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M. Hanif Chaudhry

Open-Channel Flow
Third Edition
Open-Channel Flow

Third Edition
M. Hanif Chaudhry

Open-Channel Flow

Third Edition

123
Dr. M. Hanif Chaudhry
University of South Carolina
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Columbia, SC, USA

This book includes lecturer materials at sn.pub/lecturer-material

Originally published by Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, 1993

ISBN 978-3-030-96446-7 ISBN 978-3-030-96447-4 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96447-4

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022

1st edition: © Prentice Hall 1993
2nd edition: © Springer-Verlag US 2008
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole
or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical
way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer
software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in
this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names
are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and informa-
tion in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the
publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect
to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made.
The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and
institutional affiliations.

Cover design: Courtesy Metropolitan Water District of Southern California

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland
AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
To Shamim
Preface

The flow in natural channels, such as rivers and streams, or in built water-
conveyance structures, such as canals, is referred to as open-channel or free-
surface flow. The analysis of these flows is needed for the planning, design,
and operation of water resource projects. Although empirical approaches have
been used for this purpose in the past, the availability of efficient computa-
tional procedures during the last 50 years or so have made it possible to
analyze large complex systems in addition to providing more accurate results
that can be used with confidence. This book covers an introduction of these
flows, presents modern numerical methods and computational procedures for
analyses, and provides up-to-date information on the topic. The book is suit-
able as a text for senior-level undergraduate and graduate courses and as a
reference for researchers and practicing engineers. Strong emphasis is given to
the application of efficient solution techniques and numerical methods suit-
able for computer analysis. In addition, the coverage of unsteady flow is as
detailed as that of steady flow. Except for Chapter 17 and parts of Chapters 9
and 18, the material is related to channels with rigid boundaries.
The book is divided into two parts: Chapters 1 through 10 cover steady
flow and Chapter 11 through 18 cover unsteady flow. Chapter 1 summarizes
basic flow concepts, and Chapter 2 presents the conservation laws of mass,
momentum, and energy and their applications. Critical and uniform flows
are discussed in Chapters 3 and 4, respectively. A qualitative discussion of
gradually varied flows and methods for the computation of these flows are
presented in Chapters 5 and 6, respectively. Chapter 7 deals with rapidly
varied flow following mainly an empirical approach while modern numerical
methods for the computation of these flows are outlined in Chapter 8. A
number of procedures for the design of channels are presented in Chapter 9
and a number of special topics are discussed in Chapter 10. Unsteady flow is
introduced in Chapter 11 and the governing equations for unsteady flow are
derived in Chapter 12. Numerical integration of these equations and the initial
and boundary conditions are discussed in Chapter 13. A number of explicit

VII
VIII Preface

and implicit finite-difference methods are presented in Chapters 14 and 15 for

one- and two-dimensional flows, respectively. Modeling of levee breach is dis-
cussed in Chapter 16, sediment transport in Chapter 17, and special topics
related to unsteady flows in Chapter 18.
The text is based on the lecture notes for a course on open-channel flow for
senior-level undergraduate and graduate students and for an advanced level
graduate course on unsteady flow at Old Dominion University, at Washington
State University, and at the University of South Carolina. In this edition, a
new section on hydraulic models is added in Chapter 1, a new section on ve-
locity measurements is added in Chapter 10, and a new chapter, Chapter 16,
is added on the modeling of levee breach. Suggestions and comments of stu-
dents, instructors, and reviewers are incorporated as appropriate. References
are updated and additional problems are included, some of which are suit-
able for take-home tests. To facilitate and enhance learning, photographs are
used extensively and short computer programs in Python related to different
chapters are made available at the publisher’s website.
In recent years, the author has used Chapters 1 through 6, 9, and 10 and
parts of Chapter 7 in a three-semester-hour course for senior-level undergrad-
uate and graduate students in water resources and Chapters 11 through 15
and Chapter 18 in an advanced three-credit class on unsteady flow. Students
develop in each course three or four computer codes using any modern pro-
gramming language, such as Python and MATLAB. For an introductory class
on open-channel flow, some instructors may prefer a reduced coverage of Chap-
ters 6 and 7 and instead include parts of Chapters 11 through 13. Parts of
different chapters may be utilized in a course on computational hydraulics
and hydraulic structures or to cover special topics.
Thanks are extended to anonymous reviewers for their suggestions for the
clarity of presentation. I am thankful to my former postdoctoral fellows and
graduate students for the inclusion of their jointly published contributions
in the field. The assistance of Dr. M. Elkholy, Alexandria University, Egypt,
for the preparation of the manuscript and for updating references and other
material; Dr. Melih Calamak, Middle East Technical University, for reviewing
the entire manuscript and making suggestions for its improvement; and my
assistant, Katherine Tse, for proofreading, are thankfully acknowledged. The
patience and understanding of my family, especially our grandchildren, Aryan,
Amira, Rohan and Zain, during many hours spent in the preparation of this
book is appreciated.

Columbia, SC, USA M. Hanif Chaudhry

Contents

1 BASIC CONCEPTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1-2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1-3 Classification of Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Steady and Unsteady Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Uniform and Nonuniform flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Laminar and Turbulent Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Subcritical, Supercritical, and Critical Flows . . . . . . . . 8
1-4 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1-5 Velocity Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Energy Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Momentum Coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Example 1-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1-6 Pressure Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Static Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Horizontal, Parallel Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Parallel Flow in Sloping Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Curvilinear Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
1-7 Reynolds Transport Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
1-8 Hydraulic Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1-9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

2 STEADY FLOW CONSERVATION LAWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

2-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2-2 Conservation of Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
2-3 Conservation of Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2-4 Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Steady Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
Steady, Uniform Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Unsteady, Nonuniform Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
IX
X Contents

2-5 Specific Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

2-6 Application of Momentum and Energy Equations . . . . . . . . . 42
2-7 Channel Transition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Example 2-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2-8 Hydraulic Jump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Example 2-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
2-9 Hydraulic Jump at Sluice Gate Outlet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Example 2-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
2-10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59

3 CRITICAL FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3-2 Rectangular Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Specific Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Unit discharge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Specific force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Wave Celerity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3-3 Non-Rectangular Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Specific Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Specific Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3-4 Application of Critical Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Constant-width Channel with Bottom Step . . . . . . . . . . 72
Horizontal, Variable-width Channel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Example 3-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3-5 Location of Critical Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3-6 Computation of Critical Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Design curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Trial-and-Error Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Numerical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Example 3-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3-7 Critical Depths in Compound Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
General Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Example 3-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Algorithm for Computing the Critical Depths . . . . . . . 84
3-8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90

4 UNIFORM FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
4-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4-2 Flow Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
4-3 Flow Resistance Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Chezy Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Manning Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
Other Resistance Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
 Contents XI

4-4 Computation of Normal Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Example 4-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4-5 Equivalent Manning Constant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
4-6 Compound Channel Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
4-7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120

5 GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

5-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5-2 Governing Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5-3 Classification of Water-Surface Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5-4 General Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5-5 Sketching of Water-Surface Profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Example 5-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Example 5-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
5-6 Discharge From a Reservoir . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Example 5-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
5-7 Profiles in Compound Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Example 5-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Example 5-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5-8 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

6 COMPUTATION OF GRADUALLY VARIED FLOW . . . 155

6-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6-2 General Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
6-3 Direct-Step Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Example 6-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
6-4 Standard Step Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Example 6-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
6-5 Integration of Differential Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
6-6 Single-step Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Euler method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Improved Euler method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Modified Euler Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Fourth-order Runge-Kutta Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
6-7 Predictor-Corrector Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
6-8 Simultaneous Solution Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Single and Series Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Channel Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Example 6-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Practical Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
6-9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
XII Contents

7 RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203

7-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7-2 Application of Conservation Laws . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
7-3 Channel Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
General Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Subcritical Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
7-4 Supercritical Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Oblique Hydraulic Jump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
7-5 Weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Sharp-Crested Weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Broad-Crested Weirs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
7-6 Hydraulic Jump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Ratio of Sequent Depths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Length of Jump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Jump Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Jump types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Energy loss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Jump Location . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Control of Jump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
7-7 Spillways . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Overflow Spillway . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7-8 Energy Dissipators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Stilling Basins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Flip Buckets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Roller Buckets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
7-9 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244

8 COMPUTATION OF RAPIDLY VARIED FLOW . . . . . . . 251

8-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
8-2 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Characteristic directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Coordinate Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
8-3 Computation of Supercritical Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Finite-difference methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
8-4 Computation of Sub- and Supercritical Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Numerical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Verification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
8-5 Simulation of Hydraulic Jump . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Numerical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Computational Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
 Contents XIII

8-6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279

9 CHANNEL DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283

9-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
9-2 Rigid-Boundary Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Example 9-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
9-3 Most Efficient Hydraulic Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
9-4 Erodible Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Permissible Velocity Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
Example 9-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
Tractive Force Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Example 9-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 296
9-5 Alluvial Channels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Regime Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Example 9-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
9-6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

10 STEADY FLOW SPECIAL TOPICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305

10-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
10-2 Flow in a Channel Connecting Two Reservoirs . . . . . . . . . . . 306
A. Mild bottom slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
B. Steep bottom slope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
10-3 Air Entrainment in High-Velocity Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
10-4 Flow Through Culverts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
10-5 Flow Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Velocity-area method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
Slope-area method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Flumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
10-6 Velocity Measurement* . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Current meter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
Ultrasonic Velocity Profiling (UVP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Surface-Velocity Radar (SVR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
Image-Based Approaches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
10-7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

11 UNSTEADY FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337

11-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
11-2 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
11-3 Occurrence of Unsteady Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
XIV Contents

11-4 Height and Celerity of a Gravity Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

Continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Momentum equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
Example 11-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
11-5 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346

12 GOVERNING EQUATIONS FOR ONE-DIMENSIONAL

FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
12-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
12-2 St. Venant Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
Continuity Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
Momentum Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
12-3 General Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
12-4 Boussinesq Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Continuity equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
Momentum Equation in z-direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
Momentum Equation in x-direction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
12-5 Integral Forms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 359
12-6 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361

13 NUMERICAL METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363

13-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
13-2 Method of characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
13-3 Initial and Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
13-4 Characteristic Grid Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
13-5 Method of Specified Intervals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
13-6 Other Numerical Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
13-7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378

14 FINITE-DIFFERENCE METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381

14-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
14-2 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
Finite-difference approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
14-3 Explicit Finite-Difference Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Unstable scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
Diffusive scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
MacCormack Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
14-4 Implicit Finite-Difference Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Preissmann Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
Beam and Warming scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
Vasiliev Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 398
 Contents XV

14-5 Consistency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399

14-6 Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 401
Example 14-1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405
14-7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411

15 TWO-DIMENSIONAL FLOW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

15-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
15-2 Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
15-3 Numerical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
15-4 MacCormack Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
General formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428
Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429
15-5 Gabutti Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
General formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 431
Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
15-6 Artificial Viscosity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434
15-7 Beam and Warming Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
General formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
Factored schemes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
Implicit split-flux factoring . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
Boundary conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
15-8 Finite-Volume Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 442
Predictor part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
Corrector part . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
15-9 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 445
Partial breach or opening of sluice gates . . . . . . . . . . . . 446
Propagation of a flood wave through channel
contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 448
Comparison with other methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
15-10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

16 LEVEE BREACH MODELING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461

16-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
16-2 Estimation of Breach Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
16-3 Levee Breach due to Overtopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
16-4 Numerical Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
Numerical Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
16-5 Experimental Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Experimental Setup . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
Experimental Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
Experimental Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
XVI Contents

16-6 Model Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474

Steady Flow through a Levee Breach . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Levee Failure due to Overtopping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480
Sensitivity Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
16-7 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 484
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486

17 SEDIMENT TRANSPORT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489

17-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
17-2 Sediment Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
Sediment Size . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
Size Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
17-3 Sand-bed and Gravel-bed Streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
17-4 Threshold of Sediment Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
Critical Shields Stress for Sediment Mixture . . . . . . . . . 496
17-5 Condition for Significant Suspension . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
17-6 Shields Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 497
17-7 The Exner Equation of Bed Sediment Conservation . . . . . . . 499
Exner Equation for Multiple Size Fraction . . . . . . . . . . 500
17-8 Bed-load Transport Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
Bed Load Transport Relations for Poorly Sorted
Sediment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
17-9 Suspended-load Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Entrainment Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
17-10 Resistance Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Separation of Form Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
17-11 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512

18 UNSTEADY FLOW SPECIAL TOPICS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515

18-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
18-2 Rating Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
18-3 Flood Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
18-4 Reservoir Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
18-5 Channel Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
18-6 Kinematic Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
18-7 Diffusion Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
18-8 Muskingum-Cunge Routing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 527
18-9 Aggradation and Degradation of Channel Bottom . . . . . . . . 527
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
Governing equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529
Numerical Scheme . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Aggradation due to sediment overloading . . . . . . . . . . . 533
Knickpoint migration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
 Contents XVII

18-10 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538

Authors Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543

Subject Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553

1
BASIC CONCEPTS

Areal photo of the Mississippi River Basin Model; with Atchafalaya out-
let to the left, Ohio River to the right, Sioux City to top right (Courtesy,
US Army Corps of Engineers)

Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary ma-

terial available at (https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96447-4 1).

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1

M. H. Chaudhry, Open-Channel Flow,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96447-4 1
2 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

1-1 Introduction

Liquids are transported from one location to another using natural or con-
structed conveyance structures. The cross section of these structures may be
open or closed at the top. The structures with closed tops are referred to as
closed conduits and those with the top open are called open channels. For ex-
ample, tunnels and pipes are closed conduits whereas rivers, streams, estuaries
etc. are open channels. The flow in an open channel or in a closed conduit
having a free surface is referred to as free-surface flow or open-channel flow.
The properties and the analyses of these flows are discussed in this book.
In this chapter, commonly used terms are first defined. The classification
of flows is then discussed, and the terminology and the properties of a channel
section are presented. Expressions are then derived for the energy and momen-
tum coefficients to account for nonuniform velocity distribution at a channel
section. The chapter concludes with a discussion of the pressure distribution
in a channel section.

1-2 Definitions

The terms open-channel flow or free-surface flow (Fig. 1-1) are used synony-
mously in this book. The free surface is usually subjected to atmospheric
pressure. Groundwater or subsurface flows are excluded from the present dis-
cussions. If there is no free surface and the conduit is flowing full, then the
flow is called pipe flow, or pressurized flow (Fig. 1-2).

Fig. 1-1 Free-surface flow

In a closed conduit, it is possible to have both free-surface flow and pres-

surized flow at different times. It is also possible to have these flows at a given
time in different reaches of a conduit. For example, the flow in a storm sewer
may be free-surface flow at a certain time. Then, due to large inflows produced
 1-2 Definitions 3

Fig. 1-2 Pipe or pressurized flow

by a sudden storm, the sewer may flow full and pressurize it. Similarly, the
flow in a closed conduit may be free flow in part of the length and pipe flow
in the remaining length. This type of combined free-surface, pressurized flow
usually occurs in a closed conduit when the downstream end of the conduit
is submerged (Fig. 1-3).

Fig. 1-3 Combined free-surface and pressurized flow

The photographs of Fig. 1-4 show unsteady flow in the 1:84-scale hydraulic
model of the tailrace tunnel of Mica Power Plant, located on the Columbia
River in Canada. The flow in the two unlined, horseshoe tailrace tunnels, each
18.3 m high and 14.6 m wide, is normally free-surface flow. However, during
periods of high tailwater levels, the tunnels may be pressurized following major
load changes on the turbogenerators that produce large changes in the inflow
to the tunnels. The transient flow conditions shown in Fig. 1-4 are produced by
increasing or decreasing in 9 seconds the discharge of three turbines on tunnel
no. 2 while the discharge from the three turbines on tunnel no. 1 remains
constant. The discharge increase in Fig. 1-4a is from zero to 850 m3 /s and the
discharge reduction in Fig. 1-4b is from 850 m3 /s to zero. The free-surface and
pressurized flows in a laboratory experimental setup are shown in Fig. 1-5.
The initial steady state flow is from left to right and thus the upstream end
is located on the left-hand side of the photographs.
The height to which liquid rises in a small-diameter piezometer inserted in
a channel or a closed conduit depends upon the pressure at the location of the
piezometer. A line joining the top of the liquid surface in the piezometers is
4 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

Fig. 1-4 Transient flow in the hydraulic model of Mica Tail-

race Tunnel (Courtesy, British Columbia Hydro and Power Authority,
Canada)

called the hydraulic-grade line (Fig. 1-6). In pipe flow, the height of hydraulic-
grade line above a specified datum is called the piezometric head at that
location. In free-surface flow, the hydraulic grade line usually, but not always,
coincides with the free surface (see Section 1-6). If the velocity head, V 2 /(2g),
in which V = mean flow velocity for the channel cross section, and g =
acceleration due to gravity, is added to the top of the hydraulic grade line and
the resulting points are joined by a line, then this line is called the energy-grade
line. This line represents the total head at different sections of a channel.

1-3 Classification of Flows

Free-surface flows may be classified into different types (Fig. 1-7), as discussed
in the following paragraphs.

Steady and Unsteady Flows

If the flow velocity at a given point does not change with respect to time,
then the flow is called steady flow. However, if the velocity at a given location
changes with respect to time, then the flow is called unsteady flow.
Note that this classification is based on the time variation of flow velocity
v at a specified location. Thus, the local acceleration, ∂v/∂t, is zero in steady
 1-3 Classification of Flows 5

Fig. 1-5 Free-surface and pressurized flows (Courtesy, Professor C. S.

Song [1984])

flows. In two- or three-dimensional steady flows, the time variation of all

components of flow velocity is zero.
It is possible in some situations to transform unsteady flow into steady flow
by having coordinates with respect to a moving reference. This simplification is
helpful in the visualization of flow and in the derivation of governing equations.
6 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

Fig. 1-6 Hydraulic- and energy-grade lines

Fig. 1-7 Classification of flows

However, a transformation is possible only if the wave shape does not change
as the wave propagates. For example, the shape of a surge wave propagating
in a smooth channel does not change and consequently the propagation of a
surge wave in an otherwise unsteady flow may be converted into steady flow
by moving the reference coordinates at the absolute surge velocity. This is
equivalent to an observer traveling beside the surge wave so that the surge
wave appears to the observer to be stationary; thus the flow may be considered
as steady. If the wave shape changes as it propagates, then it is not possible
to transform such a wave motion into steady flow. A typical example of such
a situation is the movement of a flood wave in a natural channel, where the
shape of the wave is modified as it propagates in the channel.

Uniform and Nonuniform flows

If the flow velocity at an instant of time does not vary within a given length
of channel, then the flow is called uniform flow. However, if the flow velocity
at a time varies with respect to distance, then the flow is called nonuniform
flow, or varied flow.
This classification is based on the variation of flow velocity with respect
to space at a specified instant of time. Thus, the convective acceleration in
 1-3 Classification of Flows 7

uniform flow is zero. In mathematical terms, the partial derivatives of the

velocity components with respect to x, y, and z direction are all zero. How-
ever, many times this strict restriction is somewhat relaxed by allowing a
nonuniform velocity distribution at a channel section. In other words, a flow
is considered uniform as long as the flow velocity in the direction of flow at
different locations along a channel remains the same.
Depending upon the rate of variation with respect to distance, flows may be
classified as gradually varied flow or rapidly varied flow. As the name implies,
the flow is called gradually varied flow, if the flow depth varies at a slow rate
with respect to distance, whereas the flow is called rapidly varied flow if the
flow depth varies significantly in a short distance.
Note that the steady and unsteady flows are characterized by the variation
of flow variables with respect to time at a given location, whereas uniform
or varied flows are characterized by the variation at a given instant of time
with respect to distance. Thus, in a steady, uniform flow, the total derivative
dV /dt = 0. In one-dimensional flow, this means that ∂v/∂t = 0, and ∂v/∂x =
0. In two- and three-dimensional flow, the partial derivatives of the velocity
components in the other two coordinate directions with respect to time and
space are also zero.

Laminar and Turbulent Flows

The flow is called laminar flow if the liquid particles appear to move in definite
smooth paths and the flow appears to be as a movement of thin layers on top
of each other. In turbulent flow, the liquid particles move in irregular paths
which are not fixed with respect to either time or space.
The relative magnitude of viscous and inertial forces determines whether
the flow is laminar or turbulent: The flow is laminar if the viscous forces
dominate, and the flow is turbulent if the inertial forces dominate.
The ratio of viscous and inertial forces is defined as the Reynolds number,
VL
Re = (1-1)
ν
in which Re = Reynolds number; V = mean flow velocity; L = a characteristic
length; and ν = kinematic viscosity of the liquid. Unlike pipe flow in which
the pipe diameter is usually used for the characteristic length, either hydraulic
depth or hydraulic radius may be used as the characteristic length in free-
surface flows. Hydraulic depth is defined as the flow area divided by the top
water-surface width and the hydraulic radius is defined as the flow area divided
by the wetted perimeter. The transition from laminar to turbulent flow in free-
surface flows occurs for Re of about 600, in which Re is based on the hydraulic
radius as the characteristic length.
In real-life applications, laminar free-surface flows are extremely rare. A
smooth and glassy flow surface may be due to surface velocity being less than
that required to form capillary waves and may not necessarily be due to the
8 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

fact that the flow is laminar. Care should be taken while selecting geometrical
scales for the hydraulic model studies so that the flow depth on the model is
not very small. Very small depth may produce laminar flow on the model even
though the prototype flow to be modeled is turbulent. The results of such a
model are not reliable because energy losses are not simulated properly.

Subcritical, Supercritical, and Critical Flows

A flow is called critical if the flow velocity is equal to the velocity of a gravity
wave having small amplitude. A gravity wave may be produced by a change
in the flow depth. The flow is called subcritical flow, if the flow velocity is less
than the critical velocity, and the flow is called supercritical flow if the flow
velocity is greater than the critical velocity. The Froude number, Fr , is equal
to the ratio of inertial and gravitational forces and, for a rectangular channel,
it is defined as
V
Fr = √ (1-2)
gy
in which y = flow depth. General expressions for Fr are presented in
Section 3-2. Depending upon the value of Fr , flow is classified as subcriti-
cal if Fr < 1; critical if Fr = 1; and supercritical if Fr > 1.

1-4 Terminology
Channels may be natural or artificial. Various names have been used for the
artificial channels: A long channel having mild slope usually excavated in the
ground is called a canal. A channel supported above ground and built of
wood, metal, or concrete is called a flume. A chute is a channel having very
steep bottom slope and almost vertical sides. A tunnel is a channel excavated
through a hill or a mountain. A short channel flowing partly full is referred
to as a culvert.
A channel having the same cross section and bottom slope throughout
is referred to as a prismatic channel, whereas a channel having varying cross
section and/or bottom slope is called a non-prismatic channel. A long channel
may be comprised of several prismatic channels. A cross section taken normal
to the direction of flow (e.g., Section BB in Fig. 1-8) is called a channel section.
The depth of flow, y, at a section is the vertical distance of the lowest point of
the channel section from the free surface. The depth of flow section, d, is the
depth of flow normal to the direction of flow. The stage, Z, is the elevation
or vertical distance of free surface above a specified datum (Fig. 1-8). The
top width, B, is the width of channel section at the free surface. The flow
area, A, is the cross-sectional area of flow normal to the direction of flow. The
wetted perimeter, P is defined as the length of line of intersection of channel
wetted surface with a cross-sectional plane normal to the flow direction. The
hydraulic radius, R, and hydraulic depth, D, are defined as
 1-5 Velocity Distribution 9

A
R=
P
A
D= (1-3)
B
Expressions for A, P , D and R for typical channel cross sections are pre-
sented in Table 1-1.

Fig. 1-8 Definition sketch

1-5 Velocity Distribution

The flow velocity in a channel section may vary from one point to another.
This is due to shear stress at the bottom and at the sides of the channel and
due to the presence of free surface. Fig. 1-9 shows typical velocity distributions
in typical channel sections.
The flow velocity may have components in all three Cartesian coordinate
directions. However, the components of velocity in the vertical and transverse
directions are usually small and may be neglected. Therefore, only the flow
velocity in the direction of flow needs to be considered. This velocity compo-
nent varies with depth from the free surface. A typical variation of velocity
with depth is shown in Fig. 1-10.

Energy Coefficient
As discussed in the previous paragraphs, the flow velocity in a channel section
usually varies from one point to another. Therefore, the mean velocity head in
a channel section, (V 2 /2g)m , is not the same as the velocity head, Vm2 /(2g),
computed by using the mean flow velocity, Vm , in which the subscript m
refers to the mean values. This difference may be taken into consideration by
introducing an energy coefficient, α, which is also referred to as the velocity-
head, or Coriolis coefficient. An expression for this coefficient is derived in the
following paragraphs.
Referring to Fig. 1-11, the mass of liquid flowing through area ΔA per
unit time = ρV ΔA, in which ρ = mass density of the liquid. Since the kinetic
energy of mass m traveling at velocity V is (1/2)mV 2 , we can write
 10

Table 1-1 Properties of typical channel cross sections

1 BASIC CONCEPTS
 1-5 Velocity Distribution 11

Fig. 1-9 Velocity distribution in different channel sections (Af-

ter Chow [1959])

Fig. 1-10 Typical variation of velocity with depth

Kinetic energy transfer through area ΔA per unit time

1
= ρV ΔAV 2
2
1
= ρV 3 ΔA (1-4)
2
Hence,

Kinetic energy transfer through area A per unit time


1
= ρ V 3 dA (1-5)
2
12 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

Fig. 1-11 Definition sketch

It follows from Eq. 1-4 that the kinetic energy transfer through area ΔA
per unit time may be written as (γV ΔA)V 2 /(2g) = weight of liquid passing
through area ΔA per unit time × velocity head, in which γ = specific weight
of the liquid. Now, if Vm is the mean flow velocity for the channel section,
 then
the weight of liquid passing through total area per unit time = γVm dA; and
the velocity head for the channel section = αVm2 /(2g), in which α = velocity-
head coefficient. Therefore, we can write
Kinetic energy transfer through area A per unit time

Vm2
= ραVm dA (1-6)
2
Hence, it follows from Eqs. 1-5 and 1-6 that
 3
V dA
α= 3 (1-7)
Vm dA
Figure 1-12 shows a typical cross section of a natural river comprising of
the main river channel and the flood plain on each side of the main channel.
The flow velocity in the floodplain is usually very low as compared to that in
the main section. In addition, the variation of flow velocity in each subsection
is small. Therefore, each subsection may be assumed to have the same flow
velocity throughout. In such a case, the integration of various terms of Eq. 1-7
may be replaced by summation as follows:
V13 A1 + V23 A2 + V33 A3
α= (1-8)
Vm3 (A1 + A2 + A3 )
in which
V1 A1 + V2 A2 + V3 A3
Vm = (1-9)
A1 + A2 + A3
By substituting Eq. 1-9 into Eq. 1-8 and simplifying, we obtain
(V13 A1 + V23 A2 + V33 A3 )(A1 + A2 + A3 )2
α= (1-10)
(V1 A1 + V2 A2 + V3 A3 )3
Note that Eq. 1-10 is written for a cross section which may be divided into
three subsections each having uniform velocity distribution. For a general case
 1-5 Velocity Distribution 13

in which total area A may be subdivided into N such subareas each having
uniform velocity, an equation similar to Eq. 1-10 may be written as
N 3
 2
i=1 (V
 i Ai ). ( Ai )
α= (1-11)
( Vi Ai )3

Fig. 1-12 Typical river cross section

Momentum Coefficient

Similar to the energy coefficient, a coefficient for the momentum transfer

through a channel section may be introduced to account for nonuniform veloc-
ity distribution. This coefficient, also called Boussinesq coefficient, is denoted
by β. An expression for this coefficient may be obtained as follows.
The mass of liquid passing through area ΔA per unit time = ρV ΔA. There-
fore, the momentum passing through area ΔA per unit time = (ρV ΔA)V =
ρV 2 ΔA. By integrating this expression over the total area, we get

Momentum transfer through area A per unit time


= ρ V 2 dA (1-12)

By introducing the momentum coefficient, β, we may write the momentum

transfer through area A in terms of the mean flow velocity, Vm , for the channel
section, i.e.,

2
Momentum transfer through area A per unit time = βρVm dA (1-13)

Hence, it follows from Eqs. 1-12 and 1-13 that

 2
V dA
β= 2 (1-14)
Vm dA

Theoretical values for α and β can be derived by using the power law and
the logarithmic law for velocity distribution in wide channels. Chen (1992)
derived the theoretical values of α and β using the power law distribution.
14 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

The values of α and β for typical channel sections [Temple, 1986; Watts et al.,
1967; Chow, 1959] are listed in Table 1-2. For turbulent flow in a straight
channel having a rectangular, trapezoidal, or circular cross section, α is usu-
ally less than 1.15 [Henderson, 1966]. Therefore, it may be neglected in the
computations since its value is not precisely known and it is nearly equal to
unity.

Table 1-2 Values of α and β for typical sections∗

Channel section α β

Regular channels 1.10–1.20 1.03–1.07

Natural channels 1.15–1.50 1.05–1.17
Rivers under ice cover 1.20–2.00 1.07–1.33
River valleys, over-flooded 1.50–2.00 1.17–1.33

∗
Compiled from data given by Chow [1959]

Example 1-1

The velocity distribution in a channel section may be approximated by the

equation, V = Vo (y/yo )n , in which V is the flow velocity at depth y; Vo is
the flow velocity at depth yo , and n = a constant. Derive expressions for the
energy and momentum coefficients.

Solution:

Let us consider a unit width of the channel. Then, we can replace area A in
the equations for the energy and momentum coefficients by the flow depth y.
Now, 
V dA
Vm = 
dA
For a unit width, this equation becomes

V dy
Vm = 
dy

By substituting the expression for V into this equation, we obtain

 1-6 Pressure Distribution 15
 yo y n
0
Vo ( yo ) dy
Vm =  yo
0
dy
Vo y n+1 yo 1
= n 
yo n + 1 0 yo
Vo
=
n+1
By substituting V = Vo (y/yo )n , Vm = Vo /(n + 1), and dA = dy into Eq. 1-7,
we obtain  yo 3
V (y/yo)3n dy
α= 0 o y
[Vo /(n + 1)]3 0 o dy
(Vo3 /yo3n )[y 3n+1 /(3n + 1)]
=
yo [Vo /(n + 1)]3
(n + 1)3
=
3n + 1
Substitution of V = Vo (y/yo )n and Vm = Vo /(n + 1) into Eq. 1-14 yields
 yo 2
V (y/yo )2n dy
β= 0 o y
[Vo /(n + 1)]2 0 o dy
(Vo2 yo )/(2n + 1)
=
[Vo /(n + 1)]2 yo
(n + 1)2
=
2n + 1

1-6 Pressure Distribution

The distribution of pressure in a channel section depends upon the flow con-
ditions. Let us discuss a number of possible cases, starting with the simplest
and then proceeding progressively to more complex. In this discussion, we will
consider pressures as above the atmospheric pressure.

Static Conditions

Let us consider a column of liquid having cross-sectional area ΔA, as shown in

Fig. 1-13. The horizontal and vertical components of the resultant force acting
on the liquid column are zero, since the liquid is stationary. If p = pressure
intensity at the bottom of the liquid column, then the force due to pressure
at the bottom of the column acting vertically upwards = pΔA. The weight of
the liquid column acting vertically downwards = ρgyΔA. Since the vertical
component of the resultant force is zero, we can write
16 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

pΔA = ρgyΔA

or
p = ρgy (1-15)
In other words, the pressure intensity is directly proportional to the depth
below the free surface. Since ρ is constant for typical engineering applications,
the relationship between the pressure intensity and depth plots as a straight
line, and the liquid rises to the level of the free surface in a piezometer, as
shown in Fig. 1-13. The linear relationship, based on the assumption that ρ is
constant, is usually valid except at very large depths, where large pressures
result in increased density.

Fig. 1-13 Pressure in stationary fluid

Horizontal, Parallel Flow

Let us now consider the forces acting on a vertical column of liquid flowing
in a horizontal, frictionless channel (Fig. 1-14). Let us assume that there is
no acceleration in the direction of flow and the flow velocity is parallel to the
channel bottom and is uniform over the channel section. Thus the streamlines
are parallel to the channel bottom. Since there is no acceleration in the di-
rection of flow, the component of the resultant force in this direction is zero.
Referring to the free-body diagram shown in Fig. 1-14 and noting that the
vertical component of the resultant force acting on the column of liquid is
zero, we may write
ρgyΔA = pΔA
or
p = ρgy = γy (1-16)
in which γ = ρg = specific weight of the liquid. Note that this pressure
distribution is the same as if the liquid were stationary; it is, therefore, referred
to as the hydrostatic pressure distribution.
 1-6 Pressure Distribution 17

Fig. 1-14 Horizontal, parallel flow

Parallel Flow in Sloping Channels

Let us now consider the flow conditions in a sloping channel such that there is
no acceleration in the flow direction, the flow velocity is uniform at a channel
cross section and is parallel to the channel bottom; i.e., the streamlines are
parallel to the channel bottom. Figure 1-15 shows the free-body diagram of a
column of liquid normal to the channel bottom. The cross-sectional area of the
column is ΔA. If θ = slope of the channel bottom, then the component of the
weight of column acting along the column is ρgdΔA cos θ and the force acting
at the bottom of the column is pΔA. There is no acceleration in a direction
along the column length, since the flow velocity is parallel to the channel
bottom. Hence, we can write pΔA = ρgdΔA cos θ, or p = ρgd cos θ = γd cos θ.
By substituting d = y cos θ into this equation (y = flow depth measured
vertically, as shown in Fig. 1-15), we obtain

p = γy cos2 θ (1-17)

Note that, in this case, the pressure distribution is not hydrostatic in spite

Fig. 1-15 Parallel flow in a sloping channel

of the fact that we have parallel flow with no acceleration in the direction of
flow. However, if the slope of the channel bottom is small, then cos θ  1 and
d  y. Hence,
18 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

p  ρgd  ρgy (1-18)

In several derivations in the subsequent chapters, we assume that the slope
of the channel bottom is small. With this assumption, the pressure distribution
may be assumed to be hydrostatic if the streamlines are almost parallel and
straight, and the flow depths measured vertically or measured normal to the
channel bottom are approximately the same.

Curvilinear Flow

In the previous three cases, the streamlines were straight and parallel to the
channel bottom. However, in several real-life situations, the streamlines have
pronounced curvature. To determine the pressure distribution in these flows,
let us consider the forces acting in the vertical direction on a column of liquid
with cross-sectional area ΔA, as shown in Fig. 1-16.

Fig. 1-16 Curvilinear flow

Mass of the liquid column = ρys ΔA (1-19)

If r = radius of curvature of the streamline and V is the flow velocity at the

point under consideration, then

V2
Centrifugal acceleration = (1-20)
r
and
V2
Centrifugal force = ρys ΔA (1-21)
r
Dividing the centrifugal force by the area of the column and converting the
pressure to pressure head, we obtain the following expression for the pres-
sure head, ya , acting at the bottom of the liquid column due to centrifugal
acceleration
 1-7 Reynolds Transport Theorem 19

1 V2
ya = ys (1-22)
g r
The pressure due to centrifugal force is in the same direction as the weight
of column if the curvature is concave, as shown in Fig. 1-16a, and it is in
a direction opposite to the weight if the curvature is convex (Fig. 1-16b).
Therefore, the total pressure head acting at the bottom of the column is an
algebraic sum of the pressure due to centrifugal action and the weight of the
liquid column, i.e.,

1V2
Total pressure head = ys (1 ± ) (1-23)
g r
A positive sign is used if the streamline is concave, and a negative sign is used
if the streamline is convex. Note that the first term in Eq. 1-23 is the pressure
head due to static conditions while the second term is the pressure head due
to centrifugal action. Thus, the liquid in a piezometer inserted into the flow
rises above the water surface, as shown in Fig. 1-16a. In other words, pressure
increases due to centrifugal action in concave flows and decreases in convex
flows (Fig. 1-16b).
Boussinesq derived an equation for flows with small water surface curva-
tures. Detailed derivations are presented in Subramanya [1991] and Jaeger
[1957].

1-7 Reynolds Transport Theorem

The Reynolds transport theorem relates the flow variables for a specified fluid
mass to that of a specified flow region. We will utilize it in later chapters to
derive the governing equations for steady and unsteady flow conditions. To
simplify the presentation of its application, we include a brief description in
this section; for details, see Roberson and Crowe [1997].
We will call a specified fluid mass the system and a specified region, the
control volume. The boundaries of a system separate it from its surroundings
and the boundaries of a control volume are referred to as the control surface.
The three well-known conservation laws of mass, momentum, and energy de-
scribe the interaction between a system and its surroundings. However, in
hydraulic engineering, we are usually interested in the flow in a region as
compared to following the motion of a fluid particle or the motion of a fluid
mass. The Reynolds transport theorem relates the flow variables in a control
volume to those of a system.
Let the extensive property of a system be B and the corresponding intensive
property be β. The intensive property of a system is defined as the amount of
B per unit mass, m, i.e.,
ΔB
β = lim (1-24)
Δm→0 Δm
20 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

Thus, the total amount of B in a control volume


Bcv = βρdV (1-25)
cv

in which ρ = mass density and dV = differential volume of the fluid, and the
integration is over the control volume.
We will consider mainly one-dimensional flows in this book. The control
volume will be fixed in space and will not change its shape with respect to
time, i.e., it will not stretch or contract. For such a control volume for one-
dimensional flow, the following equation relates the system properties to those
in the control volume:

dBsys d
= βρdV + (βρAV )out − (βρAV )in (1-26)
dt dt cv
in which the subscripts in and out refer to the quantities for the inflow and
outflow from the control volume and V = flow velocity. The system is assumed
to occupy the entire control volume, i.e., the system boundaries coincide with
the control surface.
Let us now discuss the application of this equation to a control volume.
As an example, the time rate of change of momentum of a system is equal
to the sum of the forces exerted on the system by its surroundings (Newton’s
second law of motion). To use this equation to describe the conservation of
momentum of the water of mass of fluid, m, in a control volume, the extensive
property B is the momentum of fluid = mV and the corresponding intensive
property, β = limΔm→0 V (Δm/Δm) = V . To describe the conservation of
mass, B is the mass of fluid and the corresponding intensive property β =
limΔm→0 (Δm/Δm) = 1.

1-8 Hydraulic Models

For open-channel flow applications or for the design of hydraulic structures,
scale models (e.g., on a 1:20 scale model, 1 m on the model represents 20 m
on the prototype) have been extensively used for over 100 years. This is ne-
cessitated due to the complexity of flow for which analytical or closed form
solutions are not available. These models have geometrical, kinematic and dy-
namic similarity to the prototype. Geometrical similarity is obtained if all the
solid boundaries on the prototype and on the model are similar. Kinematic
similarity requires similar flow patterns, i.e., ratio of the corresponding flow
velocities as well as the directions on the prototype and on the model are
the same. For dynamic similarity, theoretically all corresponding similitude
relationships should be the same on the model and on the prototype. This is
almost impossible. Therefore, typically only one dominant similitude relation-
ship is satisfied and the other similitude relationships are ignored, as discussed
in the following paragraphs.
 1-8 Hydraulic Models 21

For the model results to be valid, it is necessary that the flow on the model
is turbulent if it is turbulent on the prototype, which is usually the case in
most of practical problems. Depending on the model scale, the flow depth on
the model might be too small to produce turbulent flow. Therefore, the flow
depth on the model should be deep enough to produce turbulent flows on
the model if the prototype has turbulent flow. For this purpose, a minimum
flow depth of 2 to 3 cm is required on the model. Many times, to meet this
requirement, the vertical scale is selected that is different from the horizontal
scale. These models on which vertical and horizontal scales are different are
called distorted scale models. Similarly, sometimes a different fluid, such as air,
may be used on the model instead of water to satisfy similitude relationship.
For dynamic similarity, the dominant similitude numbers on the model and
on the prototype should be same. In open-channel flows, there is a free-surface
and thus gravity affects the flow and Froude similitude relationship is used to
predict prototype behavior from the model results. Let us indicate quantities
for the prototype by subscript “p” and for the model, by subscript “m”. For
a model scale of Lr = Lp /Lm , the scale ratios for the other quantities for
Froude similitude are:
1/2
Time, Tr : Lr
1/2
Velocity, Vr : Lr
Discharge, Qr : Lr2.5
Force, Fr : ρr L3r
Pressure, pr : ρr Lr
Mass, Mr : ρr L3r
Dimensional analysis shows that there are four different dimensionless
numbers for different types of flow. Depending upon the dominant force in
a particular flow, one of these numbers is dominant and may be used to
predict corresponding prototype quantities from the measurements on the
model. For example, flows having a free surface, gravitational force is dom-
inant and Froude similitude is employed. If viscous forces are predominant,
then Reynolds similitude is used and for surface tension or compressibility,
Weber and Cauchy similitude are used. Expressions for these relationships
are:
Froude Number, Fr = √V
gL
Reynolds number, Re = ρLV
ν
3
Weber number, W e = V σρL
2
Cauchy number, Ca = VEcρ
In the above expressions, L is significant length (e.g., diameter for circular
pipes, hydraulic radius, R for other cross sections), σ is surface tension, ρ
is mass density of the fluid, and Ec is bulk modulus of elasticity. Almost
universally water is used in the model studies of water resource projects.
22 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

Thus ρr = 1. However, if air is used on the model, then ρr is the ratio of the
mass density of water to that of air.
Sometimes more than one similitude relationship may be important. For
example, to study the formation of vortices at the power and pump intakes,
viscous force play a part. To handle this on Froude similitude models, flow
velocity equal to that on the prototype have been used during model tests. It
was found that a small disturbance on the model could be taken as possibility
of formation of small vortices on the prototype and small vortices on the
model, formation of air-entraining vortices on the prototype. However, some
caution is in order because using significantly higher velocities than required
by the Froude relationship may result in different flow patterns.
The chapter opener photograph shows an areal view of the US Army
Corps of Engineers’ Mississippi River Basin Model. The entire Mississippi
River basin was reproduced on the model (horizontal scale 1:2000 and ver-
tical scale 1:100) and operated according to Froude similitude. Such models
on which vertical scale is larger to reduce surface tension and to reproduce
turbulence better are called distorted scale models. The model construction
started in 1943 and continued in phases until 1966. The model covered an
area of 200 acres. Tests on individual problems were conducted from 1949
through 1973 and the historic floods of 1937, 1943, 1945 and 1952 as well as
hypothetical floods were reproduced [Wikipedia, 2021].
Figures 1-17, 1-18, 1-19, and 1-20 show the photographs of a number of
scale-hydraulic models.

Fig. 1-17 1:50 scale model of the Shawinigan hydroelectric complex on

the Saint-Maurice River, Quebec, two power plants and two spillways
maximum flow 8065 m3 /s (Courtesy, LaSalle/NHC, PQ, Canada)
 1-9 Summary 23

Fig. 1-18 Scale Model of Kohala Project, 58.5-m high concrete gravity
dam and spillway, located on the Jhelum River, Pakistan; mean daily
discharge 312 m3 /s (Courtesy, Eric J Lesleighter)

1-9 Summary

In this chapter, commonly used terms were defined, classification of flows us-
ing several different criteria was outlined, and the properties of a channel
section were presented. The distribution of velocity and pressure in a channel
section was discussed and two coefficients were introduced to account for the
nonuniform velocity distribution. A brief description of the Reynolds trans-
port theorem was presented to facilitate its application in later chapters and
hydraulic models were discussed.

Problems

1-1 In the following situations, is the flow steady or unsteady?

i. Flow in a storm sewer during a large storm;
24 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

Fig. 1-19 Geometric scale model of morning glory spillway, Waller

Creek Tunnel Project. Prototype flows evaluated up to 312 m3 /s;
Light reflecting on the distorted water surface as flow passes through
the bar racks and approaches the spillway (Courtesy, Alden Research
Laboratory, Holden Mass)

ii. Flow in a canal following closing of control gates at the downstream end;
iii. Flow in a canal with fully open control gates;
iv. Flow in an estuary during a tide;
v. Flow downstream of breached dam.

1-2 Mark true or false:

i. Flow in a partially full tunnel is open-channel flow;
ii. Hydraulic jump is formed when supercritical flow changes to subcritical
flow.

1-3 In the following situations, is the flow uniform or nonuniform?

i. Flow in a channel contraction or expansion;
ii. Flow at a channel entrance;
iii. Flow in the vicinity of a bridge pier;
iv. Flow at the end of a long prismatic channel;
v. Flow downstream of a channel contraction.
 1-9 Summary 25

Fig. 1-20 1:55 scale model of Low-Sill Control Structure, located on the
Mississippi River, with eleven 13.4-m wide sluice gates, design flow
9911 m3 /s (Courtesy, ERDC, US Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg,
MS)

1-4 Derive expressions for the flow area, A, wetted perimeter, P , hydraulic ra-
dius, R, top-water surface width, B, and hydraulic depth, D, for the following
channel cross sections:
i. Rectangular (bottom width =Bo );
ii. Trapezoidal (bottom width = Bo , side slopes = s H : 1 V);
iii. Triangular (side slopes = s H : 1 V);
iv. Partially-full circular (diameter = D);
v. Standard horseshoe (Fig. 1-21).

Fig. 1-21 Horseshoe section

26 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

1-5 The discharge in a channel is proportional to AR2/3 if the flow is uniform.

For a circular conduit having an inside diameter D, prove that the discharge
is maximum when the flow depth is 0.94D.

1-6 Compute (R/Rf )2/3 and AR2/3 /(AR2/3 )f for different values of y/D for
a circular conduit flowing partially full, in which y = flow depth; D = conduit
diameter; and the subscript ‘f’ refers to the values for the full section. At what
values of ratio y/D do the curves have maximum values?

1-7 Determine the energy and momentum coefficients for the velocity distri-
bution, V = 5.75Vo log(30y/k), in which Vo = flow velocity at the free surface;
yo = flow depth, and k = height of surface roughness. Assume the channel is
very wide and rectangular.

1-8 The flow velocities measured at different flow depths in a wide rectangular
flume are listed in Table 1-3. Write a computer program to determine the
values of α and β. Use Simpson’s rule for the numerical integration.

Table 1-3 Flow velocities at different depths

y (m) 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2

V (m/s) 0.0 3.87 4.27 4.53 4.72 4.87 5.0

1-9 At a bridge crossing, the mean flow velocities (in m/s) were measured at
the midpoints of different subareas, as shown in Fig. 1-22. Compute the values
of α and β for the cross section.

Fig. 1-22 Velocities at bridge crossing

 1-9 Summary 27

1-10 Write a computer program to compute α and β for the flow in a channel
having a general cross section. By using this program, compute α and β for
the velocity distribution shown in Fig. 1-23.

Fig. 1-23 Dimensionless isovels (After Knight and Hamed [1984])

1-11 Fig. 1-24 shows the velocity distribution measured on the scale model of
a canal. By using the computer program of Problem 1-7, compute the energy
and momentum coefficients.

Fig. 1-24 Velocity distribution (After Babb and Amorocho [1965])

1-12 While computing the bending moment and the shear force acting on the
side walls of the spillway chute of Fig. 1-25, a structural engineer assumed
that the water pressure varies linearly from zero at the free surface to ρgy at
the invert of the chute, in which y= flow depth measured vertically. What are
his computed values for the bending moment and the shear force at the invert
level? Are the computed results correct? If not, compute the percentage error.

1-13 A spillway flip bucket has a radius of 20 m (Fig. 1-26). If the flow velocity
at section BB is 20 m/s and the flow depth is 5 m, compute the pressure
intensity at point C.
28 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

Fig. 1-25 Spillway chute

Fig. 1-26 Flip bucket

1-14 In a partially full channel having a triangular cross section (Fig. 1-27),
the rate of discharge Q = kAR2/3 , in which k = a constant; A = flow area,
and R = hydraulic radius. Determine the depth at which the discharge
√ is
maximum. For√the triangular channel section shown, A = [B − (h/ 3)]h, and
P = B + (4h/ 3).

Fig. 1-27 Triangular channel cross section

1-15 In the following situations, is the flow uniform or nonuniform?

i. Flow in a channel contraction or expansion;
 1-9 Summary 29

ii. Flow at a channel entrance;

iii. Flow in the vicinity of a bridge pier;
iv. Flow at the end of a long prismatic channel.

1-16 In the following situations, is the flow steady or unsteady?

i. Flow in a storm sewer during a large storm;
ii. Flow in a power canal following shutting down of turbines;
iii. Flow in a power canal when the turbines have been producing constant
power;
iv. Flow in an estuary during a tide.

1-17 In the following cases, is the flow laminar or turbulent?

i. Flow in a wide rectangular channel at a flow velocity of 1 m/s at 1 m flow
depth;
ii. Flow in a wide rectangular channel at a flow velocity of 0.1 m/s at 2 mm
flow depth.

1-18 Is it possible to have uniform flow in a frictionless sloping channel? Give

reasons for your answer.

1-19 Is it possible to have uniform flow in a horizontal channel? Justify your

answer.

1-20 If the angle between the flow surface and horizontal axis is φ and the
angle between the channel bottom and horizontal is φ, prove that the pressure
intensity at the channel bottom is
1
p= ρgy
1 + tan θ tan φ
in which y = flow depth measured vertically.

1-21 For velocity distribution, V = 5.75 log(30y/k), prove that α = 1 + 3r2 −

2r3 and β = 1 + r2 , in which, r = Vmax /V̄ − 1; V̄ = mean velocity; and
Vmax = maximum velocity.

1-22 Show that the bending moment on the side walls of a steep channel with
a bottom slope θ for a flow depth of y is 16 γy 3 cos4 θ. Derive an expression for
the shear force.
30 1 BASIC CONCEPTS

References

Babb, A. F. and Amorocho, J., 1965, “Flow Conveyance Efficiency of Tran-

sitions and Check Structures in a Trapezoidal Channel,” Dept. of Irrigation,
University of California, Davis.
Chen, C.L., 1992, “Momentum and Energy Coefficients Based on Power-Law
Velocity Profile.” Jour, Hydraulic Engineering, Amer. Soc. of Civil Engrs.,
vol. 118, no. 11, 1571-1584.
Chow, V. T., 1959, Open-Channel Hydraulics, McGraw-Hill Book Co., New
York, NY.
Henderson, F. M., 1966, Open Channel Flow, MacMillan Publishing Co, New
York, NY.
Jaeger, C., 1957, Engineering Fluid Mechanics, Blackie and Son, London.
Knight, D. W., and Hamed, M. E., 1984, “Boundary Shear in Symmetrical
Compound Channels,” Jour. Hydraulic Engineering, Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs.,
Oct.
Roberson, J.A. and Crowe, C.T. 1997, Engineering fluid mechanics, 6th ed.,
John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY.
Song, C. C. S., 1984, “Modeling of Mixed-Transient Flows,” Proc., Southeast-
ern Conference on Theoretical and Applied Mechanics, SECTAM XII, vol. I,
May, pp. 431-435.
Subramanya, K., 1991, Flow in Open Channels, Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing
Co. Ltd., New Delhi, India.
Temple, D. M., 1986, “Velocity Distribution Coefficients for Grass-lined Chan-
nels,” Jour. of Hydraulic Engineering, Amer. Soc. Civil Engrs., vol. 112, no.
3, pp. 193-205.
Watts, F. J., Simons, D. B., and Richardson, E. V., 1967, “Variation of α and
β values in Lined Open Channels,” Jour., Hydraulics Div., Amer. Soc. Civil
Engrs., vol 93, HY6, pp. 217-234 (see also Discussions: vol. 94, 1968, HY3, pp.
834-837; HY6, pp. 1560-1564; and vol. 95, 1969, HY3, p. 1059)
Wikipedia, 2021, “Mississippi River Basin Model,” Last modified August 29,
2021. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mississippi River Basin Model
2
STEADY FLOW CONSERVATION LAWS

Water drops through a train of 16 lakes and 92 waterfalls, Plitvice

Lakes, Croatia (Courtesy, Prof. Gary Parker)

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 31

M. H. Chaudhry, Open-Channel Flow,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96447-4 2
32 2 STEADY FLOW CONSERVATION LAWS

2-1 Introduction

Three conservation laws – conservation of mass, conservation of momentum,

and conservation of energy– describe steady, free-surface flows. In this chap-
ter, equations describing these laws for steady flows are derived and their
application for the analysis of these flows is demonstrated.
For simplicity, only one-dimensional, steady flows are considered in this
chapter. The governing equations are derived first using the basic principles of
mechanics. Then it is shown that the same equations may be derived by apply-
ing the Reynolds Transport Theorem.∗ The flow velocity in a one-dimensional
flow is only in the direction of flow and the components of the flow velocity in
the transverse or lateral direction and in the vertical direction are both zero.
In most flows, the lateral and vertical flow velocities are negligible. Therefore
assuming such flows as one-dimensional is a valid assumption that simplifies
the analysis considerably. As discussed in Chapter 1, the flow velocity may
vary with the flow depth at a channel cross section. This variation in the flow
velocity may be taken into consideration by using the mean flow velocity at
the cross section. Such simulation models are referred to as one-dimensional,
depth-averaged flow models. For example, the widely used HEC-2 computer
model developed by the US Army Corps of Engineers in the 1960s is such a
model.

2-2 Conservation of Mass

Civil engineers deal primarily with the flow of incompressible liquids, usually
water, i.e., the mass density of the liquid is constant. Therefore, the law of
conservation of mass between two channel cross sections with no lateral inflows
or outflows implies conservation of the volume between the two sections and
thus the volumetric flow rates at these sections are equal.
Let us consider the flow of an incompressible liquid in a channel, as shown
in Fig. 2-1, with no inflow or outflow across the channel boundaries. Let the
flow be steady. Let us denote the instantaneous flow velocity at a point normal
to the flow area A by v, the flow depth by y, the mass density by ρ, top
water-surface width by B, and use subscripts 1 and 2 to designate quantities
for sections 1 and 2 respectively. Then, we may write

Rate of mass inflow through area dA1 at section 1 = ρ1 v1 dA1 (2-1)

Rate of mass outflow through area dA2 at section 2 = ρ2 v2 dA2 (2-2)

According to the law of conservation of mass, the rate of mass inflow
at section 1 must be equal to the rate of mass outflow at section 2, since
∗
The derivation of the governing equations for unsteady flows using Reynolds
Transport Theorem is presented in Chapter 11.
 2-3 Conservation of Momentum 33

Fig. 2-1 Notation for the continuity equation

the volume of liquid stored in the channel between sections 1 and 2 remains
unchanged, i.e.,  
ρ1 v1 dA1 = ρ2 v2 dA2 (2-3)

Since the liquid is assumed incompressible, ρ1 = ρ2 . Therefore,

 
v1 dA1 = v2 dA2 (2-4)

If the flow velocity is assumed uniform at each section, then Eq. 2-4 may be
written as  
V1 dA1 = V2 dA2 (2-5)
or
V1 A1 = V2 A2 (2-6)
Note that Eq. 2-6 is valid for nonuniform velocity distribution provided V1
and V2 are the mean flow velocities at sections 1 and 2, respectively. In terms
of volumetric flow rate, Q, this equation becomes

Q1 = Q2 (2-7)

In hydraulic engineering, this equation is usually referred to as the conti-

nuity equation.
We may derive this equation by applying the Reynolds Transport Theorem
to the control volume between the channel bottom and the top water surface,
and between cross sections 1 and 2 (Fig. 2-1). Since the flow is assumed steady,
the first term on the right-hand side of Eq. 1-26 is zero. The extensive property,
B, is the mass of water in the control volume and the corresponding intensive
property, β = limΔm→0 (Δm/Δm) = 1. Hence, Eqs. 2-6 and 2-7 follow from
Eq. 1-26.

2-3 Conservation of Momentum

To derive an equation describing the conservation of momentum, let us con-
sider the steady flow of an incompressible liquid in a channel, as shown in
34 2 STEADY FLOW CONSERVATION LAWS

Fig. 2-2. The channel is prismatic and there is no lateral inflow or outflow.
Referring to this figure and using subscripts 1 and 2 to designate quantities
for section 1 and 2
γ
Time rate of mass inflow at section 1 = Q (2-8)
g
in which γ = specific weight of liquid. If V1 is the mean flow velocity at section
1, then
γ
Time rate of momentum inflow at section 1 = β1 QV1 (2-9)
g
in which β1 = momentum or Boussinesq coefficient introduced to account for
the nonuniform velocity distribution. Similarly, we can write for section 2 that
γ
Time rate of momentum outflow = β2 QV2 (2-10)
g
Hence, it follows from Eqs. 2-9 and 2-10 that for the liquid volume between
sections 1 and 2
γ
Time rate of increase of momentum = Q(β2 V2 − β1 V1 ) (2-11)
g

Fig. 2-2 Notation for the momentum equation

The following forces are acting on the volume of liquid between sections 1
and 2.
Pressure force at section 1, P1 = γ z̄1 A1 (2-12)
Pressure force at section 2, P2 = γ z̄2 A2 (2-13)
in which z̄ = depth of the centroid of flow area A.

Component of the weight of liquid between sections 1 and 2 = W sin θ

(2-14)
in which W = weight of the volume of liquid between sections 1 and 2; and
θ = slope of the channel bottom. Note that the weight component is acting in
the downstream direction. Let us neglect the shear stress at the free surface
between air and liquid and let us designate the external force due to shearing
 Another Random Document on
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 "Leave my house, Miss Valence! No, no, my good friend, that
will never do, not to be thought of, and us so used to you and all,
and Tom, and the blackbird, and the new squirrel! A likely story, my
good friend, and with your eyelashes coming! And do you know who
would come instead of you?"
"Of course not, Mrs. Shelfer."
"Why a nasty stinking hussy, that would steal the feathers out of
my best bed again, the same as they did before. My very best bed,
Miss Idols, as dear Miss Minto left me by her will, not a better bed in
London, unless it's the Queen's, and so I used to tell her when I
helped to shake it up. My mouth watered over it so, that she said
one day, and the knife-boy heard her on the stairs, 'Patty, you've
been a good girl to me, and you deserves it, and you shall have it,
when I am tucked up for good and all.' And so I did, very
honourable, and all above board. Yes, yes; I had a commercial gent
one time, a wonderful heavy man to be sure, and he stayed with me
three year for the sake of that same bed. And he knew what beds
was, and no mistake. It was bootiful to see when he was a getting
up. It began to rise up, up, the same as Tom's back, when he see
your dog, Miss Idols."
"Come, Mrs. Shelfer, I fear we can hardly wait."
"'Twas like dough put afore the fire, Miss. There's no such
Dantzic now. You couldn't put your fist into one side of it, but out it
would come the other. Oh Lor, I could cry; that nasty sly minx, she
was softer than parsnips, you'd say, and one leg more than the
other. I couldn't think why it was she would always make her own
bed. 'Thank you, Mrs. Shelfer'--with her lips sucked in like a button-
hole--'thank you, you are too kind. It doesn't at all fatigue me, and
my doctor pronounces the exercise good for my chest and arms.'
Thank God, she got some exercise good for her legs as well. Six
months on the treadmill. Charley got me an order, and it did my
heart good to see her. But my twenty pounds of best feathers never
came back again, and that wasn't the worst of it neither."
"Oh dear no," says Idols, "the worst of it was the sin, Mrs.
Shelfer."
"The worst of it was that she stuffed it with sawdust, and
oakum, and jovanna, I do believe, by the smell of it."
"What do you mean, Mrs. Shelfer?"
"Lor, Miss Valence, don't you know jovanna that the kingfishers
lays on the top of the sea, and the gardeners make water with it?"
"And what did she do with your feathers?"
"Sneaked them out of the house in the crown of her bonnet,
and sold them at eightpence a pound, and they worth three and
sixpence, every flue of them. But the rag and bottleman got two
months, thank God for it. Ah, it will never be a bed again under
5*l.* at least."
"Is it the one I sleep on, Mrs. Shelfer?"
"Yes, my good friend, the very same."
"And you have put me to sleep on guano! Well, I thought it
smelt very odd."
"No, no, my good friend, wait a bit. We got most of that out
again, and gave it to our geraniums. She stole it out of a sack as
Charley kept in the washhouse. There was feathers in it. That put it
into her head, I suppose. But as for your going, Miss Valence, that
will never do. Never, never. Will it now, Miss Idols? And to see her
dress, to be sure, that baggage! Why, my best tarlatan, as dear Miss
Minto give me to be married in, wasn't good enough for her to
sweep the stairs in. Sweep the stairs--yes, yes, she did sweep the
stairs when I see her last; and she had afore, I know; she was so
clever at it; and that was why one leg was so much more than the
other."
"Mrs. Shelfer, do you expect us to listen to you all night?"
"True, my good friend, quite true. But when I thinks of my
feathers, something comes over me, I must out with my troubles, or
burst. But you musn't go, Miss Valence. That will never do, never;
ask Miss Idols now." And she turned to Isola, who was quite ready
to be turned to.
"Of course it won't, Mrs. Shelfer. You are quite right, my good
friend. I won't hear of it for a moment. Why Mr. Shelfer was drunk. I
know it by the way he held his pipe. Quite 'drunk and incapable,' you
know. And he will be so sorry, and he'll never do it again. And he did
not mean to be drunk at all, but the frost was very hard, and the
cold got into his head. I am sure it would into mine, if I had stayed
much longer; and he didn't understand brandy-balls, as we do at
College--you could not expect it, you know."
The pure good faith of this last was too much for me. I laughed
outright, having no husband concerned in it. As for the dry little
woman, she actually cried. I had never seen a tear in her quick, shy
eyes before, though the feather-bed nearly brought them, and so
did the death of the elder Sandy, the squirrel. She turned away. She
was always ashamed of emotion.
"Bless your innocent heart, Miss Idols, if you don't marry a king!
Not one of us is good enough to tie your shoes as you talked of, you
are that simple and good of heart."
 Is there any goodness more touching to a veteran than a soft
young nature's disbelief in evil? But for bitter experience, I might
have been sweet as Isola. Thank God, that in spite of all vinegar, the
ailment is still infectious. Isola could not make it all out.
"To-morrow morning, Miss Valence," began Mrs. Shelfer again,
"to-morrow morning, after I have wigged him well all night, and
then given him a good breakfast, he'll come and beg your pardon
like a child, and be ashamed to look any higher than your flounces;
and I know you'll forgive him."
"Mrs. Shelfer, I have forgiven him long ago. I cannot bear
enmity against such people"--these last three words had better been
away--"for such little wrongs. And I owe you a great deal for all your
kindness to me. The only question is, whether self-respect and
prudence allow me to stay here. I will leave the decision to Miss
Isola. Young as she is, and innocent and confiding, she cannot be
wrong on a question of delicacy. As for prudence, she knows more of
London than I do."
Hereon I sat down with a womanly air. But I could hardly help
laughing when the senior sophist jumped up, proud to deliver
judgment. To look taller, she shook her flounces down, threw back
her plump white shoulders--her bonnet and cloak were off--drew her
rich flowing hair down the pearly curve of her ears and, scarcely
satisfied yet, thought of mounting a stool, then took her foot off the
too convictive bema. After all these anabolisms, she began with
much solemnity. She was thinking of the College, and her father in
the rostrum.
"Miss Valence and Mrs. Shelfer, since you have honoured my
weak judgment by appointing me umpire, and as I am led to believe
without any right of appeal, I will do my utmost to be discreet and
impartial. In the first place I award that Miss Valence remain in this
house, forget and forgive her wrongs. In the second place I
recommend (in such a matter I will not presume to command) that
till Mr. Shelfer has made a humble apology and promised faithfully
never to be intoxicated again, however cold the weather is, Mrs.
Shelfer shall not permit him to have a single kiss, nor a single bit of
hot dinner. Now I have delivered my decree."
"Lor, Miss Idols, you are too soft for the Old Bailey. He never
kiss me, unless it is when he knows I have got some money. But he
do like a good hot dinner. Right enough there, my good friend."
So this knotty point was settled; and Giudice, who was very loth
to leave me, escorted Miss Idols home, Before going, he made
another solemn deposit of his great jowl in my hand, and looked at
me with an air so tutelary and encouraging, that I could not help
laughing; at which he felt hurt, but condoned it. Isola told me that
when he was put in charge of her, he felt the responsibility so
strongly that he would not stir from her side, not even to speak to
the most colloquially gifted dog; though at other times he would stay
gossiping near a lamp-post for five minutes together. One evening
when he was thus commissioned, a rude fellow pushed between
them, and said something to Isola. Giudice had him down in an
instant, and stood over him, like a tawny thundercloud, with
growlings so fearful and such flashing eyes, that two policemen felt
it wiser not to act as conductors. Idols herself was obliged, at the
entreaty of her prostrate foe, to coax the great dog off; but when
the ungrateful man got up, he insisted on giving Giudice into charge,
and having him dragged to the Station. "Very good, Sir," said the
policeman, "we'll enter the charge when you bring him there; let him
go, Miss, for the Gent to collar him." The "Gent" was away in no
time, and Giudice and his mistress walked off amid loud hurrahs
from all the boys of the neighbourhood.
Conrad called with his sister the day after Mr. Shelfer's ducking,
to reassure himself as to my nerves, which were never better. He
looked over some of my drawings, and without seeming to give, but
rather to seek information, afforded me many a hint, which I
afterwards found most useful. I now learned what his profession
was; and it gave me pleasure to find that he was not, as I had
feared, a mere lounger upon town. Instead of that, he was working
very hard, being (as he told me) nothing more or less than a
journeyman sculptor. Though, as himself admitted, by no means a
novice, he was going through the regular course of study and hand-
labour under an eminent artist. But Isola told me, and no doubt it
was true, that he could beat his master out and out, and that for any
choice design, where original power and taste were needed, they
always came to him. Of late the frosts had lightened his tasks; for
warm the room as they would, the weather always affected the
material; and they feared to attempt the more delicate parts of the
work during the rigours of winter. So when the thaw came, he must
lose the pleasure of seeing me for a while, unless dear Isola wished
to be escorted home on a Sunday; if, indeed, I allowed her to come
on that day. Why, that was the very day when I could best indulge in
a walk with my gentle friend, after going to church; and I was sure
her society did me more good than the sermons. On her part, Isola
found that the services always made her so nervous (her nerves
were as good as mine), and that she did not much like walking
about with a big dog on Sundays, and Cora was always cross all the
day after mass, so Conrad must promise upon his honour always to
come for her, rain, hail, or shine, on a Sunday. This he promised so
readily, that, for a moment, I fancied it had all been preconcerted.
Then I despised myself for the suspicion. The trick would have been
not out of the compass of Isola, but very unworthy of Conrad.

CHAPTER X.

Soon as ever my sight was fully restored, and I had Dr. Frank's
permission, I took to my drawing again, and worked at it till my eyes
ached. This was the symptom upon which I had promised
immediately to leave off. Then out I would rush, towards dusk, and
away into the great square, full of the pure air of heaven, round by
the church at the top, and six times round it till my breath was short.
The senior sophist reminds me that round a square is impossible.
After squaring the circle, extract the square root, dear Idols, by the
binomial theorem. You do learn so much at college: but I write
simple and often foolish English. Never mind; I would rather write
bad English, than the best French ever written. One is the tongue of
power and multitude: the other the language of nicety and
demarcation. Which of the two is the more expansive, even a
woman may guess.
High time it was for me to recruit my exchequer. Dr. Franks had
charged me far less than I even dared to hope. How I trembled
when I opened the envelope! What quick terror is half so bad as the
slow fear of gathering debt? I was accustomed to medical charges of
the time when I was an heiress: but his appeared to me now to be
even below reason. The sum could hardly have paid him for his
numerous walks to and fro. Then a wretched idea shot through me:
had he charged me so little, because he knew I was poor? I took
Mrs. Shelfer into my confidence; she was likely to know what the
London scale should be. The little thing soon reassured me: it was
quite enough, she declared; if she were in my place, she would
demand a discount for ready money!
"Oh you dreadfully mean little woman! I should lose my sight,
and deserve it, if I did."
However, in spite of all this, money was scarce and scarcer
every day, and none of my grand revenues would fall due for ever so
long. So another visit must be paid to Mr. Oxgall. Isola insisted on
coming with me; to my surprise I found that, with all her soft
simplicity she had much more idea of making a market than I had.
The reason probably was that she had much less pride. No pocket
would hold mine, when a tradesman attempted any familiarity. And
whoso stands on a pedestal to sell, is like to find the buyer's arm too
short.
Whether it were that, or the golden charm of her manner, or of
something else, let Mr. Oxgall say; certain it is that the man of
crackly canvas (for whom, by-the-bye, I have a sincere respect,
because he cheated me so little and so neatly)--this man, I say,
regarded her with a wide-mouthed, brooch-eyed, admiration, which
he hardly ever expended on anything out of oils. For the king of
painters himself she was a vision sweeter than dreams of heaven.
Such a tint in her lustrous eyes, such tone in her dainty cheeks, such
perfection of line in her features, and every curve of her exquisite
shape. And bounding and sparkling through all, from the rippled
wealth of her hair to the light-curved arch of her foot, the full play of
her innocent, joyous, loving life.
No wonder the picture-dealer shaded his eyes and gazed, and
rubbed them and gazed again. I have frequently seen respectable
elderly gentlemen, whose rakishness has never been more than
found vent in the cock of a hat, magisterial men I mean, who would
no more think of insulting a girl in London or anywhere else, than of
giving their daughters as prizes for competitive skill in poaching,
such good men and true, also simple-hearted clergymen (for some
there still are from the country) these and the like, I Clara Vaughan
have seen, when they met my Isola, stop short, wink frequently, and
without much presence of mind, until she was gone by; then
shumble hotly across the street, with hands in their tail-coat pockets
(for these gentlemen always expect most to be robbed when there is
least chance of it) pretend to look at a shop, then march at top
speed, fumbling all the while for their spectacles, until they got well
a-head of us. Then I have seen them cross again, some thirty yards
in front, with spectacles nicely adjusted, and become again wholly
absorbed by the beauty of metropolitan goods. But when the light
foot sounded, from a fair gazing distance, these same gentlemen
have (by some strange coincidence) alway turned full upon us, in an
absent and yet nervous manner, and focussed their green or pale
blue eyes upon the rich violet orbs of Isola. I have even known them
to look at me (when they could see her no more), to find some
sympathy for their vague emotions. Idols knew it: of course she did.
And she rather gloried in it. She had much respect for a fine old
gentleman; and I know not how it was, but nobody ever thought of
insulting her when she could be clearly seen.
A "pretty girl" you would never call her--though Mr. Shelfer did--
the term would be quite unworthy; even a "beautiful girl," sweetly
beautiful though she was, would hardly be your expression, at least
for a while. But a "lovely girl," and the loveliest one ever seen, that
is what she would be called at once, if you could take your eyes off,
to analyse your ideas.
Isola knew it of course, as I said before, she knew all her
wondrous gifts; but as for being conceited, a trull with a splay foot
and a crop of short-horn carrots has often thrice her conceit. A
certain pretty graceful pride she had, which threw a rosy playful halo
round her, but never made other women look plain in her eyes. She
will not value her beauty much, until she falls in love; and blessed is
he who shall be the object, if she is allowed to abide with him.
Meanwhile Mr. Oxgall wished for nothing but to hear and see
her talk; and this she did to some purpose. I like a man who at the
age of sixty is still impressible to the gay vein of youth. I know at
once by his eyes whether his admiration is abstract and admissible.
If it be, I reciprocate it. What clearer proof can we find, that his
heart has not withered with his body; that he is not a man of
mammon, tinsel, or phylactery,--in a word, no mummy?
Shall I ever finish this bargain? I have never been so reflective
before; and all the time no less a sum than five pounds hangs upon
it. Five guineas (which sounds better) was the amount at which dear
Idols let off Mr. Oxgall. I believe she might have got ten, but she had
an excellent conscience. It worked like a patent chronometer, with
compensation balance. Mine was still more sensitive. I could hardly
think my landscape, perspective mare's nest and all, worth that
amount of money, and I wished to throw off a guinea, but Idols
would not hear of it.
"Miss Valence, I am your factor for this beautiful landscape,
which has cost you so much labour. Either accept my terms,
inadequate as they are, or take the agency from me, and
recommence with Mr. Oxgall 'de novo,' as we say at College."
Betwixt her beauty and my stately integrity, poor Mr. Oxgall
knew not where he stood. I heard him mutter that he would rather
go through fifty auctions, even if it was George Robins. But if she
had come to sell him a picture the very next day, he would have
gone through it all again with the same infatuation. So I took the
money; and now my evil demon, who had chafed beneath all this
trampling, had his turn again. We had foolishly brought the great
dog Giudice, for our delight and the expansion of his mind. In Mr.
Oxgall's shop he behaved to admiration. With the air of a
connoisseur he walked from picture to picture, closed one eye, and
faintly wagged his tail. Then he found a Scotch terrier scarcely worth
a sniff, and a mastiff whom he saluted with a contemptuous growl.
The only work of high art he could discover was an interior, with a
flitch of bacon in the foreground uncommonly well drawn. Before
this he sat down, and receiving no invitation, bedewed the boards
with a stalactite from either side of his mouth. The dog was so well
behaved, he never took anything without leave and saying t a long
grace.
Unluckily Mr. Oxgall, mainly I believe to prolong his interview
with Idols, insisted upon taking us to the shop of a carver and gilder
close by; where my first drawing (which had been sold) was to be
seen in its frame. He declared that we could not tell what a painting
was like, until we had seen it framed. Observing several large
mirrors in this shop, I begged that Giudice might be left outside. And
so he was, but he did not stay there. Scarcely had we begun to
discuss the effect of the frame on my drawing, when Giudice pushed
his way in, and looked about with a truly judicial air. The shop was
long, and the owner was with us at the further end. I saw what
would follow, and dashed off to stop him, but it was too late. Giudice
had seen the very finest dog he ever beheld in his life--a dog really
worth fighting. Up went his crest and his tail, one savage growl, and
he sprang at him. Crash,--and the largest mirror there was a wreck,
and Giudice the rock beneath it. For a time he lay quite stunned;
then to my great delight he staggered to me, not Isola, laid his cut
paws in my hands and his bleeding nose in my lap, and explained it
all to me with much entreaty for sympathy. This I gave him readily,
even to tears and kisses. Isola wanted to scold and even to beat
him, but I would not hear of it. He had seen another great dog
between himself and us, how could he help attacking him? I ordered
a sponge and some water at once, and bathed his fore paws, which
were terribly cut; then remembering the Inspector, I sent Idols for
some arnica. But the blood was not stanched by it as I expected;
perhaps the drug was not pure, or the hair obstructed its action. So
I held his paws in the basin, and he whinged, and licked me, and
made my face all bloody.
Meanwhile the poor carver and gilder thought much more of his
looking-glass than of noble flesh and blood. The picture-dealer as
well was in a great predicament.
 "Mr. Oxgall," I cried, still sponging the wounded dog's nose, "let
us hear no more about it. Tell me the full value of the mirror, and I
will pay for it. What are glass and quicksilver, or even gold,
compared to a noble dog like this? Not worth a wag of your tail, are
they, my duck of diamonds? Give me another kiss, you delicious pet
of a dog."
The delicious dog was entirely of my opinion. His beautiful eyes
were unhurt. His nose tasted wholesomely salt. But Isola was not
half so romantic. Little she cared about money for herself; yet she
had no idea of seeing a friend disburse. Empowered by nature to
wind all men round her finger, she now called art to her aid, and Mr.
Oxgall, who was half-way round already, had no chance of escape.
She settled it thus: the carver and gilder, in consideration of his
dealings with Mr. Oxgall and his own "careless exposure" of the
mirror, should accept cost price for the article. That amount should
be paid in equal shares by all three of us: by Mr. Oxgall because he
would drag us thither, by herself as the mistress of the dog, and by
me as the cause of the expedition. She had attended a course of
lectures upon jurisprudence, and her decision was better than that
of a judge, because she had seen the whole of it, and because the
dog was hers--at least her brother's, which was all the same. As for
the owner of the mirror, he must think himself wonderfully lucky in
having met with such honest people, and in having sold his glass,
and hadn't he got all the pieces, and she must have the largest one
for Judy to dress his hair by. And so indeed she did.
After our dear Portia had finished, and the whole thing was
settled, it struck me that no lectures upon jurisprudence could turn
wrong into right. Mr. Oxgall was quite blameless, so was I, so was
Idols, except in bringing unlucky Giudice with her, which, from the
outset, I had discouraged. She, as the temporary owner of the dog,
should have borne all the loss; and so she would have done gladly,
only she did not see it in that light. As it was, she tried afterwards to
force upon me her last three guineas (that being the sum which I
had paid, as my third of the whole), but of course I would not
accept them. She had no money with her, so I paid her contribution,
but allowed her to repay me. Mr. Oxgall's third I made good to him
(without consulting her) when he paid me for my next drawing. So I
had earned five guineas, and lost six. Is it always to be so when I
labour to make a little money?
At my earnest entreaty--Idols could refuse me nothing, when I
was in earnest--darling Giudice was brought home in a cab to my
lodgings. I knew that he would not be cared for at the stables where
he was boarded; and his wounds were very serious. As for home,
Professor Ross, who detested dogs in general, would not admit him
into the house. He even thought it a great stretch of grace to allow
old Cora to watch the dog back to the stables, after he had been
patrolling all the afternoon with his mistress. How I hate such low
ingratitude! An animal is to serve us, body and soul, to crouch and
fawn for our notice--not that Giudice ever fawned to him, but
growled awfully--and we are to think it well off with a curse or a
kick, which we durst not give it but for its loyalty to us.
What pleasure I had in nursing that poor Giudice, and how
grateful he was! When we got home, I washed his wounds again,
with warm water this time, as the bleeding was stanched; and then I
"exhibited" (as the doctors absurdly say) a little friar's balsam. "Oh,
it does smart so!" Giudice exclaimed with his eyes, "but I know it's
for the best, and you won't see me give one wince." Neither did I.
Then a nice soft bandage over his lovely paws, and a plaister across
his nose, and he lies snugly, at the proper distance from the fire, as
proud as possible of being nursed, and with an interesting air of
pallid refinement on his features. He will hardly notice Idols, but
exclaims, at length, with the petulance of an invalid, "Isola, can't you
let me alone? Clara understands a dog, and I like her much the
best." So he followed me all round the room with his eyes, and
begged me to come and talk to him, which I would not do, because
he needed quiet and composure.
 CHAPTER XI.

Beloved Giudice remained many days under my care, until he

became convinced that he was my dog absolutely, and had no claim
on any other human being. He more than paid for his board and
medical attendance, by sitting repeatedly for his portrait; in which at
last I succeeded to his and my own satisfaction. Though by no
means a conceited dog, there was nothing he loved better than
having his likeness taken; and directly after breakfast he always
assumed the most becoming attitude, and watched intently for the
appearance of the pencil with his massive head a little on one side,
and his dark brown eyes full of dignified interest, and his great ears
curving down through russet tufts, like tawny cascades in autumn,
he seemed fit study for a real artist, who should quicken as well as
copy him. However, he was too much of a gentleman to sneer at my
weak efforts, for he saw that I did my best. Oftentimes he would
gaze steadfastly at the portrait and then at me, and hobble up, and
nudge me, and whine, a little, and then sigh in self-abasement at his
want of speech. Whenever he did this, I knew that he wished to
have something altered; but it was long before I could discover what
that something was. I tried every change of line or colour that I
could think of--all to no purpose. At length it struck me that as he
criticised more with nose than eyes, the defect must be in the smell.
Happy idea! I satisfied my Giudice at last, and did it thus. After
shading around the nose and mouth, before laying on the colour, I
took a clean dry brush, and passed it lightly round the hollows of his
own sweet saltish nostrils, carefully avoiding the cut; then one turn
of the brush, not on the palette, but on a dry square of colour, and
with that I expressed the dear dog's nose so well, that he would
have spoiled it in a sniffing ecstasy, if I had not pulled it away. His
portrait now possessed the life which he required.
Meanwhile I received almost daily visits from Isola and her
brother; the latter was, of course, very anxious about his poor dog,
and could only relieve that anxiety by long interviews with him. It
happened strangely enough, yet more and more often as time went
on, that Isola during these interviews felt an especial desire for Mrs.
Shelfer's society, which she could only enjoy by betaking herself to
the kitchen. There, with all the pets, except old Tom, who was
constancy itself, and the lame blackbird who was all gratitude, her
influence began to supersede mine, and even Mrs. Shelfer's; for this
I cared but little, so long as Giudice kept to me.
Over that great dog, as he turned upon his side, and lifted one
hind leg (the canine mode of showing submission to the will of God),
over him we bent, Conrad and I, in most interesting diagnosis, until
it seemed the proper thing that our hair should flow together, and
our breath make one soft breeze. From this position we would rise
with a conscious colour in our cheeks, and a flutter at the heart, and
a certain awe of one another. Then it would be ever so long before
either of us dared to seek the other's eyes. Haply when those eyes
were met--unwitting yet inevitably--they would drop, or turn away,
or find some new attraction in the dog or clouds.
Then some weak remark would follow, for which the hearer
cared no whit, yet feigned deep interest therein.
 Why labour thus to cheat ourselves--each other we cannot
cheat--why feel we so confused and guilty, why long so heartily to
be a hundred leagues away, yet knowing thoroughly that, if it were
so, all the space between were void and heartache? The reason
neither we nor other mortal knows; the cause is this, that we love
one another.
I have felt that it must be so, at least on my part, ever since the
day he came with Isola, and knew me not, though I knew him so
well. Does he know me now as the Clara Vaughan whom he once
avoided? These eyelashes are as long and dark as ever; the large
eyes, shaded by them, are as deep a gray as twilight in a grove of
willows. My cheeks have regained their curve, my hair was never
injured; let me hie to the glass now he is gone, and see if I be like
myself, and whether I have face and form likely to win Conrad's love.
No, I am not like myself. No wonder he does not know me. The
gloom habitual to my face is gone. It is the difference betwixt a
cavern well and a sunny fountain. I see a laughing graceful girl, with
high birth marked in every vein, and self-respect in every motion;
her clear cheeks glowing with soft wonder, her red lips parted with
delight, her arching neck and shoulder curve gleaming through a
night of tresses, her forehead calm and thoughtful still, half-belying
the bright eyes where love and pleasure sparkle. For a moment self-
approval heightens the expression. At my silly self my foolish self is
smiling; but the smile has warmer source than maiden's light
conceit. I smile because I see that, as regards exterior, he who
slights me must be hard to please; and some one, whom I think of,
is not hard to please. Straight upon the thought of him--Ah well.
 My father used to quote from the "Hero and Leander" a
beautiful verse, which neither he nor any other could in English
render duly,
[Greek: Aidoûs hyròn éreuphos apostazousa prosôpou.]--v. 173.
"Showering from her cheek the flowing carmine of her shame."

CHAPTER XII.

But when Conrad should have learned who it was that nursed his
dog, would he feel the tender gratitude and delight which he now
displayed so freely? Would he say, as in his fervour he now said
every day, "Miss Valence, I do believe there is no one like you in the
world!" Would he not rather say, "Miss Vaughan, how basely you
have deceived me! Giudice, come away!" A whistle and the last
sound of the foot, for which I listened now by the hour.
This thought was continually with me. It poisoned half the
flavour and ruined all the digestion of my happy moments. But what
could I do? How unmaidenly, how presumptuous of me to imagine
that he was likely to break his heart for me! And if he did--why then
he should break my own as well. I am not one of the drawing-room
young ladies, who receive a modified proposal every Sunday
afternoon, and think much more about the sermon afterwards. I
cannot play with the daffodils upon the brink of love, sleepily
thrusting my admirers in, and lounging with half-open breast, which
neither love-knots may secure, nor fluttering sighs unzone. No, here
I am, such as I am, such as God has made me. No usury, no auction
for my heart: once for all I give it, and my life goes with it.
So it must always be with a girl of any feeling, who has trained
her own existence. But for my wild ignorance, I would dare to say--
so it must be always with a girl of feeling, twist and warp her as you
will. Yet I am told, by those who know the world, that it is not so
with nine girls out of ten among the lady caste. If, beneath the roc
of fashion, they prefer the diamond to the meat, let them have it,
and starve thereon. The choice is of their own young crops. No
parent bird can force the bauble down. But what have I to do with
this? All I know is that neither I, nor any child of mine, will or shall
be gulleted thus for life.
After every little burst of thought, every feeble sally of
imagination, came (as always is the case with me) came the slow
pusillanimous reaction. All that I had any right to do was to paint,
earn money, and be off for Italy.
Little as I knew about the expense of travelling, I felt sure that
it would be vain to start with less than a hundred pounds. Enormous
sum! How could I ever hope to win it, though I painted day and
night, and lived on bread and water. To this diet, or what in London
is quite synonymous, bread and milk, I had already reduced myself,
in my stern resolve to lay by two pounds every week. Farewell to
meat, so soon as my Devonshire "pegmate" was gone, and farewell
to what I cared much more about, a glass of good London stout. I
suppose there is something horribly "vulgar" in my tastes, for I will
confess that the liquid called "black draught" by Mr. Dawe had much
charm for me. However, I abjured it with all other luxuries, and
throve no whit the worse. The kindly little woman, whose summum
bonum (next to her "sticks") was plenty of good fare, took it much
to heart that I should live so plainly.
"Why, Miss Valence, you are the queerest young lady as ever I
set eyes on. All as ever I see, and I've see'd a many, they picks a
little bit so dainty, like a canary cracking a hemp seed when the
gentlemen is by: then off they goes when there's nobody looking,
and munches like so many pigs in a potato bury. Miss Violante you
know. But as for you, why bless me and keep me, you feeds that
great horse of a dog with all the fat of the land, and you lives on a
crust yourself. Now do come down, that's a good soul; there's a clod
of beef a-biling with suet dumplings, and such lovely parsnips, you
can smell it all up the stairs, galloping, galloping, my good friend,
and that rogue of a Charley won't come home I know, he's got along
with that thief Bob Ridley; and I expects the boy every minute with a
little drop of stout, and the best pewter pot for you. Now if you
won't come down, Miss Valence, my dinner will all stick in my throat,
and I am so hungry."
"So am I, Mrs. Shelfer, you have made me so."
In her excitement, she slipped from the edge of the chair,
whereon she always balanced herself when I made her sit down.
She thought it disrespectful to occupy too much room, and cuddled
herself in the smallest compass possible.
Let no ill be thought of Giudice. Who thinks ill of me I care not,
for I can defend myself, if it be worth while. So can Giudice with his
teeth--the finest set in London--but he has no tongue, no merop
tongue, I mean. It was true that Giudice had good fare, and
thoroughly he enjoyed it. That dog knew a juicy bit of meat, short of
staple, crisp, yet melting, quite as well as I did. True, he had a love
of bones, transparent gristle, and white fibres, which I, from inferior
structure, cannot quite appreciate. Yet all this was no part of his
mind, much less did it affect the greatness of his soul. He kept, as all
of us do who are good for anything, a certain alter ego, a higher
voice, a purer sense, a vein which fashion cannot leech, or false
shame tourniquet. So the good dog used to come to me, before he
touched his breakfast, lunch, or dinner, and entreat me to devour all
I could, there would be lots still left for him.
In my hurry to get start of time, to spin a little faster the
revolving moons, I did a thing which I could ill-approve to myself,
even at the moment. I wrote to Sally Huxtable to obtain Mr. Dawe's
permission for me to sell my gordit. Professor Ross had offered me
no less than ten guineas for it. As a gentleman he should not have
made the offer, after what I had told him. But the love of science--
falsely so called by collectors--drives men to discern propriety "by
the wire-drawn line of their longings."[#] However, I was not quite
so blind upon right and wrong, as to mean to keep all the money. I
offered Mr. Dawe half, if the plaything should be sold.

[#] "Exiguo fine libidinum."

I knew not why, but I could not bear the idea of a bargain and sale
with Conrad's father, wide apart as the two always were in my mind.
I rather hoped that Beany Dawe, though sorely tempted, would
refuse.
And now the time was almost come for news from Tossil's
Barton. Dear Sally must have filled the twelve copybooks, at the rate
of one a week. Ere I quite expected it, the letter came; but before
its tidings are imparted, I must in few words describe the visit of
Inspector Cutting's son. George Cutting came one evening to see his
good Aunt Patty, for so he called Mrs. Shelfer, who was in truth his
cousin. Though I had been so assured that my enemy could not
escape, I was not equally convinced, and at times a deep anxiety
and despair possessed me.
Therefore I went to the kitchen to see the Inspector's son, and
requested Mrs. Shelfer to allow me five minutes of conversation with
him. He stood all the while, and seemed rather shy and confused.
He had not heard from his father, since the ship sailed; but he had
seen in the papers that she had been spoken somewhere. "The
party as I knew of" was still safe in London--my blood ran like lava
at the thought--or I should have heard of it. He, George Cutting, had
his eye upon him, and so had two of the detective force; but what
were they in comparison with his father? This he asked, despite his
shyness, with so large a contempt, that I began to think the Cutting
family admired the Cuttings only.
Upon me, who am no Cutting, he left the simple impression that
the qualities, so lauded by his father, lay as yet beneath a bushel.
However, his Aunt Patty declared that he could eat three times as
much as Charley. Not unlikely, if he only drank one-third of Charley's
allowance.
Mrs. Shelfer, who knew that I was laying by a fixed sum every
week, began to look upon me as a fine young miser. Of course she
quite fell in with what she supposed to be my ideas, for she never
contradicted any one, unless it was a cabman.
"Oh, I do love money, my good friend; gold, gold, it is so
bootiful. Did you ever hear tell of the marrow bone I had? Oh dear!"
 "What marrow bone, Mrs. Shelfer?"
"Why a big beef marrow bone, that long, full of sovereigns and
guineas after dear Miss Minto. I stopped it with a bung and a piece
of bladder, and for better than a twelvemonth, while they was
executing her will, I slept with that beneath my pillow for fear the
priest should get it. Lord, how they did fight over the poor old lady's
rags and bones, that leathery priest and three yellow kites of
cousins, they said they was, as come from Portugal. At last they got
a ministration[#] with the testament and text, and they robbed me
shameful, shameful, my good friend. Never catch me going to mass
again, or you may tell me of it."

[#] ? Letters of Administration cum testamento annexo.

"And what became of the marrow bone, Mrs. Shelfer?"

At this inquiry, she winked both eyes rapidly, and screwed up
her little mouth.
"Oh what a thief that Father Banger was, to be sure! You see,
Miss, I had strict orders to shut him out, when Miss Minto was near
her end, because he had kicked her dear cat Filippina from the top
of the stairs to the bottom, after he had gived her unction. What a
pretty sight it was to see them seven dear cats, all sitting round the
fire, each one on his proper stool with his name done on it in
different coloured worsted. I had so much a year left me on the
Bank of England, honourable to the day, for each one of those cats,
and change of diet every week, and now there's only one of them
left, and that is my dear old Tom."
"But, Mrs. Shelfer, about the marrow bone--"
 "Well, my good friend, I was going to tell you. The way that
Father Banger got into the house again to steal the poor old lady's
money, for building a school or some such villany. He knowed how
fond the poor soul was of cats, so he borrowed a cat somewhere,
and he got two boys to let it down the area with a whipcord round
its stomach, and to jerk, jerk, jerk away at it, and the poor thing did
squeal sure enough. 'Pain, Patty,' says my poor mistress, and she
could hardly speak--'Oh, Patty, there's some cruel Englishman
torturing a cat again.' So out I runs into the area, and in pops Father
Banger, who had his back to the wall, with a great sheet of paper;
and he begins to make a list of all the things in the house. I took the
cat to dear Miss Minto, and how pleased she was! 'Please God,' says
she, 'to let me live a few days more till I make a Catholic of this poor
heretic'--she always converted her cats the first thing--'and then it
shall have a stool and a good annuity.' But next day the poor thing
went."
Little Mrs. Shelfer had so great a fear of death, that like some
ancient nations she shunned all mention of his name, by euphemistic
periphrase. She had never known real illness, and even a stitch or a
spasm would frighten her for days. When I spoke calmly, as I
sometimes did, of our great inevitable friend, whom we so labour to
estrange, up would jump Mrs. Shelfer with a shudder and a little
scream.
"Oh don't, my good soul, oh don't! How can you? Let us live,
Miss Valence, let us live while we can, and not think of such dreadful
things. You make my blood run cold."
"But, Mrs. Shelfer, surely you know that we all must die."
 "Of course, my good friend, of course. But then you needn't
remind one of it. I met Doctor Franks to-day, and he said, 'Why, Mrs.
Shelfer, I do declare, you look younger than ever,' and a very clever
man he is, yes, yes; and not a gray hair in my head, and my father
lived to eighty-eight."
"And how old are you, Mrs. Shelfer, now?"
"Oh I am sure I don't know, Miss Valence, I don't keep no
account. Let us talk of something else. Did you hear what Tom did to
your Judy to-day?"
Ah, poor little thing! But I am not going to moralise. Shall I ever
know the history of that marrow bone?[#]

[#] I have now ascertained that a roving dog popped in and away with the
marrow bone, sovereigns, guineas, and all.--C.V. 1864.

CHAPTER XIII.

Tossil's Barton, estimating the British Post by the standard of Joe

Queen's boy, placed but little confidence in that institution. Moreover,
Tossil's Barton held that a "papper scrawl," as it termed a letter, was
certain to be lost for want of size, unless it were secured in
something large, "something as a man can zee and hold on to," as
the farmer himself expressed it.
Therefore I was not surprised at receiving, instead of a letter by
post, a packet delivered by the parcels van. This packet was bound
round like the handle of a whip. and stuck at either end with a mass
of cobbler's wax. bearing the vivid impress of a mighty thumb.
Within the wrappings first appeared an ominous crumpled scroll. Ye
stars, where angels so buffooned by eminent painters dwell! Once
more I behold Eli on the turnpike gate, the Great Western steamer,
Job with a potsherd of willow-pattern plate, the Prodigal Son, and
worse than all, that hideous Death and the Lady. Recklessly I tumble
out all the rest of the packet. Three great bolts with silver clasps,
three apostle spoons, two old silver salt-cellars marked W.H.J.H., a
child's christening cup, a horn tobacco-stopper with a silver tip, an
agate from the beach, a tortoise-shell knife with a silver blade, half a
dozen coins and a bronze fibula found upon the farm, an infant's
coral, a neck-pin garnished with a Bristol diamond, a number of
mother-of-pearl buttons and blue beads, and a mass of mock jewelry
bought by the farmer from the Cheapjacks at Barum fair with the
produce of his wrestling triumphs. Separate from the rest, and
packed most carefully, were all but two of the trinkets I had sent as
Christmas gifts for the family.
Touched to the heart by all this loving kindness, I felt so
ashamed of my paltry petulance at Eli, Jonah, and the rest, that I
would not indulge in a peep at Sally's letter, which came last of all,
until I had starved myself for a day. That literary effort showed so
much improvement, both in writing and in spelling, that any critic
would have endorsed Mr. Huxtable's conclusion that the gift must be
in the family. A few words still there were of rather doubtful texture,
but who can bind or bound the caprice and luxury of the English
language? Moreover, Sally's stops were left once more to the
discretion of the reader. But if Lord Byron could not grasp the
mysteries of punctuation, how could Sally Huxtable? Yet that eager
little maid would have learned in half an hour the art which might
have mellowed the self-tormentor's howling. Sally's was a healthy,
sweet, and wholesome nature.

Tossil's Barton Farm, Trentisoe.

The tenth day of March A.D. 1851.
"DEAR MISS CLARA DEAR,--If you please, father and mother
and me and our little Jack hope this letter will find you in good
health as it leaves all of us at this present, or when it will be
finished, thank God for the same, and hoping no offence. The baby
as was born on the 20th day of October last is a very fine and lusty
wench at this time of writing, and have got two teeth, and her hair
coming again, and answers to the name of Clara, as you know Miss
you was so kind to give her leave and liberty, and father call Clara to
her now, and so do I and Jack, but mother will call her Babby still,
and so the chillers does.
Father often say, "Babby! Why there be a hundred babbies in
the world, and a thousand either, for ought I knows again it, but I
reckon there isn't half a dozen Claras." But mother say she can't help
it: she always did call them babbies till they was put into short-
clothes, and longer too, if so be there wasn't another, and she feels
a call on her to do it, and no offence Miss Clara for that same. If you
please Miss, when the parson say "Name this child," and Aunt
Muxworthy, from over to Rowley Mires, say, quite peart, "Clara, sir"--
father had been learning her, you see Miss, all the morning--parson
look, so mother say, the same as a skinned sheep all skivered out to
dry; and Tim Badcock go haw haw, till father was forced to slip
behind the godmothers and fetch him a little clout on the side of his
head. Then parson say at last, "Clara maam! There be no child of
that name to this side of Coom, and it seem to me to go again the
rub rick." Father say the parson must be a high farmer, for none of
us ever hear tell of that rick in this country. "Now take my advice
and think better of it Mrs. Muxworthy," the parson say again. So she
looks to father, for you see Miss she were not edified about it being
right, because she could not find it in the Bible nowhere. And she
say, "Think better of it farmer now; if you wants a handsome name,
there's Tryphena and Tryphosa, and has been in the family afore."
"Mother," says my father, and he looked the way he do when he
don't intend to talk about a thing, "Mother, go home with the child,
and I'll take her to Parracombe Church next Sunday: and tell Suke
not to put the goose down."
You see, Miss, we was going to have a supper after church, and
the best goose on the farm, and the parson was coming too. "Sober
now," say the parson, "if so be now, farmer John, you have put your
mind upon naming this here infant Clara, why I will christen her so,
only an under Protestant, and with difference to the chapter." Father
only say "Amen, so be it;" and then parson do it, and do it
uncommon well too, father say. and she only laugh when they give
her the splash. Father told us afterwards as he believed parson was
feared he couldn't spell Clara fitty; but mother say he be wrong
there, and all along of his pride, for parson be a college chap and so
he can spell anything amost, in one way or another.
Miss Clara, all them beautiful things as you sent for us to
Christmas time, with the forepart of all our names upon them,
except Sally, was sunk in the bottom of the brook in the hole below
the stickle by the hollow ash, where the big trout hath his hover, all
along of Joe the Queen's boy; and we never knew ought about it till
your after letter come. Then our little Jack, who be quite a big boy
now, and button his own corduroys, go down to the brook at once,
and pull off all his things, and there he rake and feel among the
stones for the biggest part of a day, though the ice was on the edge
but the water were quite clear; and Tabby Badcock want to pull off
her things and go in too, but Jack would not let her, and be ashamed
of herself, and I sat on the bank and Tabby, and Jack pull out nine
beautiful things, as were meant for father, and mother, and him, and
Billy, and little Honor, and Bobby, and Peggy, and the two weanies,
but he couldn't find nothing as were meant for me Sally, unless
Tabby stole it, and she be quite equal to it I am afeared: and we all
returns you many many kind thanks and love, especially the ones as
had it, and me. Our Jack say, No her wouldn't do it, he'll go bail for
that, no fie! But I shake my head; though perhaps she never had
the chance, if so be there wasn't none marked Sally, and thank you
every bit the same, Miss, so long as there wasn't none for Tabby."
Poor little Sally! She must have cried bitterly to think of her
being forgotten. But the best of all, next to the farmer's, was for her,
and there was one for Tabby too.
"Miss Clara dear, the things was not hurt at all by being under
water for a week, and father say they must be made of the very
same gold as Queen Victoria's crown and sceptre is, as never can
rust with the briny waves; and Beany Dawe feel cock sure as it was
the fairy of the brook stole them from Joe's breeches pocket, and
keep mine still he say because it be the prettiest. But there, he
never know much, any more than Tabby does.
 If you please Miss, asking your pardon, when Aunt Muxworthy
were here, to the christening time, she said she never see such
writing in her life as mine, and it wasn't my best copy neither, and
she said it was a sin to make a scholar of a honest wench like that,
and I should want to be the parson next, and read the forty-two
generations and play the fort piano; and I didn't know, Miss,
whether to laugh or cry, so I began to eat an apple; but father say
quite slowly, "Sister Muxworthy, you was never gifted with no
eddication no more nor I Jan Uxtable, and how be us to know if it be
good or bad? Once I had a horse, say father, as afore ever he went
into the field, turned up his nose at the grass like, and with turning
up so much he died at last of the glanders. But I never see that
there horse persuade the others to starve." Aunt Muxworthy toss her
head, and we thought she wouldn't eat no goose, but the smell of
the stuffing and the weather was too many for her; and she eat a
wing, and a leg, and one side of the breast, and it do her good. And
afore she had had much brandy, "John," she say, "you was right and
I was wrong. Let the little wench crack on, and some day they'll hear
of her to tother side of Hexmoor." So father laugh and kiss her, and
the chillers was put to bed, and we drink your health Miss, and
Clara's nine times nine, and father say he'll learn himself some day,
when he give up wrestling, only he fear it would make his hand
shake terrible, and then some laugh and some of us cry, and they
has more hot water, and Beany Dawe set to, and make so many
poems he turn the stairs somehow inside out, and Suke and Tim
was forced to heave him into the tallat, and keep him from going
abroad by a rope of onions round him and two truss of hay on the
top. Next day, he make no poems at all till he drink more than a
gallon of cider.
Oh Miss Clara dear, what ever is the matter with you? Father be
in such a taking I never see. To-day your letter come about selling
that knob-thing of Beany Dawe's, and we knows it must be all along
of the crown jewels you bought for us, as we meant to keep in the
family to the end of all our time. Mother double up, and cry into the
churn, and spoil all the butter; and father were that upset he stamp
out of the house a trying hard to whistle, and he couldn't see no one
there to let it off on but Timothy Badcock, and he were a little saucy,
so he toss Tim up on the linhay roof and his legs come through the
thatch, and father was forced to ease him out with the pitchfork.
Tim was stiff a bit in the evening, and serve him right say mother,
for laughing so at the Cornishers; but father give him some
neatsfoot oil and cider, and we knew us couldn't hurt him because
he be double-jointed.
And if you please Miss Clara dear, we would not stoop to ask
Beany Dawe and he nothing but a sawing poet; so father go to the
old oak chest with the whitewash on it, and pull it open without the
key, and take out some old rubbish he saith, and order mother to
pack it without a word, and mother want to put in a pair of linen
sheets and the best table-cloth, but father say quite crusty like, "Do
e take our Miss Clara for a common packman?" And when I say,
"Please father what shall I say about it all?" he answer me quite low,
"How ever can I tell child? Ask your mother there. Only give my best
respects and most humble duty, and tell Miss Clara I wishes I could
find a man to throw me all four pins, for being such a drunken
hosebird not to have more to send her. But I know her won't take
money from the likes of us. Stop," father say, "ask her to please to
lift our horn up as the horn of an unicorn. I knows where to go for
lots of money and all to be had for asking. I'll go to Bodmin town
next week," say father, "and show them Cornishers a trick of
Abraham Cann. Since honest Abraham took the sprain, he left it all
to me, though God knows, and thank him for the same, I never
want it yet. I should like to see the Cornisher as could stand my
grip." And then father pull both his hands out of his pockets. Mother
say he wear them out he do spraddle both his thumbs so.
It seems a curious thing, Miss Clara dear, father never get vexed
or weist like, but what he want to wrestle, and other times he never
think of it, unless it be to fair or revel time.
When I asked mother and said as father tell me to, the tears
was in her eyes, and she try to look angry with me, and then she
broke out crying as loud as Suke when the cow Molly kick her. So
between the both of them, Miss, I can't know what to say, so please
to make it yourself Miss, for I am sure I can't find any thing only the
best love of our hearts and a side of bacon us would like to send,
and the butter from my own little cow, all sweet hay and no turmots;
I be to sit in Coom market, all by myself, on Saturday, and mother
not come nigh me, and I know you'll let me send you the money,
and I expects elevenpence a pound, because you never was proud
with your loving scholar ever to command and obey. SALLY
HUXTABLE.
All this here underneath and over the leaf is going to be written
after the rest of this here paper.
If you please Miss Clara dear, there come now just a very fine
spoken gentleman with a long coat the colour of udder, and blue
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