mt), with Thailand (12%) and the Philippines (11%) the two
most productive countries. America and Africa contribute 32% and 16% of world production, respectively,
with Brazil (9%) and Nigeria (6%) also being major producers (FAO, 2006).
• Pineapple is a good source of ascorbic acid (vitamin C), some vitamin A, calcium, phosphorus, iron,
potassium and thiamine. It is low in sodium.
• Cut pieces are used as a dessert, in salads and cooked meat dishes, and in fruit cocktail mixes. Today, the
pineapple is found in almost all the tropical and subtropical areas of the world, and it ranks third in
production of tropical fruits, behind bananas and citrus.
Rapid Multiplication Method in Pineapple

Plate: Side shoots, plantlets and stem propagation of Pineapple

Plantain/Banana

Banana Plantain Inflorescence

Plantain/Banana plants commonly called Bananas

 The cigar leaf is a
recently emerged leaf
still rolled as a cylinder.

The female (pistillate) flowers appear first. In cultivated bananas, the ovary develops into a
seedless fruit by parthenocarpy (without being pollinated). the distal portion of the
inflorescence elongates and produces clusters of male (staminate) flowers, each
ORIGIN
• The genus Musa originated in Southeast Asia (area between India, Papua New Guinea and Pacific
islands), where the wild species Musa acuminate and M. Balsbisiana occur.
• Wild varieties are not found in Africa (except in collections). The great variability of bananas on the African
continent therefore is the result of somatic mutations or somacional variation (spontaneous changes that
occur at very low frequencies in the highland bananas (hereafter called bananas) thus suggest a long
history of their cultivation in Africa.
• West and central Africa, where 119 plantain cultivars have been identified so far, and East Africa, with
more than 70 highland cultivars, are considered to be the secondary centres of variation for these
respective banana groups. Only a few plantain and highland cultivars are found in southeast Asia and
Latin America.
• Because of the large variability of plantains and highland bananas in Africa it is hypothesized that they
arrived 1,500 to 3,000 years ago. Possibly they first arrived in East Africa near Zanzibar (Tanzania) or
reached the continent through Madagascar. From eastern Africa they moved westward through the forest
belt in conjunction with Bantu migrations. The Portuguese were apparently involved in their distribution in
West Africa.
• After the discovery of the Americans, the Spanish and Portuguese took some cultivars to the new
continent.
• Banana plants, commonly called bananas, are monocotyledonous plants belonging to the Musaceae
family of the Zingiberales order. They are botanically related to the Cannaceae (genus Canna). Lowlaceae
(genus orchidantha). Marantaceae (e.g. genus Heliconia). Costaceae (e.g. genera strelitzia, Ravenaia),
Heliconiaceae (genus Heliconia). Costaceae (e.g. genus costus) and Zingiberaceae (e.g. genera Zingiber,
Alpinia, Curcuma, Hedychium).
• Both genera of the Musaceae, i.e. Musa and Ensete are cultivated in Africa. Whereas banana are grown
throughout Africa, ensete (also called false banana) is mainly grown on the highlands of Ethiopia.
• The genus Musa comprises five sections: Australimusa (n = 10), Callimusa (n = 9 or 10), Rodochlamys (n
= 11), Eumusa (n = 11) and Ingentimusa (n = 14). Bananas cultivated in Africa all belong to Eumusa, in
descending order of importance, they are the highland cooking (Matooke) abd beer bananas, both with an
AAA genome, plantains (AAB), dessert bananas (AAA, AAB, AB and AA) and ABB cooking bananas. The
genome configuration refers to the wild species M. acuminate Colla and M. balbisiana
• M. acuminate (AA) and M. balbisiana (BB) are both diploids with a basic chromosome number of n =11.
The number of letters of a genome configuration indicates the ploidy level. Most African bananas are
triploids with the exception of a few dessert cultivars such as Kamaramasenge (AB). Figue sucree (AA).
Paka (AA) and Sikuzani (AA).
Genus Musa
• Edible bananas are derived from either Musa acuminata (A) or Musa balbisiana (B), or a combination of
both. Cultivars are diploid or triploid, with some new tetraploids developed by breeding. Considerable
somatic variation has led to a great range of cultivars.

• Cultivars are described by their name and genomic make-up, e.g. ‘Agbagba’ AAB, the AAB indicating
that it is a hybrid with two genomes of A and one genome of B. Most dessert bananas, e.g. ‘Paranta’
AAA or “Omini” AA, are AA or AA, with the triploid AAA being the most important in the trade. The
different groups and subgroups have somewhat distinct fruit characteristics.

• The genome configuration refers to the wild species M. acuminata Colla and M. balbisiana Colla that
provided the genome A and B respectively. M. acuminata differs from M. balbisiana mainly in 15
characteristics: 2 vegetative (pseudostem colour and petiole canal shape) and 13 generative ones
(peduncle hairiness, pedicel size, number of ovule rows, bract shoulder, curling, shape and apex, bract
colour at both sides, bract scars, male flower corrugation, and colour and stigma colour).

• M. acuminata has a number of morphological characters that separate it from M. balbisiana. For
example, M. acuminata has an open petiolar canal, which in M. balbisiana is closed. M. acuminata has
prominent bract scars, bracts that are lanceolate and curl, and two regular rows of ovules, compared
with four irregular rows in M. balbisiana. Using and scoring 15 morphological characters allows the
relative contribution of the two species to be determined in hybrid cultivars. Triploids and tetraploids are
larger and more robust than diploids.
Uses
• Consumption of bananas reaches 250kg per head per year in the highlands of East Africa, the highest
consumption rate in the world. This underscores the importance of bananas as a staple food and
contrasts sharply with the average consumption of approximately 10kg per head per year in Europe. In
West Africa, plantains and dessert bananas contribute up to 25% of the carbohydrate intake of 60 million
people.

• Unripe and ripe fruits are eaten, Green fruits of plantains and cooking bananas are boiled, peeled and
eaten as such or mashed and mixed with spices, fish or other food. Yellow, unpeeled plantain fruits can
be roasted while peeled ones are sliced and fried in palm oil.

• Overripe plantains and cooking bananas can be eaten raw. When dessert bananas are in the yellow
ripening stages, they are soft and sweet and are eaten fresh. In times of famine, green dessert bananas
are boiled and eaten. Beer bananas are mainly used for the production of alcoholic drinks.

• Leaf sheaths of old pseudostems are torn in ribbons, which are used as rope. Cut leaves are used as an
umbrella. Food is often wrapped in banana leaves. In some areas, leaves are still used as roofing
materials. Pseudostems and leaves are occasionally fed to pigs and cattle after harvest.
Production
More than 100 million tons of banana and plantain were produced worldwide in 2007 according to FAO
estimates.

Banana are grown in nearly 130 countries. Uganda is the largest producer of banana and plantain in sub-
Saharan Africa (SSA), followed by Rwanda, Ghana, Nigeria, and Cameroon.

The amount of nutrients removed by the harvest of cv. ‘Cavendish’ fresh fruit with a yield of 50 t/ha/year
includes 189 kg/ha nitrogen (N), 29 kg/ha P, 778 kg/ha K and 101 kg/ha calcium (Ca).

As a proportion of the total nutrients taken up by the banana plant, this is equivalent to 49% of the N, 56%
of the P, 54% of the K and 45% of the Ca. These total amounts and proportions are about half of those for
plantain.
Different growth stages of Plantain
Banana (Musa spp.)
Note the Red Lipstick in Plantain differentiating
it from Brown Lipstick in Banana (Musa spp.)
Improved Propagation Techniques to Enhance
the Productivity of Banana (Musa spp.)
Rapid Multiplication Method in Plantain/Banana

Uprooted suckers

Trimmed and diced

Grown under humid chambers

THE END