COMPREHENSIVE REPORTS ON RAWE & AIA

Rural Agricultural Work Experience (RAWE)

&
Agro Industrial Attachment (AIA)

REPORT SUBMITTED TO -
School of Agriculture Sciences DESH BHAGAT UNIVERSITY,
Mandi Gobindgarh
In Partial Fulfilment of Award of Degree of Bachelor of Agriculture (Hons.) Sciences

SUBMITTED BY -
HRIDYALAL KUMAR
UNIVERSITY ROLL NO: 21310250020
ADMISSION NO: 21FOAGRBHAG019
COURSE: B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture, 7th Sem
BATCH: 2021-25

Manual for RAWE&AIA Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation

 DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
360 RESEARCH FOUNDATION

Registered Office: Tumkaria, Narkatiaganj, West Champaran, Bihar-

845455

Regional Office: House No. 16, Ward No. 16, Kachahari Road,
Narkatiaganj, West Champaran, Bihar-845455

Email: [email protected] Website: www.360rf.in Call: +91 9471040714

Manual for RAWE&AIA Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation

 DECLARATION

I here by affirm that the work presented in report entitled “RAWE (RURAL
AGRICULTURE WORK EXPERIENCE)” submitted for the award of
Degree of B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture in Agriculture Sciences is exclusively
my own original work and is submitted only in Desh Bhagat University,
Mandi Gobindgarh.

Date: Signature of Student:

Manual for RAWE&AIA Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is with great pleasure, I Hridyalal Kumar, 4th year student

of B.Sc. Agriculture (Hons.) is presenting this report of
RAWE (RURAL AGRICULTURE WORK EXPERIENCE)
2021-2025.

I feel honored to offer my sincere gratitude to all those people who helped me
in completing my reports.

I am extremely thankful to Dr. H.K Sidhu, Director, DBU and all the
faculty of Agriculture Department for their cooperation and
encouragement.

Expressing my deep gratitude to Mr. Bibhakar Kumar, Internship

RAWE and Training Coordinator and Mr. Sudhanshu Kumar
Shekhar, Founder and President of 360 Research Foundation,
Narkatiaganj, Bihar for their proper guidance during Orientation
programme and for providing me theoretical knowledge prior to Village
attachment programme and also for their support during RAWE activities.

I would also like to thank the supporting professors, Dr. Vishakha Singh,
Simran Singh, Dr. Surbhi Sharma, Shivani Sharma, Shruti Kumari as
my supervisor on the RAWE programme. They immensely helped me to
remove all the obstacles throughout the programme.

Last, but not the least, I would also like to thank my parents who
accompanied me in my tasks and made me keep up the enthusiasm during
my tasks.

DATE: - Hridyalal Kumar

PLACE: - (21310250020)

Manual for RAWE&AIA Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation

 INTRODUCTION

The Rural Agriculture Work Experience (RAWE) is a training programme

which help in providing exposure to agriculture student to the natural setting of
the village situation, working with the farm families, identifying their problems
and making use of various extension tools for transferring the latest agriculture
technologies.

RAWE is also a compulsory course offered to student in 7th semester of 4th

year of B.Sc. (Hons.) Agriculture to understand the rural situation, prioritize
the farmer's problem and develop skills and attitude of working with farm
families for all round development in rural area.

By understanding the need of hour in field of agriculture, Rural Agriculture

work Experience (RAWE) was introduced in the curriculum of B.Sc. (Hons.)
Agriculture degree programme. During the training programme the students are
given rigorous orientation and familiarization on various issues and problems
they can expect in the farmers field. During the programme all the teachers in
different discipline are involved for improving the learning capacity of the
students in a typical village situation.

The most important area in which the development needs to be continuously

accelerated is agriculture. which is the backbone of the country's economy.
This programme has gained much importance and popularity among the
farmers and extension workers as RAWE has helped strengthen the linkages
mechanism among partners of technology generation and dissemination
process. For better execution of training of RAWE programme, it was
distributed into two components discussed below.

Manual for RAWE&AIA Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation

 Component- I

Rural Agricultural Work Experience (RAWE)

The students will undertake this program during the seventh semester
for a total duration of 20 weeks with a weightage of 0+20 credit hours
in two parts namely RAWE and AIA. It will consist of general
orientation and on campus training by different faculties followed by
village attachment/unit attachment in University/ College/ KVK or a
research station.
The students would be attached with the agro-industries to get an
experience of the industrial environment and working. Due weightage
in terms of credit hours will be given depending upon the duration of
stay of students in villages/agro- industries. At the end of RAWE &
AIA, the students will be given one week for project report
preparation, presentation and evaluation. The students would be
required to record their observations in field and agro-industries on
daily basis and will prepare their project report based on these
observations.
Objectives
1. To provide an opportunity to the students to
understand the rural setting in relation to agriculture
and allied activities.
2. To make the students familiar with socio-economic
conditions of the farmers and their problems.
3. To impart diagnostic and remedial knowledge to
the students relevant to real field situations
through practical training.
4. To develop communication skills in students
using extension teaching methods in transfer of
technology.

Manual for RAWE&AIA Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation

 5. To develop confidence and competence to solve agricultural
problems.

Component- II
Agro-Industrial Attachment (AIA)
Technology and globalization are ushering an era of unprecedented
change. The need and pressure for change and innovation is immense.
To enrich the practical knowledge of the students, in-plant training
shall be mandatory in the last semester for a period of up to 3 weeks. In
this training, students will have to study a problem in industrial
perspective and submit the reports to the college.
Such in-plant trainings will provide an industrial exposure to the
students as well as to develop their career in the high-tech industrial
requirements. In-Plant training is meant to correlate theory and actual
practices in the industries. It is expected that sense of running an
industry may be articulated in right way through this type of industrial
attachment mode.
Objectives
1. To expose the students to Industrial environment,
this cannot be simulated in the university/college.

2. To familiarize the students with various Materials,

Machines, Processes, Products and their applications
along with relevant aspects of shop management.
3. To make the students understand the psychology
of the workers, and approach to problems along
with the practices followed at factory.

4. To understand the scope, functions and job

responsibilities in various departments of an
organization.

Manual for RAWE&AIA Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation

 5. To expose various aspects of entrepreneurship during the
programme period.

PRINCIPLES OF RAWE PROGRAMME :-

1. Go to the people.
2. Live with them.
3. Learn from them.
4. Motivate them.
5. Learning by doing.
6. Seeing is believing.
7. Start with what they know.

THE MAIN OBJECTIVES OF THE RAWE PROGRAMME :–

1. To provide an opportunity to the students to understand the rural
setting in relation to agriculture and allied activities.

2. To get the students familiar with socio-economic conditions of

the farmers and their problems with reference to agricultural
development.

3. To impart diagnostic and remedial knowledge to the students

relevant to real field situations through practical training.

4. To develop communication skills in students using extension

teaching methods in transfer of technology.

5. To develop confidence and competence to solve agricultural problems.

6. To help students to acquaint with on-going extension and rural

development programmers.

7. To initiate awareness, understanding & skills among the students

Manual for RAWE&AIA Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation

 with special reference to the scientific model of “Integrated
Development of Agriculture” i.e., Crop Husbandry, Horticulture,
Argo Forestry, Animal husbandry, Poultry, Dairying, Argo-based
Industries, Processing, Marketing etc

Manual for RAWE&AIA Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation

 CONTENTS

S. No. Particulars Page Nos.

1. Orientation and Survey of village 1-7
2. Awareness Programme of Integrated Farming 8-13
System in Mathura Village for the farmers
3. Vermicompost preparation Interventions 14-18
4. Agronomical Interventions
I. Cultivation of paddy 19-28
II. Cultivation of sugarcane 29-36
5. Fruit and Vegetable production interventions
I. Cultivation of mango 37-42
II. Cultivation of cauliflower 43-48
6. Plant Clinic (Plant Protection Interventions) 49-58
7. Animal Production Interventions
I. Poultry farming 59-66
II. Dairy farming 67-72
8. Natural Farming 73-79
9. Nursery Management 80-82
10. Soil Improvement Interventions (Soil sampling and 83-88
testing)
11. Industrial attachment
Sugar Factory 90-104

Manual for RAWE&AIA Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation

 LIST OF FIGURESS

Manual for RAWE&AIA Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation

 S. No. Figures Page
No.
1 Fig 1.1: West Champaran district Map 2
2 Fig 1.2: Resource map 5
3 Fig 1.3: Social mapping 6
4 Fig 1.4: Interviewing the Socio Economics Condition of 7
Farmer at Mathura village
5 Fig 2.1: Awareness Programme of IFS 9
6 Fig 2.1: Awareness Programme of IFS 9
7 Fig 2.3: example of integrated farming system 11
8 Fig 3.1: Vermicomposting processing unit 16
9 Fig 3.2: Removal of vermicompost from the pit 17
10 Fig 3.3: Vermicompost Sieving Machine 18
11 Fig 4.1: Collection of rice nursery for transplanting 22
12 Fig 4.2: Nursery transplanting 22
13 Fig 4.3: Blast in rice 24
14 Fig 4.4: False smut of rice 25
15 Fig 4.5: Stem borer 26
16 Fig4.6: Rice skipper 27
17 Fig: 4.7: paddy maturity stage 28
18 Fig: 4.8: Trichoderma viride 31
19 Fig:4.9: seed treatment 32
20 Fig 4.10: Flat planting method 33
21 Fig 4.11: Trench method 33
22 Fig: 4.12: Tying of sugarcane 35
23 Fig 4.13: Red rot in sugarcane 35
24 Fig 4.14: smut disease 36
25 Fig: 5.1: grafting 38
26 Fig: 5.2: Square planting orchid 39
27 Fig: 5.3: fertilizer applied in bund 40
28 Fig: 5.4: Powdery mildew 41
29 Fig: 5.5: Bacterial cancer 42
30 Fig 5.6: Filling pro-tray 45
31 Fig 5.7: transplanted cauliflower 46
32 Fig 5.8: Downy mildew 47
33 Fig 5.9: cabbage butterfly 48
34 Fig 6.1: Brown spot in rice
35 Fig 6.2: Sheath blight in Rice

36 Fig 6.3: Blast in Rice 52

37 Fig 6.4: Rice ear head bug in Rice 53
38 Fig 6.5: Red rot in sugarcane 54
39 Fig 6.6: Smut in sugarcane 54
40 Fig 6.7: Grassy shoot in sugarcane 55
Manual
41 for RAWE&AIA Department
Fig 6.8: Powdery mildew in of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
mango 56
42 Fig 6.9: Grey blight in Mango 56
 1. ORIENTATION AND SURVEY OF VILLAGE

Introduction
Agro – ecosystem analysis is participatory in nature. Participation is
crucial for agriculture and rural development, and one of the most
crucial components of success in irrigation, livestock and agricultural
project. Farmer’s participation in decision making is more likely to lead
to a sustainable increase in food production.
We the participant of the PRA (Participatory Rural Appraisal) training
programme are very much thankful to Mr. Bibhakar kumar (programme
coordinator), and farmers for conducting this programme.
We conducted PRA programme in village MATHURA in
Narkatiaganj block of West Champaran district. It is situated 12 km
away from sub-district headquarter Narkatiaganj (tehsildar office) and
40 km away from district headquarter West Champaran (Bettiah). The
total area of the village is approx. 440 hectares, and the total cultivable
land is 393.1 hectare.
PRA (PARTICIPATORY RURAL APPRAISAL)

Name of village :- Mathura

Population :- 2677
Cultivated area :-393.
Year of establishment :- 2009

List of farmer participants

1. Pradeep kumar
2. Chandan kumar
3. Rashan singh
4. Sandeep kumar
5. Amit sharma
6. Nandkishore Yadav

Introduction –
A Socio-economics survey is regarded as one of the most important source
of statistical data on household expenditure and income as well as other data
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 The present investigation was conducted with a view to study the socio-
economics profile of the cereal’s growers. The present study was conducted
in Mathura village district in West champaran. It was conducted under the
guidance of SMS. 360 reseach foundation. An interview schedule, based on
the objective I.e. to study the socio-economic profile of the cereal’s growers
of Mathura district in West champaran was prepared in Maithili which was
used for conducting the interviews of the respondent cereals growers in
BIHAR. The data were collected with the help of well-constructed and
preconstructed interview schedule and processed through primary and
secondary information statistically analyzed by using appropriate statistical
method such as percentage (%), mean and standard deviation. Also, direct
observation, interview, individual contact, interaction with key informant
and respondent cereals grower farmer help in identifying the problem faced
by the respondent in cereals cultivation.

 Description of West Champaran District

The district of West Champaran was carved out of the Old Champaran
district of 1972. It is situated in northern part of Bihar. It’s headquarter is
located at Bettiah, 40 km south of West Champaran. West Champaran is
part of Trihut division. The district occupies an area 5228 sq km. The
district has total,

18 blocks namely -
1. Bettiah 10.Sikta
2. Piprasi 10. Yoga Patti
3. Nautan 11. Narkatiaganj
4. Bairiya 12. Gaunaha
5. Majhaulia 13. Ramnagar
6. Bhitaha 14. Bagaha 1
7. Lauriya 15. Bagaha 2
8. Chanpatia 16. Thakaraha
9. Mainatand 17. Madhubani

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 3 sub-division namely -
1. Bettiah
2. Narkatiaganj
3. Bagaha

There are 2 Lok Sabha constituency in this district

1. Valmiki Nagar 2. Bettiah

There are 9 Vidhana Sabha (Assembly) constituency in this district

1. Valmiki Nagar 6. Bagaha
2. Bettiah 7. Nautan
3. Lauriya 8. Chanpatia
4. Ramnagar 9. Sikta
5. Narkatiaganj

West Champaran ranks 9th in terms of population (39,35,042) and 1st in terms of area
(5,228 sq.km.) in the state of Bihar.

Fig 1.1: West Champaran district Map

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 General Information
1. Name of village: MATHURA
2. Tehsil: NARKATIAGANJ
3. District: WEST CHAMPARAN
4. Distance in Kilometers from the nearest:
a) Primary/Middle School :1 KM
b) High School/ Higher Secondary/College :5 KM
c) Post Office : NA
d) Telegraph Office : NA
e) Railway Station : 10 KM
f) Bus Stand : 10 KM
g) Tehsil Place : NARKATIAGANJ
h) Krishi Upaj Mandi : 11 KM
5. Transport facilities available : NARKATIAGANJ, 11
KM
6. Nearest village (weekly) market:
a) Place: NARKATIAGANJ
b) Distance: 11 KM
Population of Village

S. Item Population as per Census

No.
1. Total Population 2677
2. Total Male 1396
1. Literate 66.49 %
2. Illiterate -
3. Total Female 1279
1. Literate 33.5 %
2. Illiterate -
4. Number of Cultivators -
5. Number of Agricultural Labourers 900
1. Male 600
2. Female 300
6. Other
Nos. of Scheduled Castes 369 (181- FEMALE, 188- MALE)
Nos. of Scheduled Tribes 22 (14- FEMALE, 8- MALE)
Nos. of Scheduled Backwards -
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 Land use pattern of village

S. No. Item Area in hectares

1. Total Geographical area of Village 525
2. Area under forest 57.7
3. Barren and uncultivable land 32
4. Land put to non-agricultural use 36
5. Cultivable waste land 4
6. Total fallow land 2.83
7. Net area sown 271
8. Net irrigated area 137.2
9. Gross cropped area (S. No. 7+9) 393.1
10.. Area under 70%
1. Light soil (Depth up to on foot)
2. Medium soil (Depth 1 to2ft) 20%
3. Heavy soil (Depth morethan2ft)
10%

Irrigation facilities available in the village:

S. No. Source of Irrigation Number

1. Total Wells 100

a) Well in use 20
b) Not in use
80
2. Canal 1
3. Tube wells 100
4. River 1
5. Other Sources (specify) 38

Implements and machinery available in village:

S. Particulars Number
No.
1. Bullock drawn implements 20
2. Hand drawn implements 1000
3. Tractors 50
4. Power thresher 20
5. Electric pump/oil engine 100

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 Cropping pattern of village

S. No. Crop Varieties grown Area in

hectares
1. Sugarcane
a) HYV Co-238, Karnal-118, Co- 192.1 ha
b) Local 15023, Colk-142001
2. Wheat
a) HYV
b) Local DBW-14, DBW-187, S- 50 ha
Samridhi
3. Maize
a) HYV
b) Local
Lakshmi, 50 ha
4. Paddy
a) HYV
b) Local BPT-5204, Sarju-52 R- 92 ha
Kasturi
Mustard
a) HYV Yellow sarson, Brown 7 ha
b) Local sarson, Toria
5. Other crops Pusa purple long, Pusa 2 ha
(Vegetables)
purple round
6. Gross cropped area 393.1 ha
of village

OCCUPATION

Pucca house 26%

Laboure 22%
Multiple occupation 28%
Cultivator (Farmer) 35%

ANNUAL INCOME

Low( up to Rs. 50000) 37%

Medium(Rs. 51,000 to 90,000) 40%
High( Rs. 91,000 and above) 13%

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HOUSING PATTERN

Kutcha house 64%

Pucca house 26%

TYPES OF FAMILY

Single 70%
Joint 30%

SIZE OF FAMILY
Small (up to 5 members) 50%
Medium ( 6 to 7 members) 40%
Large (8 members and above) 10%

RESOURCE MAP:-
The figure show different types of resources that are used by villagers. In
village total land area 232 acre in
which 321 acre are used for
cultivation of crops and
vegetables. The villagers grow
different types of vegetable like
cauliflower, brinjal, pumpkin,
cabbage. For grain purpose like
paddy, finger millet, maize etc.
The village comprise 1 garden , 1
government pond, 1 private pond,
1 water tank, 8 tubewell and 1
river. There are three types of land
in village up land , middle land ,
low land

Fig.-1.2 Resource Map

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Social Mapping :-

The village Mathura which is situated 10 km from the Narkatiyaganj

block and 0.5 km from 360 research foundation.

Fig 1.3:- Social mapping

This figure show the situation of social feature of the village which include two
types of communities Hindu and Muslim , 5 temple , 1 government high
school , 3 Aganwaadi centre, 2 well, 1 village court, 1 tower and a market away
from the village. In village 2 road are kuchha road

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Fig 1.4: Interviewing the Socio Economics Condition of Farmer at Mathura
village

Major problem faced by Mathura villagers:

• Lack of support and awareness from Government or NGOs and Agriculture
experts about farming.
• Lack of proper drainage and irrigation system.
• Lack of credit, support and loans from the government or NGOs.
• Lack of proper market.
• Shortage of drinking water.
• Unavailability of agriculture inputs.

CONCLUSION:
The description of the socio-economics profile of the respondents, facilitates in
understanding the impact of farmer on the process of economics development.
Based on the fundings, it is suggested that the socioeconomic status of the
farmer can be improved by imparting technical knowledge to vegetable farmers,
increase their education level and increasing their social participation. the farmer
are also in very much need of government assistance and also aid from non-
government organizations and other helping bodies.
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 2. AWARNESS PROGRAMME OF INTEGRATED FARMING
SYSTEM IN MATHURA (IFS)

Scientist Dr. Gurpreet Singh Bhatia lead the awareness programme of IFS in
Mathura village in Narkatiaganj Block. Through this type of awareness
programme our scientists emphasize the use of natural processes and ecological
principles to enhance the productivity and sustainability, how farmer can utilize
the waste product of one component as input for another, resulting in a closed –
loop system that minimize waste and promotes efficiency. This village is about
12 km away from the 360 Research Foundation head office. Many farmers
gathered in this programme to learn about the integrated farming system.

ANNEXTURE

S. Farmer’s name Father’s name Mobile no. village

no
1. Malik Dubey Janardhan Dubey 9931093806 Mathura
2. Sanny Rajput Dharmendra Singh 8051271100 Mathura
3. Chandan Kumar Shankar Prasad 8709930478 Mathura
4. Chunnu Rai Prabhat Rai 8521458944 Mathura
5. Chandrashekhar kumar Mohan Soni 6202016438 Mathura
6. Rashan Singh Umesh Singh 9973297186 Mathura
7. Ekram Sheikh Jahur Sheikh 9801148272 Mathura
8. Sandeep Kumar Subodh Prasad 7494035107 Mathura
9. Isteyak Khan Mahmud Mia 6280807233 Mathura
10. Abhishek Kumar Ranjeet Singh 9560176773 Mathura
11. Nishant Kumar Mintu Singh 8789252128 Mathura
12. Amit Sharma Subhash Sharma 7985015452 Mathura
13. Sanjay Dubey Bayas Tiwari 7250828796 Mathura
14. Ravindra Ojahiya Manohar Ojahiya 9005678989 Mathura
15. Kamleshwar Prasad Ramayan Sah 6207364893 Mathura
16. Nandakishor Yadav Kasi Yadav 8969887144 Mathura
17. Narayan Yadav Devraj Yadav 9523655118 Mathura
18. Nageshwar Yadav Narayan Yadav 7518618674 Mathura
19. Pradeep Kumar Brijkishor Prasad 7779912460 Mathura
20. Prabhu Sah Parmeshwar Sah 9931280318 Mathura

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 Fig 2.1: Awareness Programme of IFS

Fig 2.2: Awareness Programme of IFS

Dr. Bhatia Sir describe the modules of IFS in this programme, and he talk about
how to utilize each part of land, natural resources or agricultural waste material
in this model. After his discussion there are many more doubts of farmer’s
regarding IFS. How to manage our farm, how to use agricultural waste material
in poultry farming, fish farming or other operations. They frequently solved all
doubts and farmers are satisfied to adopt IFS model in our farm.

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Introduction :
Integrated Farming System (IFS) is a sustainable system of agriculture where
sequential linkages between two or more firming activities are utilized. IFS
ensures maximum utilization of resources, reduces risk of crop failure and
additional income to farmers and food for small scale farming household.
Integrated firming system involves recycling of by-products and interconnected
nutrient flow of one system as input for other, thus maximizing the production
from a unit area at minimum cost. This system paves path for an organic
agriculture management system that can augment integrated soil water fertility
management (ISWFM) and can boost biodiversity and biological cycles.

Concept of integrated farming system :

 An arrangement of recycling mg products and by- products o one

component as Input to another linked component
 Reduction in cost of production
 Increase in productivity per unit.
 area per unit time.
 Increase in total income of farm.
 Effective utilization of family
 labors around the year.

Components of integrated farming system :

 Farm ponds
 Bio- fertilizers
 Vermi-compost making.
 Green manuring
 Dairy
 Piggery
 Poultry
 Duckery
 Fishery
 Plantation crops

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 Fig 2.3: example of integrated farming system

Goals of integrated farming system :-

 Maximization of yield of all component enterprises to provide steady and

stable income.
 To identify existing farming System in a specific area.
 To increase farm Resource use Efficiency.
 To maintain Environmental quality & Ecological stability.
 To integrate different production systems like Dairy, Poultry, Livestock,
Horticulture, apiculture etc with agricultural crop Production.
 Avoid build-up of insect-pests, diseases and weed population through
natural cropping system management and keep them at low level of
intensity.

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Scop of integrated farming :-

Integrated Farming enterprises include crop, livestock, poultry, fish, tree crops,
plantation crops, etc. A combination of one or more enterprises with cropping,
when carefully chosen, planned, and executed, gives greater dividends than a
single enterprise, especially for small and marginal farmers.

 Soil and climatic features of the selected area.

 Availability of resources, land, labor, and capital.
 Present level of utilization of resources. Scope of Integrated farming
systems.

Advantages of integrated farming system :-

Profitability: Use waste material of one component at the least cost. Thus,
reduction of cost of production and form the linkage of utilization of waste
material, elimination of middleman interference in most input used. Working out
net profit Benefit /Cost ratio is increased.

Sustainability: Organic supplementation through effective utilization of by-

products of linked component is done thus providing an opportunity to sustain
the potentiality of production base for much longer period.

Environment Safety: In integrated farming system waste are effectively

recycled by linking appropriate components, thus minimize environment
pollution.

Adoption of New Technology: Resources farmer (big farmer) fully utilize

technology. IFS farmers, linkage of dairy / mushroom / sericulture / vegetable.
money flow round the year gives an inducement to the small/ original to go for
the adoption technologies.

Recycling: Effective recycling of waste material in integrated farming system.

Income Rounds the year: Due to interaction of enterprises with crops, eggs,
milk, mushroom, honey, cocoons silkworm. Provides flow of money to the
farmer round the year.

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Model of integrated farming system:-

 Crop-livestock farming system.

 Crop-livestock —fishery farming system.
 Crop-livestock — poultry fishery farming system.
 Crop-fishery-poultry farming system.
 Crop- livestock- fishery-vermicomposting farming system.
 Crop-livestock- forestry farming system.
 Agri-silviculture system

Conclusion:-

The integration of fish with livestock and agriculture needs to be viewed because
this activity can go long way in the uplift of rural life through manifold increase
in return on investment. Integrated farming system seems to be the answer to the
problems of increasing food production, for increasing income and for
improving nutrition of the small-scale farmers with limited resources without
any adverse effect on environment and agro- ecosystem.

IFS are a promising approach for increasing overall productivity and

profitability through recycling the farm by-products, and efficient utilization of
available resources. It could further generate employment opportunities to the
farming communities round the year and provide a better economic and
nutritional security.

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 3. Vermicompost preparation Interventions
vermicompost programme, the main aim of the distribution of vermicides is
efficient utilization of crop residues by decomposing them with the help of
earthworm. So that the farmer can convert the waste into wealth which
ultimately reduces the usage of chemical fertilizers.

Definition

“Vermicomposting is a process in which the earthworms convert the organic

waste into manure rich in high nutritional content.”

Introduction

Vermicomposting is the scientific method of making compost, by using

earthworms. They are commonly found living in soil, feeding on biomass and
excreting it in a digested form.
Vermiculture means “worm-farming”. Earthworms feed on the organic waste
materials and give out excreta in the form of “vermicasts” that are rich in nitrates
and minerals such as phosphorus, magnesium, calcium and potassium. These are
used as fertilizers and enhance soil quality.

Vermicomposting comprises two methods:

 Bed Method: This is an easy method in which beds of organic matter are
prepared.

 Pit Method: In this method, the organic matter is collected in cemented

pits. However, this method is not prominent as it involves problems of
poor aeration and waterlogging.

Principle

This process is mainly required to add nutrients to the soil. Compost is a natural
fertilizer that allows an easy flow of water to the growing plants.

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The nutrients profile of vermicompost are:

 1.6 per cent of Nitrogen.

 0.7 per cent of Phosphorus.
 0.8 per cent of Potassium.
 0.5 per cent of Calcium.
 0.2 per cent of Magnesium.
 175 ppm of Iron.
 96.5 ppm of Manganese.
 24.5 ppm of Zinc.

Materials Required

 Water.
 Cow dung.
 Thatch Roof.
 Soil or Sand.
 Gunny bags.
 Earthworms.
 Weed biomass
 A large bin (plastic or cemented tank).
 Dry straw and leaves collected from paddy fields.
 Biodegradable wastes collected from fields and kitchen.

pH

The ideal pH for earthworms is 6.0–7.0, but the pH of the worm bin can become
acidic due to organic matter decomposition. A pH range of 5.0–8.0 generally
works well for vermicomposting.
Procedure

1. To prepare compost, either a plastic or a concrete tank can be used. The

size of the tank depends upon the availability of raw materials.
2. Collect the biomass and place it under the sun for about 8-12 days. Now
chop it to the required size using the cutter.
3. Prepare a cow dung slurry and sprinkle it on the heap for quick
decomposition.

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 4. Add a layer (2 – 3 inch) of soil or sand at the bottom of the tank.
5. Now prepare fine bedding by
adding partially decomposed cow
dung, dried leaves and other
biodegradable wastes collected
from fields and kitchen. Distribute
them evenly on the sand layer.
6. Continue adding both the chopped
bio-waste and partially decomposed
cow dung layer-wise into the tank
up to a depth of 0.5-1.0 ft.
7. After adding all the bio-wastes,
release the earthworm species over
the mixture and cover the compost
mixture with dry straw or gunny
bags.
8. Sprinkle water on a regular basis to
maintain the moisture content of the
compost. Fig:3.1.Vermicopost processing
unit
9.
Cover the tank with a thatch roof to prevent the entry of ants, lizards,
mouse, snakes, etc. and protect the compost from rainwater and direct
sunshine.
10.Have a frequent check to avoid the compost from overheating. Maintain
proper moisture and temperature.

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Signs of readiness

After about 2 to 3 months there should be a few inches of worm castings ready
for harvesting. The compost is ready when it's dark brown, crumbly, and has a
granular structure on the surface
.

Fig 3.2: Removal of vermicompost from the pit

Harvesting
To separate the worms from the compost, stop watering two to three days before
emptying the bin. You can then harvest the compost by scraping it layer-wise
from the top of the tank. After that it is ready for soil application or packaging
for sell.

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 Fig 3.3: Vermicompost Sieving Machine

Advantages Of Vermicomposting
1. Vermicompost is rich in all essential plant nutrients.
2. Develops roots of the plant.
3. Improves the physical structure of the soil.
4. Vermicomposting increases the fertility and water holding capacity of the
soil.
5. Helps in germination, plant growth, and crop yield.
6. Nurtures soil with plant growth hormones such as auxins, gibberellic acid,
etc.

Disadvantages of Vermicomposting
1. It is a time-consuming process.
2. It releases a very foul odour.
3. Vermicomposting is high maintenance.
4. The bin should not be too dry or too wet. The moisture levels need to be
monitored periodically.
5. They nurture the growth of pests and pathogens such as fruit flies,
centipede and flies.

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 4. Agronomical Interventions
I. Cultivation of paddy

Introduction
Common name : Paddy

Scientific name : Oryza sativa

Family : Poaceae

Chromosome no. : 2n=24

Origin : South east Asia

India is an agricultural country. Most of her people are farmers. They produce 3
classes of crops such as Food crops, Commercial crops & Oil seeds. Rice is the
staple food of many of the Indians.
There are 75 percent of people used its grain as food. India is the 2nd largest
producer of Rice in the world. The crop is cultivated almost in all the states of
the country like Orissa, Andhra Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, West
Bengal, Bihar & Uttar Pradesh are the major rice growing states. more than 70%
of people of Southeast Asia consume rice as staple food and Asia alone
contributes 90% of world's total production and consumption.

Paddy is kharif season crop in North India and it is also kharif, rabi, or zaid in
South India. Most cultivars require between 105 and 150 days from sowing to
harvest. However, some types can take up to 180 days to grow. In general,
transplanted crops mature more quickly than directly seeded rice.

The seeds are sown in prepared beds, and when the seedlings are 25 to 30 days
old, they are transplanted to a field, or paddy, that has been enclosed by levees
and submerged under 5 to 10 cm (2 to 4 inches) of water, remaining submerged
during the growing season.

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Uses:-

 Grains are used as staple food after de-husking.

 The basmati rice having the aroma are exported to foreign countries and it
also brings a lot of foreign exchange.
 Husk is used as cattle feed.
 Used as litter material in poultry farm.
 Used in manufacture of insulating material, cement, cardboard etc.
 Husk is also used as fuel in rice industry.
 Husk is also used as raw material and extraction of charcoal, silica gel,
sodium silicate.
 Rice bran consists of aleurone layer, tegmen and pericarp. Bran contains
12-14% protein and 14-25% oil.
 Straw used as fodder, thatching of house, preparation of ropes, used as
crop residue and addition of organic matter in soil, mulching.

Area and distribution:-

 Rice is mainly concentrated on tropical &sub-tropical area.

 Leading countries in rice production are India, China, Bangladesh,
Pakistan, Philippines, Egypt, USA etc.
 In India the major rice growing states are West Bengal, Bihar, UP, Panjab,
Tamil Nadu, Odisha, CG, AP.
 Rice is grown at mean sea level in Kerla to 2000mtrs above the mean sea
level i.e in Kashmir.
 Odisha contributes around 8-10% of total rice production in country. In
India rice is grown nearly about an area of 44 million hectare getting more
than 100metric ton of total production.

Climate requirement:-

 Rice is basically a tropical & sub-tropical crop. It prefers hot & humid
climate.
 Average temp. :- 21 to 37 C,
 Blooming required tem. :- 26.5 - 29.50C
 Ripening the tem. should be :- 20-25C

 Rice is basically a short-day plant. But all the high yielding varieties are
day neutral.
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 Soil requirements:-

 Rice can be grown in wide range of soil including alkaline to acidic soil.
 Soil having good water retention capacity good amount of clay and
organic matter are ideal for rice cultivation.
 Clay to clay loam soil are the best textured soil for rice cultivation. Ideal
pH requirement is 5.5-6.5.

Season of Rice cultivation:-

Season Sowing time Harvesting time
Kharif May to July Sept to November
Rabi December to January April to May

Method of cultivation:-

 Direct seeded.
 Transplanting
 Direct seeding:- Two types Dry seeding Wet seeding
 Transplanting — In this system the rice plant spends its life in 2 different
fields i.e a part of lifecycle (3-4 week stage) spends in the nursery and rest
in the main field.

Land preparation

 1st plowing- 2-3 weeks before transplanting begins

 2nd take place 7-10 days after the first plowing
 Puddling- 10 days after the second plowing and one day before
transplanting.
 If a basal application of fertilizer is intended, broadcast the fertilizer just
before puddling.

Transplanting

 Most widely practiced method

 1/2" -l" deep transplanting is best
 Space the hills 8"X8" during the wet season, 6"X6" during the dry
 season but can be modified.

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Fig 4.1: Collection of rice nursery Fig 4.2: Nursery transplanting
for transplanting

Seed rate

40-45 kg/ha seed for bold grain varieties and

seed for 30-35 kg/ha fine grain varieties
Direct seeding:
For upland conditions, the seed rate is 60–80 kg/ha.
Wet broadcast seeding: The seed rate is 80–120 kg/ha.

Nutrient management:-

 The FY M @5-10 tones/ha is to be added at the time of final land

preparation.
 The management of chemical fertilizers for Bihar condition the
recommended dose of fertilizer:-
 80:40:40kg/ha for kharif &
 125:60:60kg/ha for rabi season.
 Green manuring :- we can use Daincha @of 8kg/acre approx. 1
month of transplanting.

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Water management:-

 Water requirement is high during in initial period about 10 days

 Tillering to flowering is most critical stage
 Water allowed to stand in the field at deft of 2-5 cm
 Water drained out from field 7-15 days before harvest encourage quick
and uniform maturity of grain.

Weed management:-

 Rice plant suffers from weed competition and the extent of yield loss is
10-90% depending upon the system of rice cultivation.
 The weed compete with rice crop for space ,nutrient, light . Weeds are
more aggressive in nature than crop plant & can survive under biotic &
abiotic stress condition .Weeds are called silent killer because they do not
produce any harmful symptoms.
 Control and measure.
 Manual weeding can be taken up at 3 weeks on 20 days after transplanting.
If necessary, 2nd hand weeding can be taken up at 40-45 days after
transplanting. Herbicides can also be used .
 Butachlor @1.5 kg per hectare within 5-6 day of transplanting.
 Thiobencarp @ 1.5 kg per hectare within 5-6 day of transplanting.
 Pendimethalin 1 kg/hec spray uniformly within 1-2 days of direct see
ding of paddy.

Diseases of Rice:-

A. Blast
Pathogen: Pyricularia oryzae (fungus)

Symptoms:-
 Infection takes place at any stage of growth.
 Lesions are typically oval or spindle-shaped, with a grayish center and a
brown halo.

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 Fig 4.3: Blast in rice

Disease control:-
Spray 0.1% Hinosan 50EC or spray Bavistin 10 kg seed with 5g Emisan, lg
streptomycin in 10 liters of water for 24 hours before sowing.

B. False smut of rice,

It is also known as Ustilaginoidea virens, is a fungal disease that affects rice
crops worldwide

Fig4.4: False smut of rice

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Symptoms:

 Orange-yellow spore masses on infected panicles

 Spore masses can be powdery or cottony
 Infected grains are often discolored and distorted
 Reduced grain yield and quality

Infection:

 Fungus infects through wounds or natural openings

 Spores can be spread by wind, water, or insects
 Infection favored by high humidity, temperature fluctuations, and poor air
circulation

Management:

 Resistant varieties
 Cultural practices:
 Crop rotation
 Sanitation
 Irrigation management
 Fertilization
 Fungicides (e.g., azoxystrobin, propiconazole), Kocide 46 DF (Copper
hydroxide) 500g/Acre
 Biological control (e.g., Trichoderma harzianum)

Resistant varieties:

 'Jasmine' and 'Basmati' varieties

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Important notes:

 False smut can reduce grain yield by up to 50%

 Integrated management approaches are most effective
 Monitor fields regularly for early detection and prompt action.

Insect pest in Rice

A. Stem borer
Damage caused by the larva They bore and feed inside the stem.
They
drying of
growing,
part form the
base
causing the
plant die.

Fig 4.5: Stem borer

Control-
Apply carbofuron (Furadon) @ 30 kg per hectare or Phorate (Thimet)
100/granules @10 kg/hectare in 3-4 cm standing water in field.

B. Rice skipper: Pelopidas mathias

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Symptom of damage:

 Edges of the leaves are fastened with webbing

 Backward rolling of leaves
 Larva feeds from margin to inwards.

Fig.
4.6:
Rice

skipper

Management:

 Parasitoids and predators usually control skippers in nature in the field.

 Eggs of rice skippers are parasitized by small wasps. The orb-web spiders
feed on the adults during flight.
 A nuclear polyhedrosis virus also infects skipper larvae.
 Drain the water and spray chlorpyriphos 20 EC 500 ml/ac.

Harvesting and threshing:

 Turning the crop colour from green to yellow is the general symptom of
maturity.
 About a week for heavy & 3-4 days for light soils, prior to harvest, the
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 water is let out completely.
 At harvest, moisture level of grain should be 20-23% for better quality.
 In single cropped wetlands, either a pulse or fodder crop like pillipesara
sun hemp seed is broadcasted. Then the rice crop is harvested by manual
labor using sickles.
 The harvested sheaves are spread for 3-4 days, sundried and heaped and
directly threshed, winnowed & stored. For shattering varieties, crop is
harvested before it is fully dried.

 At this stage, the grain starts maturing from top to bottom of the panicle.

 Hand threshing of sheaves against some hard surface like stone, wooden
plank, a bench etc.

 This is practical when the quantity is small and for when it is for seed
purpose.

 Tractor threshing now a days, it is widely adopted practice. The sheaves

are heaped on the
threshing floor in
a circular fashion
and the tractor
goes round and
round. In
advanced
countries, there
will be combined
thresher and
winnowers.

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 Fig. 4.7 paddy maturity stage

Yield:-

 It varies from season to season, and variety to variety besides several other
factors. While the average yields vary from 50-60 q/ha during kharif.

II. CULTIVATION OF SUGARCANE

Scientific name:- Saccharum officinarum

Introduction:-
Sugarcane is the main source of sugar in India and holds prominent position as a
cash crop India has the largest area under sugarcane in the world and also ranks
first in sugar production Sugar juice is used for making while sugar brown sugar
and jaggery (gur) Sugarcane is one of the main crop of earning foreign
exchange.

Area and distribution:-

 Sugarcane is grown over the land surface of the earth between latitudes 35
degree north and 35degree south.
 The important sugarcane producing countries in the world are India,
Brazil, Cuba, Mexico, Pakistan, China, Philippines, and Thailand.
 In India, Uttar Pradesh has the largest area under sugarcane, but
production per hectare is the highest in Tamil Nadu.

Classification:-

 Sugarcane belongs to the genus Saccharum in the family Poaceae.

 Cultivated sugarcane is classified into three species.
1.Saccharum officinarum {2n=80}
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2. Saccharum sinense {2n=82 to 124}
3. Seccharum barberi {2n=118}

1.Saccharum officinarum:-
These are thick and juicy canes good for chewing purpose also.
These are generally resistant to smut but are susceptible to red rot and mosaic
diseases. This species canes are indigenous to the New Guinea.

2. Saccharum sinense:-
The species is characterized by long and thin stalks, broad leaves, low to
medium sucrose content and early maturity. Internodes of these canes are long
and zigzag, and nodes are prominent. Origin-North-Eastern India.

3. Saccharum barberi :-
It is characterized by short and thin stalks, narrow leaves, low to medium
sucrose content, early maturity. Origin-North-Eastern India

Climate requirement:-
 Sugarcane is a tropical plant temperature above 50c arrest its growth
those below 20c slow it down .
 Low temperature reduces tillering.
 Optimum temperature for it growth 26 - 32 c .
 The crop does best in the tropical regions receiving a rainfall of 75 -
120 cm per annum .

Soil requirement:-

 Sugarcane can be grown on all types of soils ranging from sandy loam to
clay loam.
 It, however, thrives best on well drained loamy soils.
 It can also be raised successfully on lighter soils provided there is an
adequate irrigation facilities.
 Saline, alkaline, and acidic soils are not at all suitable for this crop.

Variety:-

 Co-0238(Karan-4):
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 It is a high yielding and high sugar content variety This variety was
evolved at the sugarcane breeding institute, region central Karnal.

 Co-05011 (Karan-9):
It was released in 2012. Yield — 82.47 tons/hac. Sucrose % -
18.00Suitable for North-East zone
.
 Co-15023- Early maturing and resistance to wilt. It has a good tillering.
 UP-5929 - Suitable for growing under water-logging condition of U.P
Moderately resistance to red-rot, smut, and wilt disease.

Cropping system:-

In North India, .
 Maize -Potato-Sugarcane 2 Year
 Maize - Sugarcane- Wheat 2 Year
 Rice - Sugarcane- Wheat 2 year

In Southern India,.
 Rice-Sugarcane-ratoon-Wheat 2years
 Cotton-Sugarcane-ratoon-Wheat 2years
 Cotton-Sugarcane-Rabi Sorghum 2years

Field preparation:-
 Sugarcane requires a very thorough and clean preparation of land.
 Sugarcane needs deep tillage .
 Deep ploughing specially in heavy soils help in the root.
 system penetrating deep into the soil.
 At least one or two deep ploughings and one cross ploughing with a mould
board plough is essential.
 Planking should be done to make the field smooth and clod-free.

Seed and sowing:-

I. Seed Selection
 Healthy seed material, free from pests and diseases like red rot, wilt, smut,
33 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
 ratoon stunting etc., should be selected for seed purpose.
 The top one-third to half portion of a cane being comparatively immature
has buds of high viability and
is best for sowing.
 Bottom portion of cane is
rich in sugar and takes a long
time in germination.
 Seed cane should be taken
from well mannered, erect,
and healthy crop of not more
than 10-12 months age.
II. Seed preparation and treatment
 Before planting, the dry leaves of the cane stalks are removed by hand In
order to avoid any possible damage to buds.
 There after cane is cut into three budded setts usually 30 to 45 cm long.
About 35000 to 40000 sets are needed to plant one hectare which can be
obtained from about 75-80 q of cane.
 To prevent the seed setts being attacked by fungal diseases and to improve
germination, the seed setts are treated with Seedkind-TCP. Pyraclostrobin
3.5% + thiram 15% +Clothianidin 22.5% FS. By spray 200ml/acre in 200
liters of water.

Fig:4.8: seed treatment

Time of planting:-

 In India, Sugarcane is planted thrice a year in October, February-

March, and July.
 In July planting is quite common in Maharashtra.
 October and spring plantings are more common in northern India.
34 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
  Under
North
Indian

conditions, Sugarcane is planted in spring.

 March is the best time for cane planting in Punjab and Haryana.
 February-March in Uttar Pradesh and January-February in Bihar.
 In Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, and Karnataka cane
planting is done in December-February.

Method of planting:-

I. Flat planting

 In this method, shallow (8-10 cm deep) furrows are opened with a local
plough or cultivator at a distance of 75 to 90 cm.

 The setts are planted in them end to end taking care that one three budded
sett falls in each running 30 cm length furrow.

 After this furrows are covered with 5-7 cm of soil and field is levelled by
heavy planking.

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 Fig 4.9: Flat planting method

II. Trench method

 Trench method is adopted to save the crop from lodging.

 Trenches at a distance of 75-90 cm are dug with the help of ridger or by
manual labour. Trenches should be about 20-25 cm deep.
 The setts are planted end to end in trenches. Immediately after this,
trenches are filed up with loose soil.
Fig 4.11:-Treanch method

Fig 4.10:-
Treanch method
Manures and
fertilizes:-

 Sugarcane is a
heavy feeder
crop.
 FYM is added
one month
before planting
@ 10-12 ton/ha.
 For general 300:80:80 kg/ha NPK and 80 kg Calcium /ha are applied .
 Nitrogen is applied in split doses .
 The application of fertilizers at the early stage of plant growth is
advantageous and increase sucrose contents in juice.
Weed control:-

 Weed control in sugarcane is accomplished by adopting mechanical or

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 chemical methods.
 Manual weeding is done in entire row by
shaped just after the emergence of weed.
 2,4-D is very effective against broadleaf
weeds . it should be applied 25-30 days after
planting or before the weed attain 3-4 leaf
stage @ 1 kg @/500-600L of water.
 To control weeds in spring cane , spray 2 kg
@ of atrazine 500-600 L of water/ha just
after planting controls almost all the weeds.

Water management:-

 Judicious use of water is one of the main factors which governs the cane
yields and sugar recovery.
 The life cycle of sugarcane plant is divided into four distinct phases
namely.
i. Germination phase (from planting to 60th day).
ii. Formative phase (from 60th day of planting to 130th day).
iii. Grand phase (from 130th to 250th day).
iv. Maturity phase (250th to 365th day).

Earthing and tying:-

 Earthing is needed where crop is planted by flat system.

 Earthing should be done in the month of June-July after giving final top
dressing of nitrogenous fertilizer. About 15 centimeter high loose soil dug
from the center of rows should be put along the lines of sugarcane.
 Earthing up of the crop prevents lodging or the cane.
 Varieties of sugarcane that possess soft rinds and are raised under good.

Tying and Wrapping

These operations are most essential in sugarcane cultivation just to provide

mechanical support to the grown up plants to prevent lodging.

The leaves are removed from the plants and wrapped together by taking all
canes in one bundle. By wrapping the distribution of CO becomes easy
and proper throughout the field. After wrapping, the clumps in, adjacent
37 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
 rows are tied together (cross-wise). Tying should be done in the month of
August when cane reaches about 2 m height. Green leaves should not be
tied up together while tying up the crop.
Fig: 4.12: Tying of sugarcane

Diseases of sugarcane
l. Red rot
Caused by - Collectotrichum falcatum

Symptoms:
In the initial stages, loss of color and withering
of leaves, third and fourth from the top, is seen.
In the later stages, the stalk becomes dry, wrinkled, and hollow. The affected
canes exhibit leaf color change, from green to orange and then to yellow in the
third or fourth leaf. Then the leaves start drying from bottom to top.

Fig 4.13: Red rot in sugarcane

Control:
 Do not ratoon the diseased
crop dip the setts in 0.25 per
cent solution of mercurial
compounds like
Agallol or Aretan for five
minutes.
 Avoid ratoon crop in next season.
 Grow disease resistance varieties like co-15023, colk-14201etc.
 Treat the before the sowing.
 Use crop rotation.
2. Smut
Caused by: - Ustilago scitammea

Symptoms:
38 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
Affected plant produce a whip like black shoot (25-150 cm) from the growing
point of the canes. At first the mass of smut powder on this outgrowth is covered
with thin silvery membrane made up of host epidermis. It soon ruptures
exposing dense black powdery mass consist of smut spores. Initial thin canes
with elongated Internodes later become reduced in length.
Fig 4.14: smut disease
Control:-
 Use only smut free canes for planting.
 Sett treatment with fungicides viz. , Triadimefon @lgm in 1 liter of water
or Carbendazim @lgm in 1 liter of water for 10 minutes.
 Spray on infected stools with a small amount of a 10% solution of
roundup, using a small handheld sprayer.
 A severe cases spray the entire block with glyphosate (360 G/L) at 5-7
lit/ha.

Harvesting:-
The sugar content of juice continues to rise till about the end of March. The
maturity of sugarcane is generally recognized by the lower leaves gradually
withering up and leaving fewer green leaves at the top.
Stalks are cut at the ground level, preferably after digging down the earthed up
ridges. The dried leaves are stripped off from the cane and green top is cut from
the topmost part of the cane and clean canes are tied up in bundles.

Rooting:-
 Ratooning is a practice of growing a crop from the stubbles of previous
crop.
 It is economical to take only one ratoon.
 The second and subsequent ratoons are not advised because of the risk of
pests and diseases accumulating and being carried to the next crop.
 Harvest the canes as close to the ground as possible to promote better
sprouting.
5. FRUIT AND VEGITABLE PRODUCTION INTERVANTION
I. CULTIVATION OF MANGO

Introduction:-

Common Name : Aam, Ambba

Botanical Name : Mangifera-indica L.
Family : Anacardiaceae
39 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
Genus : Mangiferå
Origin: Indo : Burmp region!
Chromosome No.: 2n=40

 Mango is “King of fruit crop"

 It is "National Fruit of India"Many Indian Varieties has sweet, delicious
taste, excellent flavor, and attractive appearance.
 It is rich in vitamin A&C.
 Mango occupies 22 per cent of the total area under fruits cultivation
comprising of 1.2 million hectares, with a total production of 11 million
tons. Uttar Pradesh ranks first in Mango production & productivity with
share of 23.47%.
 followed by Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Telangana, Bihar, Gujarat, Tamil
Nadu, West Bengal, Maharashtra, and Madhya Pradesh.

Climate:-
 Well adapted to tropical and sub-tropical climate.
 It thrives well in all regions from sea level to an altitude of 1500m.
 It cannot stand severe frost, especially, when the trees is young.
 Optimum Temperature range from 240C to 270C,

Soil:-
 Grow well on wide varieties of soils like alluvial, sandy loam, etc.
 Ideal soil: Loamy, Alluvial.
 Well drained, aerated, and deep soils rich in organic matter.

 pH range of 5.5 to 7.5 are ideal for mango cultivation.

 Extremely sandy, shallow, rocky, waterlogged, heavy textured and
alkaline or calcareous soils are not suitable.
Variety:-

In India, about 1,500 varieties of mango are grown.

However, only a few varieties are commercially cultivated. some varieties are
Amrapali, Dasheri, Neelum, Sindhu. Ratna, Alphonso, Kesar, Langra.

Propagation:-
Veneer grafting
40 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
These can be utilized for preparing a grafted plant material or for in-situ grafting,
i.e. for the rootstocks which are already planted

Fig: 5.1: grafting

To perform veneer grafting, need the following materials:

Knife: A sharp, high-quality carbon-steel knife is ideal, but a good pocketknife

can also work. You can use emery cloth to sharpen the knife.

Grafting wax: Used to cover the graft to prevent it from drying out. You can
use hand wax or brush wax.
Grafting tape: A special tape with a cloth backing that decomposes before it
can girdle the plant.

Budding strips: Elastic bands that look like a wide rubber band that has been
cut open.

Nails: Long, thin nails are required for veneer grafts. Half-inch nails are usually
long enough, but bridge grafting may require 3/4-inch nails.
41 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
Grafting tool: A specially designed tool that can be used for grafting.

Rubber butting: Can be used to secure the graft. You can also use a rubber
band that's been cut into.

Alcohol: Can be used for grafting.

White sheet: to wrap the graft to keep it from drying out.

Planting:-
Different systems of planting like square, rectangular and hexagonal are
followed at different places. Planting is usually done in the month of July-
August in rainfed areas and during February-March in irrigated areas. The main
field is brought to fine tilth. Pits of 1m x 1m x 1m size are dug. These are
exposed to sun for about 30 days. Before planting, pits are filled with well-rotten
farmyard manure. The top and sub-soil are taken out separately while digging
the pits. The grafts should be planted during rainy season.

A. Square planting method - A regular spacing of 10m x 10m in dry zone and 12
m x 12 m in moist zones respectively is recommended in square system of
planting.

Fig: 5.2: Square planting orchid

B. High Density Planting: A spacing
of 5m x 5m or 2.5m x 2.5m is
recommended in dwarf verities like
Sindhu & Amrapali etc.

Training:-
In the initial stages of growth, it
is very important to give them a
proper shape, especially in cases where the grafting branched too low.
42 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
At least 75 cm of the main stem should be kept free from branching and the first
leader/main branch may be allowed after that. The main branches should be
spaced in such a way that they grow in different directions and are at least 20-25
cm apart.

Pruning:-
By following the above practices of training there will be less scope for future
pruning expect removal of disease or dried branches.

Irrigation:-
Frequent irrigation during 2-3 months prior to the flowering season. Generally
inter-crops are grown during the early years of plantation and hence frequency
and method of irrigation must be adjusted accordingly. However, use of Drip
Irrigation will not only reduce the water requirements, but it will also help in
fertigation in root zones of the plants.
Manures and fertilizers:-
 During 1st year - 10 kg FYM, 300 g urea + 300g SSP + 100 g P per plant.
With increasing year the above dose should be increased.
 At the age of 10 years, plant requirement is 100 kg FYM + 3 kg urea
(1500g) + 50 kg SSP (500 g P2S5 + 1Kg MP (500 g 1<20) and should be
followed by subsequent years. Should be applied in two split doses, One
half immediately after the harvesting of fruits in June/July and the other
half in October, followed by irrigation if there are no rains.

Fig: 5.3:fertilizer
applied in bund

43 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation

In case of micronutrient deficiencies foliar spray of zinc sulphate (0.5%) and
copper sulphate (0.25%) and borax (0.2%) should be undertaken, twice after the
fruit set at intervals 15-20 days.

Disease:-
1. Powdery mildew
Causal organism: Oidium mangifera

Symptoms:-
Powdery mildew is one of the most serious diseases of mango affecting almost
all the varieties. The characteristic symptom of the disease is the white
superficial powdery fungal growth on leaves, stalk of panicles, flowers, and
young fruits. The affected flowers and fill its drop prematurely reducing the crop
load considerably or might
even prevent the fruit set.

44 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation

 Fig: 5.4: Powdery mildew
Management:-
Dusting the plants with fine Sulphur (250-300 mesh) at the rate of 0.5 kg tree.
The first application may be soon after flowering, second 15 days later (or) spray
with Wettable Sulphur (0.2%), (or) Carbendazim (0.1 %), (or) Tridemorph (0.1
%), (or) Karathane (0.1%)

1. Bacterial canker
Caused by:- Xanthomonas citri pv. mangiferaeindicae

Symptoms:-
 The disease is noticed on leaves, leaf stalks, stems, twigs, branches and
fruits, initially producing water soaked
lesions, later turning into typical canker.
 On leaves, water soaked irregular satellite
to angular raised lesions measuring 1-4 mm
in diameter are formed. These lesions are
light yellow in colour, initially with yellow
halo but with age enlarge or coalesce to
form irregular necrotic cankerous patches
with dark brown colour.
 On fruits, water-soaked, dark brown to
black coloured lesions are observed which
gradually developed into cankerous, raised
or flat spots. These spots grow bigger
usually up to 1 to 5 mm in diameter, which
covers / almost the whole fruit.
 These spots often, burst extruding gummy
substances containing highly contagious
bacterial cells.
Fig: 5.5: Bacterial cancer
Management:-
Remove and destroy infected plant parts.
Spraying copper oxychloride 0.25 Mancozeb 0.25% or Bordeaux mixture 1.0%
Mango Yield:-
 Grafted plant starts fruit bearing at the age of 4 to 5 years. Optimum crops
bear fruit at 10 year (400-600fruits/plant).
 The yield increases continuously up to the age of 40 years(2500 fruits)
45 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
 after this yield starts decline.
II. CULTIVATION OF CAULIFLOWER

Introduction:-

COMMON NAME - Cauliflower

SCIENTIFIC NAME - Brassica oleracea L

FAMILY - Brassicaceae

CHROMOSOME NO. - 2n=18

Cauliflower is the most important vegetable crop grown in India. In India,
cauliflower cultivation is done in almost all the states, but the main states are
Bihar, U. P., Orissa, Assam, M.P., Gujarat, and Haryana.
It is rich in minerals like K, Na, Ca, Fe, P and Mg and vitamins like A and C.

Climate:-

 average temperature of low as 5-8 degree C to high as 25-28 degree C.

 vegetative stage: As the plant develops leaves and hence both water
requirement and soil fertility should be optimum along with temperature
which should be a few degree higher than the optimum needed for curd
initiation stage.
 Curd initiation stage: Depending upon cultivars, curd initiation phase of
cauliflower may continue for at least 10-15 days and the temperature
fluctuation shouldn’t be more which will deteriorate the curd quality.
 Curd development stage: the period after curd initiation to till harvest pf
the curd is known as curd development phase, where temperature
fluctuation is highly detrimental for quality curd production.

Soil requirements:-
 Sandy loam to clay loam in texture
 Neutral soil(pH 5.5-7.0)
 Well drained
 Fairly deep
 In general,early variety should be grown in light soil and mid and late
season variety grown in loamy to clay loam soil for higher curd yield.
46 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
Sowing time:-
The optimum time of seed sowing in the nursery depending upon climate,
varieties, and their temperature requirement for curd formation. The cauliflower
varieties are grouped under three categories:
1. Early-season varieties are sown from May to August and ready to harvest
from September to December. varieties are Early kunwar, Early
Synthetic, , Pant Gobhi-2, Pant Gobhi etc
2. Main season varieties are sown from September to October. They are
ready for harvest from December to January. varieties are Pusa Synthetic,
Pant Shubhra, Punjab Giant-26, Punjab Giant-35 etc.
3. Late-season varieties are sown from October to December and harvested
from mid-January to April end. Late season cauliflower varieties are Pusa
Snowball-I, Pusa Snowball-2, Sonwball-16, Dania Kalimpong, etc.

Seed rate:-
Early season: 600g-750 gm/ ha, Mid and late season: 400-500 gm/ha seed
required.

Preparation of land:-
ploughing 3-4 times. And at the last ploughing add 20-25 t/ha FYM.

Nursery management:-
 A raised beds of about 90cm width and convinent length are prepared
adding well decomposed FY M 5kg/m2 along with 5g each of NPK and 4g
of captan or thiram into the nursery soil.
 Seeds treated with captan 2.5g/kg of seeds should be sown sparsely in V-
shape tiny furrows spaced at I Ocm and 1.5-2cm between the seeds and at
a depth of 1.5- 2cm.
 The beds after seed sowing are made moist by sprinkling water and
covered with dry grass or polyethylene sheet, which is removed after
seedlings emerge out.
 The seed germination is epigeal and takes 5-7days to complete.
 The bed is drenched with captan 0.2% soln at Yd and 10th day of sowing
to protect seedlings from damping off disease.

Pro-tray Nursery:-

Portrays of 98 cells are ideal for cauliflower seedling production.

Around 600 pro-trays are required for one hectare(28,333 seedlings).
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The growing media used sterilized cocopeat @720kg/ha is mixed with 10kg of
neem cake and azospirillum and phosphobactria 1 kg. About 1.25kg required for
each tray.

First a fall we visit the farm then Ramesh Sharma learnt about nursery
management practices in vegetables crops after that we start the practical works
in nursery preparation.
1st step we collect all row materials to the preparation of nursery. Like cocopeat,
vermicompost, pro-tray, seed, fungicide and other necessary materials. After that
we make a mixture of cocopeat or vermicompost in 3:2 ratio and start the filling
of pro-tray and placing in each cells of pro-tray.

Nursery Preparation: Grow soil less seedling in controlled environment.

Use 3:2 – Cocopeat : vermicompost or,

1:1:0.01 – cocopeat : vermiculite : perlite

Make the perfect mixture and sow the seed in por-trays @ 1 seed per cell. Cover
the seed with mixture, keep the tray one over the other. After 5 days when the
seeds are germinated, arrange the portrays on the raised beds inside the shade net
nursery. Water the trays everyday (twice/day) and drench with 19:19:19 NPK@
0.5% (5g/l) solution using rose can spray micronutrient at 0.5%18 days after
sowing. The cauliflower seedling are ready for transplanting in 25 days.

Fig 5.6: Filling

pro-tray

Dr. Azad sir describe all major and minor problems during nursery preparation
in their lecture.
48 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
Fungal infection of seed treatment technic-
Use FIR- F= Fungicide (80% works in seed treatment)
I= Insecticide
R= Rhizobium
Carbendazim- systemic fungicide
Thiram- contact fungicide

1gm Carbendazim + 2gm Thiram mix with 1kg seed for treatment then after
mixing the fungicide in seed store it in cold place for 30 minutes. After that it is
ready for sowing.

Damping off in nursery

Use Saaf (Carbendazim + mancozeb) 2g/l of water in nursery.

Root treatment
I. Form a solution Saaf (Carbendazim + mancozeb) 2g/l of water and deep
the root then transplanting.
II. Use Trichoderma powder 10gm/l of water and deep the root for 20
minutes then it is ready for transplanting.

Transplanting:-

For early varieties 5-6 weeks old seedlings while for mid and late varieties 3-4
weeks old seedlings are transplanted.
Over matured seedlings should not be transplanted since they intend to produce
button like curds. After 7- 10 days after transplanting, the possibility of
seedlings mortality may be there especially
in case of early varieties which should be
immediately filled by transplanting. About
35,000 to 37,000 healthy seedlings per ha
can be accommodated. It is reported that
spraying seedlings with 0.1 ppm IBA or
10ppm NAA gives better establishment and
enhance the vegetative growth and yield in
cauliflower.

Fig 5.7: transplanted cauliflower

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Nutrient management:-

Cauliflower is treated as heavy feeder of nutrients for better growth and curd
yield. The crop also requires high amount of organic manure whereas excessive
use may contribute to tip burn, hollow stem and internal browing.

As the crop is very sensitive to soil acidity, lime should be applied to maintain
the soil pH of 6.5 ton. About 125-130:60-80:60-80kg NPK/ha +FYM
@20-25t/ha for open pollinated varieties while 200: 100: 100kg NPK/ha+FYM
@25t/ha for hybrids.

Water management :-

 Immediately after transplanting of seedlings.

 During active vegetative stage.
 Curd initiation stage.
 Curd development stage.

Weed control:-

Pre planting application of Basalin(Fluchloralin) @2-2.5 L/ha or pendimethalin

(Stamp)@31it/ha in the final land preparations followed by one hand weeding at
40-45 days after planting is very much effective to control of weeds.
Mulching with paddy husk(l0 cm thick) or mango leaves or black polythene has
been found to be beneficial in increasing the vegetative growth as well as curd
yield in cauliflower.

Disease of cauliflower:-
1. Downy mildew
Caused by: - Peronospora parasitica
Symptoms:-
Yellowish patches on the upper surface of leaves,
often angular and limited by veins. On the
underside, there is a fuzzy whitish outgrowth of
the pathogen. The affected tissues eventually die,
shrivel, and may drop out.

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 Fig 5.8: Downy mildew

Treatment:- Hot water treatment 50M c for 30 minutes Soil application of

mancozeb (Indofil 75WP) 0.25g in 2 L water

Pest of cauliflower:-
1. Cabbage butterfly

The caterpillars eat the leaves of the plants,

making round holes in the leaves, usually on the
outside. The caterpillar’s excrement can also
discolor the heads of broccoli and cauliflower.

Fig 5.9: cabbage butterfly

Control:-

Use insecticides, such as Malathion (0.1%) or 4% Carbaryl, to control larvae.

Harvesting:-

 The curds become ready for harvesting in 60-80 days after transplanting in
early varieties and 90-100 days in mid and 110-120 days in late varieties.
 Maturity index of cauliflower is the compactness of curd, and it is said to
be over mature if inflorescence peduncle or flower pedicels start
elongating, which make the curds loose.
 Early cultivars produce smaller curds than mid and late ones, while
consumer prefer the medium size curd having diameter between 15 and
25cm.

Yield:-

Early varieties varies 12-15 t/ha ,while the mid-season cultivars can yield up to
20t/ha. The highest yield is, however, obtained from snowball group cultivars
because of their more compact curds and larger plant population per unit area as
compared to mid-season group cultivars and the yield may vary from 250-
300q/ha.
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 6. PLANT PROTECTION INTERVANTION

INTRODUCTION

Plant protection can be defined as the branch of agricultural science that devises
and provides ways and means of controlling diseases, pests, and weeds of crops
and trees as well as a set of measures used in agriculture and forestry to prevent
and climate the damage done to plants by harmful organism.

In India the total losses due to pest, disease and weeds are approximately 18 %
of our total crop produce worthing 5000 crore rupees annually i.e.

Weeds: 33 %
Diseases: 26 %
Insect-pests: 26 %
Rodents: 15 %

Importance of Plant Protection:

 Plant protection has assumed most important aspect during crops
production in the recent year.
 Similarly, plant disease affected every crop in every in all part of the
world. Collectively this result to hugs loss of potential production about
46% losses in agriculture produces by insect and disease in India.

Some activities assigned under the scheme of plant protection in India.

 To issue import permits with additional declaration and special conditions
to facilitate safe import of agricultural products.
 To undertake quarantine inspection and laboratory testing of plants and
plant material to ensure freedom from exotic pests.
 To undertake fumigation/disinfestation/disinfections of commodities to
control infestation/infection.

 To undertake certification of post-entry quarantine facilitates and

inspection of imported growing plants and plant material; 45 Nos. Of
Inspection Authorities have been designated.
 To support Export market access for India's Agricultural products from the
phytosanitary point of view.

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 There are two parts under this course:
I. AGRICULTURAL ENTOMOLOGY –

Agricultural entomology is a subdivision of Entomology which is the study of

pests and beneficial insects of field crops, fruits and vegetables.

II. PLANT PATHOLOGY –

Plant pathology is a field of biology that focuses on understanding the

nature of disease in plants as well as on more practical aspects of preventing
and controlling plant diseases in crop plants that are important to
agriculture.

Types of plant protection:

Plant protection can be four types:

1. Physical/Mechanical plant protection:

It can be defined as the management and control of pests and diseases using
physical means such as fences, barriers, or electronic wire. It includes also
weeding and change of temperature to control pests.

2. Chemical plant protection:

Chemical plant protection can be defined as the management of plant pests and
diseases by using chemical substances that are toxic to harmful organisms but to
the plants, but these chemicals must be certified by the government.

3. Cultural plant protection:

In cultural methods control of pests and diseases are performed by disrupting the
habitat and growing medium of the pests and diseases such as alteration of
sowing dates, changing of sites, soils pH, fertility, and removal of alternate host
plant.

4. Biological plant protection:

Biological plant protection involves releasing natural enemies of pests and
diseases e,g: Trichoderma sp. To prevent damping off in cabbage and
53 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
trichoramma sp. It also involves quarantining imported plants.

The following assignments have to be completed by Group (Batch) /

Individual students during their stay in adopted Villages under
RAWE programme.

I. Plant protection of Rice

II. Plant protection of Sugarcane
III. Plant protection of mango

I. Plant protection from pests and diseases of Rice

1. Brown spot
Causal organism: Helminthosporium oryzae

Symptoms:-
The fungus attacks the crop from seedling to milky stage in main field.
Symptoms appear as minute spots on the coleoptile, leaf blade, leaf sheath, and
glume, being most prominent on the leaf blade and glumes. The spots become
cylindrical or oval, dark brown
with yellow halo later
becoming circular. Dark brown or
black spots also appear on
glumes leading to grain
discoloration.

Fig 6.1: Brown spot in rice

Management:-
54 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
  Use of slow-release nitrogenous fertilizers is advisable.
 Grow tolerant varieties viz.,
C044 and Bhavani.
 Use disease free seeds.
 Treat the seeds with Thiram or
Captan at 4 g/kg.

2. Sheat blight
Causal organism: Rhizoctonia solani

Symptoms:-
The fungus affects the crop from tillering to heading stage. Initial symptoms are
noticed on leaf sheaths near water level. The spots enlarge, the center becomes
greyish white with an irregular blackish brown or purple, brown border.
Fig 6.2: Sheath blight in Rice

Management:-
 Grow resistant varieties like Manasarovar, Swarau Dhan, Pankaj etc.
 Deep ploughing in summer and burning of stubbles.
 Spray Carbendazim 500 g/ha.
 Avoid flow of irrigation water from infected fields to healthy fields.

3. Blast
Causal organism: Pyricularia oryzae
Symptoms:-
The fungus attacks the crop at all stages of crop growth. Symptoms appear on
leaves, nodes, rachis, and glumes. On the leaves, the lesions appear as small
bluish green flecks, which enlarge under moist weather to form the characteristic
spindle shaped spots with grey Centre and dark brown margin. Small brown to
black spots may also be observed on glumes of the heavily infected panicles.
The pathogen causes yield losses ranging from 30-61 per cent depending upon
the stages of infection.

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 Fig 6.3:
Blast in Rice
4. Rice ear head bug:
Causal organism: Leptocorisa acuta

Symptoms:
Both nymphs and adults suck the sap from
individual grains at milky stage. Affected
grains become chaffy with black spots at the
site of feeding puncture. The yield loss may
be 10-40%. Obnoxious odor emanates from disturbing the bugs in the field.
Fig 6.4: Rice ear head bug in Rice

Management:
• Remove alternate host, Echinocloa from bunds and field.
• Ensure synchronous planting on community basis in an area.
• Spray malathion 50 EC 500 ml or monostrophes 36 WSC 500 ml/ha.

ii. Plant protection from pests and diseases of Sugarcane

1. Red rot
Caused by - Collectotrichum falcatum

Symptoms:-
 In the initial stages, loss of color and withering of leaves, third and fourth
from the top, is seen. In the later stages, the stalk becomes dry, wrinkled,
and hollow.
 The affected canes exhibit leaf color change, from green to orange and
 then to yellow in the third or fourth leaf. Then the leaves start drying from
bottom to top.
 If the fungal spores enter the leaf sheath through the leaf midrib, then
reddish spots can be seen on the back side of the leaf midrib also.
 The external symptoms appear only after16 - 21 days after infection and
drying of entire cane takes another 10 days’ time. When the affected cane
is split opened, the inner region is reddish in color with intermittent white
tinges across the cane length.
 Sometimes, the pith inside the cane is filled with blackish brown liquid
and exhibited alcohol odor.

56 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation

 Fig 6.5: Red rot in sugarcane

Control:-
Do not ratoon the diseased crop dip the setts in 0.25 per cent solution of
mercurial compounds like Agallol or Aretan for five minutes.

2. Smut:-
Caused by:-Ustilago scitaminea

Symptoms:-
 Affected plant produce a whip like black shoot ( 25 - 150 cm) from the
growing point of the canes.
 At first the mass of smut powder on this outgrowth is covered with thin
silvery membrane made up of host epidermis. It soon ruptures exposing
dense black powdery mass consisting of smut spores.
 Whip covered by translucent silvery
membrane enclosing mass of black
powdery spores.
 Initial thin canes with elongated
internodes later become reduced in length.
 Profuse sprouting of lateral buds with
narrow, erect leaves especially in ratoon
crop.
Fig 6.6: Smut in sugarcane

Control:-
Use only smut free canes for planting.
57 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
No ratoon should be kept where the incidence of disease is high.
Sett treatment with fungicides viz., Triadimefon @lgm in 1litre of water or
Carbendazim @lgm in 1 liter of water for 10 minutes.
Spray on infected stools with a small amount of a 10% solution of roundup,
using a small handheld sprayer.
A severe cases spray the entire block with glyphosate (360 G/ L) at 5-7 lit/ha.

3. Grassy shoot:
Caused by:- Mycoplasma.

Symptoms:-
 The disease appears nearly two months after planting.
 The disease is characterized by the production of numerous lanky tillers
from the base of the affected shoots.
 Leaves become pale yellow to completely chlorotic, thin, and narrow.
 The plants appear bushy and 'grass-like' due to reduction in the length of
internodes premature and continuous tillering,
 The affected clumps are stunted with
premature proliferation of auxiliary
buds. Cane formation rarely occurs in
the affected clumps, if formed, thin
with shorter internodes having aerial
roots at the lower nodes.
 The buds on such canes usually
papery and abnormally elongated.
Fig 6.7: Grassy shoot

Management:-
 Rogue out infected plants in the
secondary and commercial seed nursery.
 Treat the setts with aerated steam at 50 degree celcius for 1 hour to control
primary infection.
 Spray dimethoate @lml in 1 liter of water to control insect vector.
 Apply pesticide methyl-demeton @ml/lit of water for controlling aphid.

iii. Plant protection from pests and diseases of Mango:

1. Powdery mildew
58 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
Causal organism: Oidium mangifera

Symptoms:-
Powdery mildew is one of the most serious diseases of mango affecting almost
all the varieties. The characteristic symptom of the disease is the white
superficial powdery fungal growth on leaves, stalk
of panicles, flowers, and young fruits. The affected
flowers and fruits drop prematurely reducing the
crop load considerably or might even prevent the
fruit set.
Fig
6.8: Powdery mildew in mango

Management:-
 Dusting the plants with fine Sulphur (250-300 mesh) at the rate of 0.5
kg/tree.
 The first application may be soon after flowering, second 15 days later (or)
spray with Wettable Sulphur (0.2%), (or) Carbendazim (0.1%), (or)
Tridemorph (0.1%), (or) Karathane (0.1%).

2. Grey blight:
Caused by:- Pestalotia mangifera

Symptoms:-
Brown spots develop on the margin and at the tip of the leaf lamina. They
increase in size and become dark brown. Black dots
appear on the spots which are acervuli of the fungus.
Survive on mango leaves for over a year. Spreads
through wind borne conidia. Heavy infection is
noticed during the monsoon when the temperature is
20-25C and high humidity.
Fig 6.9: Grey blight in Mango

Management:-
 Remove and destroy infected plant parts.
 Spraying copper oxychloride 0.25 Mancozeb 0.25% or Bordeaux mixture
59 | Page e Manual for RAWE&AIA: Department of Agriculture, 360 Research Foundation
 1.0%.

3. Shoot borer:
Caused by:- Chlumetia transversa.

Symptoms:-
Neonate caterpillars bore into mid ribs of tender leaves, come out and bore into
tender shoots near the growing point tunnelling downwards, throwing excreta
through entrance hole. Leaves of affected shoots whither and droop down.

Fig 6.10: Shoot borer in Mango

Management:-
 Clip off and destroy affected shoots in initial stage of attack.
 In case of severe attack spray carbaryl two times at three weeks interval
commencing from initiation of new flush of leaves.

4. Bacterial canker
Caused by:- Xanthomonas citri pv. mangiferaeindicae

Symptoms:-
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  The disease is noticed on leaves, leaf stalks, stems, twigs, branches and
fruits, initially producing water soaked lesions, later turning into typical
canker.
 On leaves, water soaked irregular satellite to angular raised lesions
measuring 1-4 mm in diameter are formed. These lesions are light yellow
in colour, initially with yellow halo but with age enlarge or coalesce to
form irregular necrotic cankerous patches with dark brown colour.
 On fruits, water-soaked, dark brown to black coloured lesions are observed
which gradually developed into cankerous, raised or flat spots. These spots
grow bigger usually up to 1 to 5 mm in
diameter, which covers / almost the
whole fruit.
 These spots often, burst extruding
gummy substances containing highly
contagious bacterial cells.

Fig: 6.11: Bacterial cancer

Management:-
Remove and destroy infected plant parts.
Spraying copper oxychloride 0.25 Mancozeb
0.25% or Bordeaux mixture 1.0%

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 7. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY
Introduction:
Animal husbandry is a vital skill for farmers and is both an art and a science. It
includes the care of animals such as cows, buffaloes, pigs, horses, sheep, camels,
goats, and more.

Animal husbandry is the agricultural practice of raising and breeding animals for
their products, such as milk, meat, fiber, and eggs. It involves the care,
management, nutrition, production, and selective breeding of livestock.

Need for animal husbandry:

• To ensure proper nutrition to our growing population

Advantages of animal husbandry:

 Increased milk production through cattle farming.
 Increased egg production through hen farming.
 Improvement of quality of meat through fish farming, pig farming, goat
farming etc.
 Proper utilization of animal waste.
 To produce more honey and bees wax through bee keeping.
Types of Animals Husbandry:
There are five types of Animal husbandry namely:

1. Dairy Farming:-

Dairy farming is the agricultural technique concerned with the long-term

production of milk, which is then processed to obtain dairy such as curd, cheese,
yoghurt, butter, cream, etc.
It involves the management of dairy animals such as cows, buffaloes, sheep,
goats, etc.

2. Poultry Farming:-

Poultry farming is concerned with raising and breeding of birds for commercial
purposes. Birds like ducks, chickens, geese, pigeons, turkeys, etc. Are
domesticated for eggs and meat.
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3. Fish Farming:-

Fish farming is the process of raising fish in closed tanks or pools for
commercial purposes. There is an increasing demand for fish and fish
production,

4. Bee Farming:-

Bee farming or apiculture is the practice of maintaining bee colonies by human

in man-made hives. Honeybees are reared on a large scale. The bees are
domesticated for honey, wax and to pollinate flowers.

5. Pig Farming:-

Pig farming or hog farming is the raising and breeding of domestic pigs as
livestock and is a branch of animal husbandry. Pig is farmed principally for food
and skins.

The types we studied in our Village Attachment Programme

are:-
1. Poultry Farming
2. Dairy Farming

1. Poultry Farming:-

Introduction:-
Poultry farming is the branch of animal husbandry which deals with raising
domesticated birds such as chicken, ducks, turkeys, and geese to produce meat
or eggs for food Chicken raised for eggs are known as layers, while chicken
raised for meat are called broilers.

During our RAWE program me and my team members visited the poultry farm
and met Mr. Sandesh Sah owner of poultry farm he briefly introduce himself
and their farm. After that he learnt about poultry production, management and
marketing. After learning all the aspects we go for practical work in the farm and
start initial to final level of farm management under the guidance of Mr. Sandesh
Sah.
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Poultry management usually refers to husbandry practices or production
techniques that help to maximize the efficiency of production. Sound
management practices are essential to optimize production. Scientific poultry
management aims are maximizing returns with minimum investment. Poultry
originated in the agricultural era. Poultry — mostly chicken are raised in great
number and more than 60 billion chicken are killed for consumption annually.
Chicken raised for eggs are known as layers, while chicken raised for meat are
called broilers.

Fig 7.1: Poultry farming

Purpose of Poultry Farming:-

EGG: Breeds like the Rhode particularly start layering eggs in the middle of 20
to 21 weeks. Normally, At the first egg, the weight of hen is noted above 2 kg
weight of the first egg is approximately 45 to 50 g. they give 250 to 270 eggs in
a year or 6 eggs in a single week. Leghorns are extremely profile egg layers
which is one of the reason why they were used as a foundation breed for the
modern egg layering hen. They lay between 280 to 320 eggs each year, medium
in size and white in color.

MEAT: For meat production purposes bred like broiler is mainly used. Broiler
breed reach slaughter weight in about 45 days- 14 weeks. Other breeds are not
used often for meat purposes as they generate lesser profit than raising broiler.

DUAL PURPOSE BIRDS: In this type, the birds are used for meat as well as
eggs. It also used for entertainment purpose like cockfighting. Dual purpose
birds are suited for rural poultry farm as well as backyard poultry farms.
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Practices performed in Poultry Farming:-

 Site selection: Selection of good and proper site is very important. The
sites should be in an elevated area where there is no flooding. There
should be adequate sources of water and electricity. The site should have
proper access to transport facilities and should not be far from the market
for easy marketing.

 Housing: Housing of birds or poultry can be classified into three types

according to the way we want to raise these birds:

i. Intensive system: In this system birds are totally confirmed to houses

either on ground floor or on wire netting floor in cages or slats. It is the
most efficient, convenient, and economical system for modern poultry
production with huge numbers. It can be divided into two: a) Deep litter
system b) Cage system.

ii. Semi intensive system: In semi- Intensive system, birds are kept in cages
only at night and free from cage i.e. in open farm or fields at daytime.

iii. Free range system: Free range system comprises of rural poultry farm or
backyard poultry farm in which birds are not kept in cages and are allowed
or raised freely in an open area.

 Space Requirement: Space requirements for the bird is different

according to their breed and stages of growth.

i. Broiler: For broiler space requirement is 1 sq. Feet per bird for chicken
and 0.5 sq feet per bird for chicks.

ii. Layer: For layer breed of chicken space requirement according to their
stage of growth is
(1)2-3 sq feet per bird
(2)300 sq feet for 100 birds
(3)0.5 sq feet per bird for chick

BREEDS: There are different types of breeds of poultry namely broiler, Vencor,
Rhode, island red, white leg horn, Vanraaj, gramaprjya, kamarupa, etc.

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FEEDING: The chicken or birds are fed 2-3 times a day. Feeds like Crum
starter for chick and Crum grower for growing or adult chicken are fed.
Sometimes the chickens are fed chopped vegetables mixed with cooked rice if
the feeds are not available. Some various nutrients to be fed to the chickens for
proper growth and development.

Feeding Material Age of chicks

Pre stater 1 to 10 days

Stater 11to 21days
finisher 22 to end

WATERING:

Water physical quality

 Drinking water should be clear, tasteless, odorless, and colorless.
 Reddish-brown color may indicate the presence of iron.
 Blue color copper.
 Hydrogen sulfide rotten egg odor.
 Hydrogen sulfide may also combine with iron to form black water (iron
sulfide)
 Taste can be affected by the presence of salts, and a bitter taste presence of
ferrous and manganese sulfates.
 Turbidity suspension of materials such as silt, clay, algae or organic
materials in water.
 Levels of turbidity above 5 ppm result in unpalatable water and indicate
surface contamination.
 Turbid water can be filtered to remove particular contaminants and prevent
clogged water lines.

pH

 Poultry accept water on the acid side better than they accept water on the
alkaline side. normal 7.0-7.2 and 6.5 to 8.0 acceptable for poultry.

Water born diseases

Heapatitis, enteritis, nephrosis etc.

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 Fig 7.2: automatic jumbo drinker
DISEASES:
There is various disease with infect the birds. These diseases are classified into
three types:
a. Infectious disease
b. Non-infectious Disease
c. Deficiency Disease/ Metabolic Disease.

a) Infectious Disease: Disease caused by viruses, bacteria, fungus, and

parasites are known as infectious disease and some examples of these
disease are bird flu, Ranikhet, fowl 95 typhoid, aspergillosis, round worm,
flat worm, etc. They can be prevented by proper vaccination, medication,
and hygiene.
b) Non-infectious Disease: Some examples of this disease include egg
peritonitis, egg bind, poison, etc. These diseases are not infectious and do
not spread from one bird to another and is caused by certain disorders in
the birds.
c) Deficiency Disease: This type of disease is caused due to certain
deficiencies in nutrients in their diet. This disease can be managed by
including the deficient diet in the nutrition and feeds of the birds.

Vaccination:

Day-5 ND Lasota – Eye drop/Drinking water

Day-13 Infectious Bursal Disease (IBD) – Eye drop/drinking water
Day-17 Lasota in drinking water

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BIO-SECURITY:
The following steps are recommended for biosecurity of the birds.

 KMn04solution is placed at entry and exit points so that breeders and

visitors can dep their shoe soles and does not spread disease or infections.
 Visitors should be limited to avoid disturbing the birds.
 Litter should be kept dry to prevent growth of microbes and bacteria from
the moist litter.
 Proper spacing among the birds should be provided for free movement.
 Breeds should be taken from reputed farms so that we know what we are
dealing with it and to avoid being scammed.
 Wild animal and bird entry should be prevented or restricted to prevent
and protect the birds from unknown disease.

Fig 7.3: visited in Poultry farm in village attachment programme

2. Dairy farming:-

Introduction:-
Dairy farming has been an important part of the agricultural scenario for
thousands of years. India being a predominantly agrarian economy has about 70
per cent of its population living in villages, where livestock play a crucial role in
the socio-economic life. Livestock provide high-quality foods such as milk,
cheese, butter, ghee, etc.

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India is not only one of the top producers of milk in the world, but also the
largest consumer of milk and milk products in the world. Due to the shortfall in
supply, we have to import significant amounts of milk products to meet internal
demand.

It is a vital part of the global food system and it plays a key role in the
sustainability of rural areas in particular

Importance of dairy farming:-

Dairy farming is important for many reasons, including:

I. Food security
Dairy products are a rich source of protein and minerals, and are essential
for a healthy diet. Dairy production and processing are important for
global food security.
II. Economic benefits
Dairy farming can provide a regular income for households, and can also
create jobs in the dairy sector.
III. Socio-economic transformation
Dairy farming can help improve nutritional benefits and create
employment opportunities.
IV. Biodiversity
The hedgerows created to divide grassland for dairy cattle provide shelter
for livestock and create a habitat for farmland birds and wildlife.
V. Climate change
Some dairy farmers have taken steps to reduce greenhouse gas emissions,
such as cutting methane emissions by 13% since 1990.

Definition:-
A dairy farming is an activity established for the harvesting or processing of
animal milk — mostly from cows or goats, but also from buffaloes, sheep,
horses, or camels — for human consumption. A dairy farming in typical
language is basically production of dairy products like cheese, butter, milk
compounds etc.

Animals use in dairy farming :

a. Cattle
b. Buffalo
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c. Goat
d. Sheep
e. Camel etc.

Some famous breed of cattle and buffalo are used for dairy farm:-
a. Red Sindhi
b. Jersey
c. Holstein Friesian
d. Murrah
e. Surti
f. Sahiwal

Some of the main steps in dairy farming include:

 Infrastructure: Ensure you have enough land with a good slope and
drainage system. You should also have a shed to protect animals from bad
weather, and a footbath with disinfectant at the gate.

 Animal health: Consider the health of your animals, and how to improve
their living conditions.

 Feed and water: Make sure your animals have access to enough feed and
water.

 Breeding: Identify the best animals to be parents for the next generation.

 Grazing: Grazing is a key part of a dairy cow's nutrition in many regions.

 Milk processing: Milk processing makes milk safe to drink by removing

harmful bacteria and pollutants. It also improves the milk's quality and
shelf life.

 Herd management: Manage the nutrition, reproduction, comfort, and

milking of your cows. You should also consider the logistics of weather,
transportation, and expenses.

 Cooling: In hot weather, you can install fans and sprinklers to help your
cows cool down.
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  Housing pattern:

2.4m x 1.2m (8ft long x 4ft wide) head to head and 2.6m x 1.2m (8ft 6in x
4ft wide) against the wall.

All cow walkways/scraper passages should be 2.4m (8ft) wide and

feeding areas 4.2m (14ft) wide. This will allow free movement of the cows
without risk of injury or bullying.

Fig 7.4: feeding area of cattle

A. Red Shindi:-

Origin & Distribution:

The home of this breed is round about Karachi and Hyderabad (sindhi).

Distinguished Characters:
Medium size and compact, well-proportioned body, extremely docile.
Thick horns emerging laterally and end in blunt points.
Deep dark red color varying from dun yellow in almost dark brown.
Male- 450 Kg and female- 295 kg.

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Production:
First calving- 32 months
Inter calving- 420 days.
Lactation- 1900 Kg/Lactation

Fig 7.5:
Cattle breed Red Sindhi

Criteria of selection of good breed:-

 Thin skin cattle give more milk.
 Triangle shaped cattle gives more milk.
 The neck of cattle should be long.
 Cattle should be active.
 Length of all legs should be equal.
 Milk veins should be clear, visible, and thick.
 Udder should be equal.
 Udder should be more.
 After milking the udder should shrinks to maximum.
 Milking should be done thrice to judge milk productivity.

Feeding requirement:-
The proportion of dry roughages and wet roughages should be 1:1.
Maintenance requirement for body 1kg -1.5kg concentrate mixture.
For milk production 1kg concentrate per 3 1it of milk.

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 B. Surti:-

Origin & Distribution:

The Surti is a breed of water buffalo found in the Kaira and Vadodara districts of
Gujarat between the Mahi and Sabarmati rivers.

Distinguished Characters:
The Surti buffalo is of medium size and docile temperament. The breed has got a
fairly broad and long head with a convex shape at the top in between horns.
Horns are sickle-shaped and flat which grow in a downward & backward
direction and then upwards at the tip forming a hook. The skin is black or brown.
Surti breed has a unique straight back. Good specimens have two white collars.

Production:
First calving- 40-56 months
Inter calving- 400-535 days.
Lactation- 1800 Kg/Lactation
Weight of male-500kg
Weight of female-400kg

On an average a heifer cow or

heifer buffalo should be pregnant
at the age of 2.5 to 3.0 yrs.

Fig:7.6: Surti breed buffalo

Advantages of dairy farming:-

 The initial investment in dairy farming business is low in comparison to
other Industry.
 It is environment friendly .
 Pollution risk from dairy farming business is very low.
 The demand for milk product is increasing rapidly.
 Cow dung is good organic manure it increases soil fertility.
 Cow dung can be used for the production of biogas.
 Slurry from biogas can be used for vermi -composting.
 The risk from animal death can be reduced by insuring cows in dairy
farming business.

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Practices for prevention of disease transmission
 Isolation of sick animals
 Avoid overcrowding of animals
 Regular cleaning and disinfection of farm premises
 Cleaning and washing of equipment and vehicles used in transporting
animals
 Restricted entry in isolated sheds
some ways to treat small injuries in cattle:

 Bleeding wounds: Apply direct pressure to the wound and call a vet for
more serious injuries. You can also apply a bandage with cotton or a ganze
cloth and sulphonamide powder.

 Cleaning wounds: Clean wounds with a potassium permanganate solution

or hot saline water if the wound is septic.

 Bandaging: Apply a bandage and change it regularly. Keep the bandage

clean and dry.

 Pain and swelling: Use non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to control

pain and swelling.

 Sawdust: If the animal will be lying down for a long time, provide a layer
of dry sawdust to prevent decubitus ulcers.

Some types of injuries in cattle include:

 Mechanical injuries: Cuts, punctures, or fractures.

 Chemical injuries: Exposure to harmful substances like pesticides or

cleaning agents.

 Thermal injuries: Burns from hot water or heat lamps.

 Electrical injuries: Contact with live wires or electric fences.

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 8. Natural farming:-

Introduction:-

Natural farming is expected to reduce dependency on purchased inputs. It is

considered as a cost- effective farming practice with scope for increasing
employment and rural development.

It is largely based on on-farm biomass recycling with major stress on biomass

mulching, use of on-farm cow dung-urine formulations, maintaining soil
aeration and exclusion of all synthetic chemical inputs.

Natural farming practices:-

 Natural farming aims at restoring soil health, maintenance of diversity,

ensure animal welfare, stress on efficient use of natural/local resources and
promote ecological fairness. Natural farming is an ecological farming
approach were farming system.
 No external input.
 Local seeds (use of local varieties).
 On-farm produced microbial formulation for seed treatment

Importance of natural farming:-

 Natural farming in terms of increase in production, sustainability, saving

of water use, improvement in soil health and farmland ecosystem.
 It is considered as a cost- effective farming practices with scope for raising
employment and rural development.
 It also has the potential to generate employment, thereby stemming the
migration of rural youth.
 Natural Farming offers a solution to various problems, such as food
insecurity, farmers' distress, and health problems arising due to pesticide
and fertilizer residue in food and water, global warming, climate change
and natural calamities.
 Natural Farming, as the name suggests, is the art, practice and,
increasingly, the science of working with nature to achieve much more
with less.

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Some principles of natural farming:

 No synthetic chemicals: No chemical or organic fertilizers are used.

 Mulch: The soil is covered with organic mulch to encourage
microorganisms and create humus.
 Farm-made pesticides: Natural, farm-made pesticides like Dashparni ark
and Neem Astra are used to control pests and diseases.
 Weeds: Weeds are considered essential and can be used as mulch.
 No plowing: There's no plowing, tilting, or weeding.
 Bio-cultures: Farm-made bio-cultures like Jeevamrit and Beejamrit are
used.
 Cow dung and urine: Cow dung and urine from Indian breed cows are
used.
 Biodiversity: Crops, trees, and livestock are integrated with functional
biodiversity.

Natural farming can help restore soil fertility,

improve environmental health, and
reduce greenhouse gas emissions.
It can also help farmers earn more income and reduce cultivation costs.

Component of Natural farming:

1. Beejamrit
2. Jeevamrit
3. Neemastra
4. Brahmastra

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 1. Beejamrit:
Beejamrit is an amazing organic solution that can be used for seed treatment.
The usefulness of this organic solution has been already verified by National
Centre of Organic Farming, Ghaziabad (India).
Benefit of Beejamrit:
Many farmers requested to share about this amazing indigenous, organic seed
germination enhancer. However, it costs a lot as compared to inorganic
chemicals. It also takes very little time for the preparation. According to the
research by NCOF, use of this organic solution can protect seeds from seed
borne diseases. It also helps to improve the germination viability of the seeds.
This amazing organic solution protects it from pests or any fungal attack.

Ingredients For Beejamrit:

Ingredients Quantity
Cow Dung 5 Kilograms
Cow Urine 5 Liters
Limestone or Lime 50 gram
Water 20 Liters
Seed 100 Kilograms
Soil (prefer soil around Banyan tree 50 grams
roots)

Procedure:
Take a plastic drum that can hold 20 liters of water. Add water to the drum and
add cow dung, urine, limestone or lime, and soil. Mix it well with the help of a
wooden stick. Keep this solution under shade for 24 hours. After 24 hours,
spread the seed on a plastic sheet or cement floor. Sprinkle the prepared solution
on the seed. Make sure the seed gets properly covered in the solution. Air dry the
seeds under shade.

After drying the seeds, you can sow them in the early morning or evenings. You
can also use this solution for treating the roots of vegetable sapling. Before
transplanting, dip, the roots in the solution for a few seconds. Take out the
seedling and transplant it in your field or garden. You can use this solution for
farming as well as gardening purposes.

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 2. Jeevamrut:

Jeevamrut is the traditional Indian bio pesticide and organic manure that is
prepared by the unique technique of fermentation of the combined mixture of
cow dung, cow urine, jaggery, pulses flour, soil and water.

Not only is it cost effective, but it is beneficial for both plants and soil. Farmers
who spend lots of money on fertilizers and pesticides can save their money and
use this amazing traditional medicine for plants.

Jeevamrit is 100% organic and has no harmful effects on soil health. It is made
up of two words "Jeevan" and "Amrit." The first word Jeevan means "Life" and
second word Amrit means "Medicinal potion."

Benefit of Jeevamrut:

Jeevamrut is a rich source of Nitrogen, Potassium and Phosphorous. It also

contains all other micronutrients responsible for plant growth and development.

It is completely organic and provides all the nutrients required for plant growth
and it also protects plants from pests and diseases. Unlike other organic manure
that takes months to be prepared, you can prepare jeevamrut within a week.

It helps to maintain the pH of the soils, improves aeration, increases beneficial

bacteria, application to all plants and much more.

The raw materials used to make this life-giving medical potion is generally
available in rural areas and farms. Many farmers have already started using this
organic traditional manure and have earned a huge profit.

Ingredients for Jeevamrut:

Ingredients Quantity
Water 200 Litres
Cow dung 10 Kilograms
Cow urine 10 Litres
Pulse flour 2 Kilograms
Jaggery 2 Kilograms
Soils A handful

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 Process:

Mix cow urine + cow dung + pulses floor + jaggery (dissolved in 10 litres
waters) + A handeful of soil in a separate container and mix this mixture
very well.

In a non-metallic barrel of 200 liters capacity, fill water and pour the
prepared mixture of cow dung, cow urine, pulses floor, jaggery and soil in
the barrel.

With the help of wooden stick stir mixture in the barrel clockwise and
anticlockwise. Keep repeating this process two times a day.i.e. first stir in
the morning and second in the evening for 7 days.

After 7 days the beneficial organic manure will become ready to be used.
You can apply this liquid manure in the form of spray on your plants.

3.Neemastra:
This ultimate guide on neematsra organic pesticides will help you to
understand the
preparation and uses of neemastra in the traditional way. Moreover, it is a
traditional,
indigenous, organic pesticides that you can prepare and use to control
harmful pests.

The basic material that is used for preparation is neem leaf. Neem leaves
have amazing pesticidal property. They also act as fungicide as well as
have anti-bacterial properties. Moreover, neem also acts as a fertilizer.

It helps in controlling a wide range of pests. That's why if you are willing to
start organic farming or gardening then you cannot avoid the importance of
neem. We spray neem oil mix to save our plants or crop. But neemastra is
an advanced version of neem oil mix.

Ingredient of Neemastra:

Ingredients Cow dung

Neem leaves Cow urine
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 Water 2 Kilograms
Quantity 5 liters
5 Kilograms (50 + 100 ) liters

Preparation:

According to NCOF, for preparing neemastra organic pesticide, crush neem

leaves in 50 litres of water proprely. In a plastic drum or earthen pot mix
this crushed neem leaves and water in cow dung and urine.

Leaves this solution under shade for 24 hours for fermentation. In the
meanwhile stir the solution 5 to 6 times in a day with the help of a wooden
stick. During winters, keep this solution for 48 hours for fermentation.

After 24 hours filter this solution with the help of a cotton cloth. Dilute this
filtered solution in 100 liters of water and now you can use it on your
plants. You can use this solution for one acre of farmland.

Benefits of Neemastra:

Because of the presence of neem extract, these organic pesticides higly

effective in controlling a wide range of pests.
However, this pesticide is mainly effective for sucker pests, rice weevil,
caterpillar etc. It also improves the fertility of the soil.
After preparing this solution you can also store them for 6 months.

Usage:

You can either use this organic pesticide periodically once every month in
the form of foliar spray. Or whenever your plant or crop gets infested with
pests spray this solution during early
morning or evenings.

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 4.Brahmastra:

Brahmastra is a natural pesticide against large and small insects. Such as

borer, pod borer, and fruit borer. This Brahmastra liquid natural pesticides
mixture can be made by farmers easily at home.

Ingredients Required for Brahmastra:

 Cow urine
 Neem leaves are crushed 100 grams per acre
 Karanj leaves crushed 100 grams
 Custard apple leaves crushed 100 grams
 Castor leaves crushed 100 grams
 Dhatura leaves crushed 100 grams

Preparation of Brahmastra:
Step 1: With the help of a plastic or cement tank, mix all the ingredients in
it. And with the help of a wooden stick mixture the ingredients. The
mixture should be rotated in a clockwise direction. So that positive energy
spreads ion the mixture.
Step 2: After that boil the mixture on the fire.
Step 3: And the mixture tank is covered with a jute sack or poly net. And
the tank should be kept in a shadow place and ensure that the tank is not
directly exposed to sunlight and rainwater.
Step 4: For 1 minute, twice a day keep mix the mixture by rotating
clockwise with the help of a wooden stick.
Step 5: After 48 hours, filter the Brahmastra mixture and keep the natural
pesticide mixture in the bottle and keep it very carefully.

Preparation of time:
The duration for prepare Brahmastra it takes 48 hours.

Storage: This natural pesticides Brahmastra can store for 6 months.

Use: For a I-acre agriculture land farm, use 6 to 8 liters of Brahmastra

mixture with 200 liters of water and sprinkle on the plants. And with the
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 help of foliar - spray sprinkle it to all the plants and sprinkle the Brahmastra
on infected plants using 3% Brahmastra with water. And if the infection is
high use a 4% mixture.

9. Nursery Management

We visit the plant nursery and meet Kamlesh kumar managing incharge of
plant nursery he give us wild knowledge of nursery management. He told us
collection strategy of seed, seed germination, dormancy breaking technic many
more.

• Generally teak starts flowering 6 years after planting, but profuse

flowering occurs after 15 years.
• Flowering occurs from June to September and fruits can be collected from
November to January.
• Germination of teak is often poor due to dormancy. Pre - treatment of the
seeds by alternate wetting and drying of the seed for a week is required to
break the dormancy before sowing .
• The seeds were kept in a gunny bag and dock the bag in water , preferably
in a running stream, for 12 hours, then spread the seed in the sunlight to
dry for 12 hours. This has to be repeated for one week.
• Further grading of fruits according to size help in improving germination.
• The germination percentage varies from 30 to 50 % in moist teak and 5 to
10 % in dry teak.

Fig:9.1: Discution time

Selection of seed according to season or month is most important part of

nursery.

Seed bed treatment: use Saaf (Carbendazim + Thiram).

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2gm fungicide in 1l of water surface spray on seed bed.

Seed treatment is very important for nursery raising.

use 1gm Carbendazim + 2gm Thiram mix with 1kg seed for treatment then after
mixing the fungicide in seed store it in cold place for 30 minutes. After that it is
ready for sowing.

Fig:9.2: Packaging of pp bags

 The seeds were sown in the raised nursery beds (IO x I x 0.3 m) prepared
with soil and sand mixture.
 The nursery beds have to be watered regularly and covered with coconut
leaf or paddy straw.
 Germination starts 10 to 15 days after sowing and continues up to 35 to 45
days.
 The paddy straw may be removed once the seed started germinating .
 The seedlings can be transplanted to polythene bags.
 Use bag size 15/25 cm or 20/30 cm to grow seedling.

Rouging is the process in which a person is hired to inspect and clear the field of
any rogue plants like noxious weeds, off- type varieties, volunteer crops, etc.
it can be maintained in the nursery beds for 10 to 12 months for preparation

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 Fig:9.3: Rouging

Hardening, or "hardening off," is the process of allowing a plant to transition

from a protected indoor or greenhouse environment to the harsh outdoor
conditions of fluctuating spring temperatures, wind, and full sun exposure.
After transplanting of seedlings in pp bags then shift it in cool place or shad area
or green house and polyhouse to adopt the new environment. minimum for 24
hr.

Fig:9.4: Hardening Fig: 9.5: nursery visit

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 10.SOIL TESTING AND SAMPLING

Soil Sampling

The method and procedure for obtaining soil samples vary according to the
purpose of sampling. Analysis of soil samples may be needed for engineering
and agricultural purposes. In this publication, soil sampling for agricultural
purpose is described which is done for soil fertility evaluation and
fertilizer recommendations for crops. The results of even very carefully
conducted soil analysis are as good as the soil sample itself. Thus, the efficiency
of soil testing service depends upon the care and skill with which soil samples
are collected. Non- representative samples constitute the largest single source of
error in a soil fertility to be noted that the most important phase of soil analysis
is accomplished not in a in the field where soils are sampled. Soils vary from
place to place. In view of this, efforts should be made to take the samples in such
a way that it is fully representative of the field. Normally one to ten gram of soil
is used for each chemical determination and represents as accurately as possible
the entire surface 22 cm of soil, weighing about 2 million kg/ha.

Materials required

l. Spade or auger (screw or tube or post hole type)

2. Khurpi
3. Core sampler
4. Sampling bags
5. Plastic tray or bucket

Points to be considered

 Collect the soil sample during fallow period.

 In the standing crop, collect samples between rows.
 Sampling at several locations in a zig-zag pattern ensures homogenelty.
 Fields, which are similar in appearance, production and past-management
practices, grouped into a single sampling unit.
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  Collect separate samples from fields that differ in slope, drainage,
practices like liming, gypsum application, fertilization, cropping system
etc.
 Avoid sampling in dead furrows, wet spots, areas near main bund, trees,
manure irrigation channels.
 For shallow rooted crops, collect samples up to 15 cm depth. For deep
rooted crops, to 30 cm depth. For tree crops, collect profile samples.
 Always collect the soil sample in presence of the farm owner who knows
the farm better.

Procedure

 Divide the field into different homogenous units based on the visual
observation experience.
 Remove the surface litter at the sampling spot.
 Drive the auger to a plough depth of 15 cm and draw the soil sample.
 Collect at least 10 to 15 samples from each sampling unit and place in a
bucket or tray.
 If auger is not available, make a 'V' shaped cut to a depth of 15 cm in the
sampling spot using spade.
 Remove thick slices of soil from top to bottom of exposed face of the 'V'
shaped cut in a clean container.

1 inch / 2.5 cm 6 inches (15 cm)

 Mix the samples thoroughly and remove foreign materials like roots,
stones, pebbles and gravels.
 Reduce the bulk to about half to one kilogram by quartering or
compartmentalization.
 Quartering is done by dividing the thoroughly mixed sample into four
equal parts.
 The two opposite quarters are discarded and the remaining two quarters
are remixed and the process repeated until the desired sample size is
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 obtained.

 Compartmentalization is done by uniformly spreading the soil over a

clean hard surface and dividing into smaller compartments by drawing
lines along and across the length and breadth. From each compartment a
pinch of soil is collected.
 This process is repeated till the desired quantity of sample is obtained.
 Collect the sample in a clean cloth or polythene bag.
 Label the bag with information like name of the farmer, location of the
farm, survey number, previous crop grown, present crop, crop to be
grown in the next season, date of collection, name of the sampler etc.

Collection of soil samples from a profile

 After the profile has been exposed, clean one face of the pit carefully
with a spade and note the succession and depth of each horizon.
 Prick the surface with a knife or edge of the spade to show up structure,
and compactness.
 Collect samples starting from the bottom most horizon first by holding a
large basin at the bottom limit of the horizon while the soil above is
loosened by a khurpi.
 Mix the sample and transfer to a polythene or cloth bag and label it.

S.no Crop soil sampling depth

Inches cm
1 Grasses and grasslands 2 5

2 Rice, finger millet, groundnut, 6 15

pearl millet small millets etsc
9 22
3 Cotton,sugarcane, banana , tapioca,
vegetable, etc

4 Perennial crop, plantation and orchard crop 12,24,36 30,60,90

Introduction:-

Soil test may refer to one or more of a wide variety of soil analysis conducted for
one of several possible reasons. Possibly the most widely conducted soil tests are
those done to estimate the plant-available concentrations of plant nutrients, in
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order to determine fertilizer recommendations in agriculture.

Laboratory tests often check for plant nutrients in three categories:

 Major nutrients: nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K)

 Secondary nutrients: sulfur, calcium, magnesium
 Minor nutrients: iron, manganese, copper, zinc, boron, molybdenum,
chlorine

The basic objective of the soil-testing is to give farmers a service leading to

better and more economic use of fertilizers and better soil management practices
for increasing agricultural production. High crop yields cannot be obtained
without applying sufficient fertilizers to overcome existing deficiencies.

We use MRIDAPARIKSHAK kit for soil sampling testing.

1. Organic carbon:-

Procedure for Organic Carbon:-

 Take two glass vials one for soil sample testing and other for blank.
 Take 0.5 gm soil with the help of weighing balance in glass vial.
 Take one glass vial as blank ( without soil).
 Add 4 ml of solution from reagent Bottle No.4 with help of syringe in both
sample.
 Add 8 ml of solution from reagent Bottle now . 5 with the help of IO ml
capacity glass measuring cylinder in both vials.
 Swirl the content for 15 sec and leave for 30 minutes.
 After 30 min , add 38 ml of distilled water with the help of measuring
cylinder.
 Filter both the soil sample separately in glass test tubes.
 Collect 10 ml of filtrate quickly.
 Select the test parameter and take the reading.

2. Nitrogen (N):-

Procedure for Nitrogen (N):-

 Available nitrogen reading has to be taken immediately after the reading of
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 organic carbon.
 From the main menu of smart soil pro select the soil type and press enter.
The Smart soil pro will give the available soil N reading in kg/ha.

3. Phosphorus (P):-

Procedure for Phosphorus (P):-

 Take two plastic tubes one for soil sample testing and other for blank.
 Take 1 gm soil in 50 ml plastic tube .
 Take an empty 50 ml plastic tube for blank.
 Add pitch of powder from Bottle No 6 in both tubes.
 Add 20 ml of solution from bottle no 7.
 shake the test tube for 30 min.
 filter both content in 50 ml plastic tubes.
 take 5 ml of filtrate solution with the help of 5 ml syringe in another 50 ml
plastic tube.
 Add 1 ml from reagent bottle no 9.
 Add 4 ml of stock solution A.( Stock solution A= 0.26 gm of bottle no 10
+ 50 ml of bottle 11) .
 make up volume to 25 ml with Distilled water.
 Select available p option from main menu of smart soil pro and take
reading.

4. pH:-

Procedure for pH:-

CALIBRATION
 Switch on power button .
 Press the menu button twice and long press entre button for 5-10 seconds.
You will enter calibration process.
 The screen will display Put in 4 pH & menu.
 Dip the probe in bottle no 1 solution.
 Press the menu button and will automatically direct you to the menu.
Fig 10.3:- calibration

Ph measurement:-

 Weight 10 g soil into 100 ml beaker and add 20 ml of distilled water. Stire
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 for 10 min.
 For analyzing the pH of soil sample in smart pro, keep the cursor on pH in
main menu and press entre.

Fig:10.1: Calculating phosphorus % in soil testing lab.

Electrical Conductivity (EC):-

 Move the cursor to the EC option with the up/down key and press ENT.
 select farmer.
 Wash the probe with distilled water and dip it in bottle no 3. the reading of
1.40,1.41,1.42 should be displayed.
 Dip the prob in beaker and take reading.

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 11. INDUSTRIAL ATTACHMENT

I. Sugar Factory

Introduction:-

Indian sugar industry, second largest agro-based processing industry after

the cotton textiles industry in country, has a lion's share in accelerating
industrialization process and bringing socio-economic changes in
underdeveloped rural areas. Sugar industry covers around 7.5% of total rural
population and provides employment to 5 lakh rural people. About4.5 crore
farmers are engaged in sugarcane cultivation in Inda. Sugar mills (cooperative,
private, and public) have been instrumental in initiating several entrepreneurial
activities in rural India.
Present paper is an attempt as to review progress of sugar industry in India,
understand it's problems and challenges in context of ongoing liberalization
process. Indian sugar industry can be a global leader provided it comes out of the
vicious cycle of shortage and surplus of sugarcane, lower sugarcane yield, lower
sugar recovery, ever increasing production costs and mounting losses.
It needs quality management at all levels of activity to enhance productivity and
production. Attention is required on cost minimization and undertaking by
product processing activities.

Tirupati sugar limited Factory’s profile:-

Tirupati sugar limited Factory is in Naraipur Road in Bagaha (Bihar). Nearest

Railway Station is Bagaha at the distance of 0.5 km. The factory started its
crushing operation in the year 1999.

 Crushing capacity (ton/day) in 2023-2024 was 8000.

 Cane crushed (lakh M.T) in 2023-2024 was 10.14.
 Sugar produced (lakh qtl) in 2023-2024 was11.28.
 Sugar recovery% in 2023-2024 was 10.81%.
 Molasses produced(M.T) in 2023-2024 was 55031.
 Sugarcane rate/ton (Rs.) in 2023-2024 was 3550.

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Sugar introduction:-

Sugar is made by some plants to store energy that they don't need straight away,
rather like animals make fat. People like sugar for its sweetness and its energy so
some of these plants are grown commercially to extract the sugar.
Sugar is produced in 121 Countries and global production now exceeds 120
Million tons a year. Approximately 70% is produced from sugar cane, a very tall
grass with big stems which is largely grown in the tropical countries. The
remaining 30% is produced from sugar beet, a root crop resembling a large
parsnip grown mostly in the temperate zones of the north.
The process whereby plants make sugars is photosynthesis. The plant takes in
carbon dioxide from the air though pores in its leaves and absorbs water through
its roots. These are combined to make sugar using energy from the sun and with
the help of a substance called chlorophyll. Chlorophyll is green which allows it
to absorb the sun's energy more readily and which, of course, gives the plants'
leaves their green color.

The reaction of photosynthesis can be written as the following chemical equation

when sucrose is being made:

12CO2 +12H2O= C12H22O11+ 12O2

carbon dioxide + water = sucrose + oxygen

Sweetening the food items is very important. For sweetening various food items,
we general use Sugar as sweetening agent.
Sugar is got from a plant named Sugarcane. The Sugarcane itself is very sweet.
It is thin and long sticklike stalk.

For making sugar, this sugarcane is grown in fields, harvested on maturity, and
crushed in mills and thus its sweet juice is got and processed and after various
process activities it is turned into white crystal sugar which has 10 sizes.
The plant or factory where this sugarcane, after harvesting, is processed and after
many process activities it is turned into sugar is called Sugar Mill, which is very
big Plant.

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A Sugar Mill consists of following :

 Milling Tandem
 Boiler
 Turbine House to meet power requirement.
 Process House, where the juice of crushed cane is processed.
 Grading and Packing of Sugar
 Godown for Safe Keeping of Sugar, the final product.
 A well-equipped Laboratory for controlling the processing activities.
 Molasses keeping tank; molasses is a bye-product of sugar.

Flow diagram of sugar factory:-

Fig 11.1: Flow diagram of sugar factory

Various Stages in Sugar Making:-

Various stages involved in production of sugar from sugarcane are as follow.

 Cane preparation.
 Cane juice extraction.
 Cane juice processing.

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Various Preparatory Devices:-

Various preparatory devices used in cane preparation are follows :

 Cane Un-loader.
 Cane Carrier.
 Cane Chopper.
 Cane Cutter no. 1.
 Pusher.
 Cane Cutter no. 2.
 Cane belt conveyor no. 1.
 Shredder.
 Cane belt conveyor no. 2.

Description of Preparatory Device:-

Cane Unloader:-
It is a clamping device. It unloads the sugarcane from the trucks with the help of
its jaw.

Fig 11.2: Cane unloader

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Cane chopper:-
It is a cutting device which cuts the sugarcane to pieces with the help of blades
attached to it.

Fig 11.3: Cane chopper

Cane Shredder:-
It is a cutting device which cuts the cane pieces to very small pieces.

Pusher:-
It is a drum like device that pushes the pieces of cane and levels it so that they
do not get out of the carrier.

Cane belt conveyor:-

It is a belt conveyor which conveys the sugarcane pieces for further processing.

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Manufacturing process of sugar:-

1. Token gate - entrance of mill:-

Sugarcane to be delivered was entered in the mill through Token Gate, whose'
in-charge was CDI (Cane Development Inspector). There were two CDI Deepak
Sah and Bhokat Yadav who worked in shifts(day and night).

2. Cane yard :-
Tractors of the farmer carrying the canes for crushing waits for their turn in this
area. There is also a canteen, washroom and waiting room for the facilitation of
the farmers.

Fig 11.4: Cane yard

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3. Cane weighment:-
When the farmer's turn arrives, he took his tractor to the cane weighment area.
At this area a platform was built which recorded the weight of the canes along
with the tractor and trolley.

4. Cane unloading:-
Cane is unloaded here at unloading dock and dropped over conveyor belt to send
it to the manufacturing unit.

Fig 11.5: cane unloading dock.

5. Hopping and Cutting:

Conveyor belt pas’ rough cutter md chopper during this interval the cane is cut
into small pieces and chopped so that it can be processed easily, and the
maximum amount of use can be.

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 Fig 11.6: Hopping and cutting.

6. Cane Milling:
Juice is extracted from the cane by passing it into three mills Each mill perform
same function, but main aim is to extract 98-990/0 of juice from the cane and not
more than 2% of juice should be left in the bagasse (leftover of the cane after
extracting juice)

7. Boilers:-
Boilers are used for the generation of high-pressure steam from the burning of
bagasse. The boilers are cleaned twice, every 8 hours to remove the
burnt over residues or ash, left in the combustion region.

Following processes takes place in boiling house:

 The juice from mill house goes to PAN station vapor juice heater.
 Then juice goes to vapor line juice heater.
 Then juice goes to Raw juice heater no. 1, where it is heated to 50-53
degree Celsius.
 Then juice goes to Raw juice heater no. 2, where it is heated to 70-73
degree Celsius.
 Then it goes to reaction tank.
 Then it goes to final juice heater, where it is heated up to 102 C.
 Then it goes to first direct contact heater.
 Then it goes to Dorr.
 Then from Dorr, the clear
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juice is stored in the clear juice tank and the
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 juice mud is transferred in the O.C. (Oliver Cane Mud) filter.
 Then from O.C. filter it goes to FCS (Filtrate Clarification System). From
FCS the filtered juice goes to clear tank.
 The collected juice in the clear tank goes to second Direct Contact Heater.
 Then from DCH it goes to semi Kestner.
 Then from DCH it goes to semi Kestner.
 Then the juice goes to Kestner.
 Now it goes to Quad, where its thickness 70-72 bricks.
 Now it goes to PAN Station, where the processes takes place which
thickens the juice.
 Now, the stage of boiling of juice is over.

Fig 11.7: Boiler

8. Juice filtering:-
The juice collected from mill station 1 and 2 is then transfer to the juice filter
machine. At this machine the juice is passed through a mesh of steel which
filtered the juice and separated the bagasse and transferred to the rang carrier of
fir mill station. After the filtration of juice the juice was then send to the juice
weighment tank.

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 Fig 11.8: Juice Filters

After the Boiling stage, the curing stage takes place, which involves following
 Crystallization
 Centrifugal operation
 Sugar Grading
 Sugar filling in bags/Packing

Crystallization Process:-
In crystallization process syrup (juice left after removing 70% of water) is
processed in PAN A(3 pans), B(l pan) and C(l pan)
In these pans seed(sugar powder) is added to the syrup and heated at 55-60
degree Celsius.
In approximate 2 hrs. a single lot of 400 bags is prepared per pan.

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Centrifuging:
After crystallization at every pan the sugar molasses syrup is then transferred to
the centrifugal machine for separation of molasses from the sugar crystals. For
this the sugar molasses syrup was transferred to the centrifugal tub inside the
centrifugal chamber. After the transfer the centrifugal tube was then rotated at
very high RPM to separate the molasses from the sugar crystals.
Fig 11.9: A top-down view of centrifugal station with 5 centrifuges installed for
each Pan.

Fig 11.9: A top-down view of centrifugal station with 5 centrifuges installed for
each Pan.

Sugar grading:-
Sugar is now transported through conveyer for grading.
Sugar is mainly graded in three sizes.
 Large(L)
Size of sugar is 0.75 - 0.6mm

 Medium(M)
Size of sugar is 0.5 - 0.3mm

 Small(S)
Size of sugar is 0.3 - 0.02mm

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 Fig 11.10:- sugar is carried out for furter grading process

Fig 11.11:- Sugar Grader

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Bagging And Storage:-
After finishing of the crystallization sugar is firstly separated from the molasses
and then separated sugar is dried with the help of large fans.
Thereafter dried sugar is graded, and small and large size sugar is packed in the
bags. Large size sugar is sent back to the pans for quality improvement purpose.

Fig 11.12: Packing of sugar

By-Product of sugar industry:-

Bioethanol and Biodiesel

Bioethanol and biodiesel are the most important biofuels worldwide. Although
the production processes of these two biofuels are well established, there is still
room for improvements. The integration of these two processes would allow the
use of their wastes or by-products for increasing productivity or generating
additional products. This would make it possible to improve the economics and
sustainability of both processes. This article presents an overview focusing on a
soybean biodiesel plant integrated into a sugarcane biorefinery.

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Bagasse fiber as a raw material:-
Bagasse obtained as a by-product of sugar cane processing, is composed of fiber,
pith, non-soluble solids, and water; fiber represents about half of all components,
and includes cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin of low molecular weight. Its
morphological structure is not strong in comparison with other fibers like those
of wood; its advantages are shown during chemical and mechanical treatments
since it does not have to be submitted to severe processes. Another important
advantage is that it is directly obtained and concentrated in the sugar factory as a
process by-product, thus simplifying handling and transport operations. Every
year, more than 20() million tons of bagasse are obtained together with sugar, in
all cane producing countries, 95 percent of which is used as fuel in the mills,
which represent a saving of about 40 million tons of oil.

Baggase:-
Dry pulpy fibrous material left after extracting juice. Use as a fuel for boilers.

Molasses:-
 Molasses is the final effluent obtained in the preparation of sugar by
repeated crystallization.
 It is residual syrup from which no sugar can be crystallized.
 Its yield is 3%/tons of cane sugar.
 Many products of economic importance can be prepared from Molasses
after processing.
 It can be used in animal feed also.
 Alcohol is made from Molasses.

Fig 11.13: Step of formation of alcohol

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Electricity:-
When sugarcane juice is heated in boiler the water content in juice evaporates
and it is run through the turbine hence electricity is produced, through this
electricity demand of sugar industry is fulfilled and extra electricity is sold to
power grid through which is reaches to the house.
Total electricity use by Tirupati sugar limited is 200- 500 kWh.
Total electricity production of Tirupati sugar limited is 6 MW

Conclusion:-

Sugar industry is the second largest agro-based industry in India. Sugar factories,
particularly cooperative sugar factories in Maharastra and other states have been
instrumental in building confidence among rural people and strengthening
industrial base in rural India. In the era of globalization, sugar industry needs
more competitive edge which can be given by way of modernization, enhancing
productivity, and manufacturing excellent quality sugar at competitive prices. It
needs quality management at every level of activity to enhance its performance.
The need of the hour is to liberalize industry from clutches of unprofessional
people. Most of the sugar units do not have byproduct utilization plants. Projects
based on bagass es and molasses should be initiated. Ethanol, alochol, and paper
projects have tremendous scope for development in India. In future, 10-15%
ethanol may
be allowed to be blended with petrol. Bagasses based power generation projects
installed adjacent to each sugar factory would fulfill need of power. Research
programme should be undertaken in area of sugarcane cultivation, enhancing
sugarcane productivity, and sugar recovery. Sugarcane prices should be fixed on
basis of sugar recovery. Attention is to be given on manufacturing quality sugar
as per international standards at competitive prices.

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