Module 2

GEE 108 – Environmental Science

LESSON 1
Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Define what biogeochemical cycle is
2. Enumerate the different biogeochemical cycles
3. Illustrate and explain the carbon and oxygen cycle
4. Discuss the process of the carbon and oxygen cycles
5. Explain the human impact on the carbon and oxygen cycles and their consequences

Biogeochemical Cycle Defined

While energy is utilized by the biotic community and eventually dissipated as heat into the
environment, the chemical elements or the nutrient cycle within the system. Our ecosystem has no
extraterrestrial sources of the carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, sulfur and other substances that are required
for life. These substances must be continually recycled through the ecosystem in order for the ecosystem
to persist. The cycling of these substances within or between the ecosystems is referred to as
biogeochemical cycle.
The term biogeochemical cycles were derived from the Greek word “bios” meaning life, “geo”
meaning earth, “chemeia” meaning alchemy and “kyklos” meaning circle of the wheel. Bios refer to the
living organisms participating in the cycle. Geo refers to non-living component that serves as a reservoir
or storage compartments of the nutrients. Chemical refers to the chemical elements and processes
involved in the system. The entire term describes the movement of chemical elements between organisms
(biosphere) and non-living compartments of the atmosphere, lithosphere and hydrosphere. The cycling of
elements essential to life is as follows:
1. Carbon cycle
2. Oxygen cycle
3. Nitrogen cycle
4. Phosphorous cycle
5. Sulfur cycle
6. Hydrologic cycle

Carbon and Oxygen Cycle

 Life on earth is “carbon based” and makes life possible. Carbon is the basic constituent of all the
major molecules such as carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, fats and nucleic acids of living organisms.
Carbon dioxide is the major reservoir of carbon. This occurs in the atmosphere and in water.
Photosynthesis forms the pathway by which carbon in the form of carbon dioxide is withdrawn
from the carbon dioxide pool. In photosynthesis light energy is transformed by plants into chemical
energy using carbon dioxide and water as raw materials. Terrestrial producers (land plants) remove
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere, while aquatic producers (aquatic plants) remove carbon dioxide
from bodies of water. Approximately 15% of the carbon in the atmosphere in the form of carbon dioxide
is taken up each year through photosynthesis.
The carbon incorporated into the biomass of plants (primary producers) is passed on to the
animals (herbivores) that eat them and to the carnivorous animals that eat the herbivores. Some of the
carbon in the bodies of organisms is released during the respiration. Others are retained as a structural
component of the body and remain there until the organism dies and acted upon by decomposers. Thus
the process of respiration and decomposition releases the carbon locked in photosynthetic products back
to the carbon dioxide pool in the atmosphere and hydrosphere. We can therefore say that photosynthesis
and respiration are the two opposing processes that drive the global carbon cycle.

Figure 5. Carbon Cycle

Source. scied.ucar.edu.
Some carbon leaves the cycle for millions of years and enters the crust of the earth, accumulates
and transferred by geologic forces into the fossil fuel, coal, oil and natural gases. Carbon is also
withdrawn from the cycle by the formation of sedimentary rocks such as limestone and dolomite. These
are the forms of “carbon sink” (storage deposits of carbon) in the lithosphere. Carbon sinks also exist in
the biosphere such as wood, plants, animal bodies and organic molecules. In the hydrosphere carbon sinks
are ocean floor sediments including shells and corals, organic matter and dissolved carbon dioxide.
Aside from decomposition and respiration, carbon is released back to the environment through
fires, burning of fossil fuels, acid rain, geologic processes that bring carbon-containing sediments to the
surface and through volcanoes either as volcanic rock that later undergoes weathering or through the
release of carbon dioxide gas.

Oxygen Cycle
 The element oxygen makes up 21% of the Earth’s atmosphere. The oxygen supply is constantly
replenished by green plants, including one-celled organisms, called phytoplankton in the sea via
photosynthesis. An additional source of atmospheric oxygen comes from photolysis, whereby high energy
ultraviolet radiation breaks down atmospheric water and nitrite into component molecules. The free H and
N atoms escape into space leaving O2 in the atmosphere.
Oxygen cycling is intimately linked with carbon cycling through photosynthesis and respiration
(Figure 6)

Figure 6. Oxygen Cycle (Photosynthesis)

Source: alamy.com
Oxygen is released during photosynthesis of plants. During respiration of living organisms,
oxygen is used up. It is the final electron acceptor in energy cascade of respiration. Excess electrons and
H+ ions that are released when glucose decomposed during respiration are potentially disruptive to
cellular processes. The oxygen’s role is to clean-up the liberated electrons and H+ ion. Fish kills due to
low dissolved oxygen in lakes for example shows how important oxygen is to living organisms. The main
way oxygen is lost from the atmosphere is via respiration and decay mechanisms in which organisms
consume oxygen and release carbon dioxide. Oxygen is also consumed in the rusting of metals and
weathering of exposed rocks. Marine organisms also incorporate in their carbonate shell materials (Ca
CO3) which is available for deposition and sedimentation once the organism dies.

Figure 7. Oxygen Cycle (Decomposition)

Source: socratic.org
 In the stratosphere some oxygen is formed by the action of ultraviolet rays on water and oxygen
is converted to ozone. The ozone absorbs short –wavelength UV radiation that would otherwise make any
sort of life on Earth close to impossible.

Human Impact on Carbon Cycle and Its Consequence

Humans add carbon and carbon dioxide to the environment by releasing carbon from sinks such
as burning fossil fuels, and by burning fuel from wood and other organic material such as in the case of
slash and burn practice in the tropics. Modification and destruction of natural habitats especially forests,
grass lands, and woodlands contribute to increase in atmospheric CO2.
Humans contribute one fourth as much CO2 to the troposphere as nature with the potential of
altering the global climate. The principal cause of the increase in atmospheric CO2 has been the
combustion of fossil fuels by industrial plants. In the late18th century, at the beginning of the industrial
revolution, CO2 in the atmosphere is approximately 365 ppm, a more than 30% increase. The greenhouse
effect and global warming are two of the significant consequences of the excessive release of carbon in
the form of carbon dioxide from sinks. Greenhouse effect results from the warming of the Earth’s
atmosphere due to the increase in the concentration of CO2 and other gases. When the mean global
temperature reacs 3000C, the effect is called global warming. This condition comes about as the CO2
traps the longer wavelengths of infrared light, or heat, and prevents them from radiating into space

LESSON 2
Learning Outcomes: At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Discuss the process of nitrogen and phosphorous cycles
2. Identify the different biological processes involved in the nitrogen cycle, phosphorous cycle, sulfur and
hydrologic cycles
3. Explain the human impacts on nitrogen cycle, phosphorous cycle, sulfur and hydrologic cycles
4. Discuss the importance of maintaining these biogeochemical cycles sulfur and hydrologic cycles
5. Explain the human impacts on nitrogen cycle, phosphorus cycle, sulfur and hydrologic cycles
6. Discuss the importance of maintaining these biogeochemical cycles
7. Value the presence of these different cycles in the environment

Nitrogen, Phosphorus, Sulfur and Hydrologic Cycles

Nitrogen and Phosphorous Cycle

Organisms do not exist without amino acids, peptides and proteins, the organic molecules that
contain nitrogen. Producers (plants) form the nitrogen atoms into amino acids, peptides and proteins and
pass it on to the consumers.
 Nitrogen gas (N2) is stable, chemically unreactive and found in air, water and soil. N2 makes
up78% of the atmosphere, but plants cannot use this nitrogen gas. It has to be converted into absorbable
form. Nitrogen in the nitrogen cycle is produced both by biological and non-biological processes. (Figure
9)

Figure 8. Nitrogen Cycle

Source: en.wikipedia.org
The non-biological process is the fixation of atmospheric N 2 by the action of lightning, by
causing it to combine with oxygen producing nitrogen dioxide (NO 2) that reacts with water to produce
nitric acid (HNO3). Rainfall brings down the nitric acid to oceans and soils adding to the supply of
available nitrates in the oceans and the soil. Nitrates in soil can be absorbed by plants. However, only 3-4
% of fixed nitrogen is derived in this pathway.
Biological nitrogen fixation is achieved through the action of specialized bacteria (cyanobacteria
and actinomycetes in soil and water, and Rhizobium bacteria in the root system of legumes) that convert
N2 to ammonia (NH3). Bacteria of the genus Rhizobium fix greater amounts of atmospheric nitrogen
than do other organisms. Rhizobium forms a mutualistic relationship with legumes- the legumes receive
nitrogen in the form they can utilize and the Rhizobium receives carbohydrates from the plant.
The following are other biological processes involved in the nitrogen cycle:
1. Ammonification. In this process, decomposers especially bacteria, fungi and actinomycetes break
down dead organic material containing nitrogen and convert nitrogen to ammonia (NH3) and water
soluble salts containing ammonium ion (NH4+).
2. Nitrification. In this process, NH3 is converted by aerobic bacteria (genus Nitrosomonas) into nitrite
ions (NO2-) which are then converted by other bacteria (genus Nitrobacter) into nitrate ions (NO3-)
which is absorbable by plants. The nitrate produced by Nitrobacter is highly soluble in water and can
leach from the soil to the oceans where it can undergo denitrification and eventually return to the
atmosphere.
3. Assimilation. Plant roots absorb ammonia (NH3), ammonium ions (NH4+) and nitrate ions (NO3-) to
manufacture DNA, amino acids and proteins. In this case nitrogen is stored in nitrogenous compounds in
organisms. NH3 is toxic to plants at high concentrations while NH4+ is available under acidic conditions.
Nitrogen in the form of nitrate is more favorable for plant assimilation.
4. Denitrification. NH3 and NH4+ are acted upon by specialized bacteria to convert them into NO2- and
NO3- and then into N2 and N2O (nitrous oxide) which are then released into the atmosphere.
 In industry, ammonium salts as inorganic fertilizer is produced through the Haber process, that is
the chemical reaction between nitrogen gas and hydrogen gas to produce ammonia which can be
converted to ammonium.Nitrogen re-enters the atmosphere by the action of the denitrifying bacteria that
breaks down nitrate to N2 and NO2. Nitrogen re-enters the environment in several pathways:
 Through the death of organisms. Dead organisms are decomposed by fungi and bacteria to
release ammonia and ammonium in which are available for nitrate function
 Through production of excrement and urinary wastes. These wastes materials contain
nitrogenous compounds and detoxified waste of protein.
 Decomposition of by-product of living organisms such as denitrification. Denitrification occurs
mainly in the waterlogged soil with low oxygen availability and high amount of decomposable
organic matters. Denitrifying bacteria compete with plant roots for available nitrates

Human Impact on the Nitrogen Cycle and Its Consequence

Human activities can affect favorably or unfavorably the nitrogen cycle. On the positive side,
planting legume crops with root nodules containing nitrogen-fixing bacteria contributes further to
nitrogen fixation.
On the negative side, man releases three times more nitrogen oxides (NO, NO 2 and N2O) and
ammonia (NH3) into the nitrogen cycle than does nature. The most significant human perturbation to the
nitrogen cycle is the release of oxides of nitrogen resulting from combustion of oil and coal in power
plants, and from industrial processes and traffic emissions. Unmanaged manure from livestock and
poultry, and waste water discharge from factories and municipal sewage also releases large amounts of
ammonia that can undergo the denitrification process and release nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere.
These nitrogen oxides are then converted to nitric acid, which contributes to acid rain.
Soil fertilization using ammonium nitrate (NH 4NO3) can lead to leaching of the highly soluble
nitrate ions (NO3-) into the ground water. Elevated nitrate concentration is a concern in areas where
drinking water is drawn from ground water because nitrate can interfere with blood oxygen levels in
infants and cause blue ecosystems which in turn stimulate photosynthesizing algae and other plants.
Aerobic decomposers break down the excess aquatic bloom thereby depleting the water of dissolved
oxygen, a process called eutrophication.

Phosphorous Cycle
The phosphorus cycle is an example of the sedimentary cycle since its main reservoir occurs in
soil water, bodies of water and in rocks and ocean sediments. (Figure 10). The atmosphere is not involved
in the cycle. This is in contrast to the carbon and nitrogen cycles which are gaseous cycles where the main
reservoir of nutrients is the atmosphere and oceans.
Generally phosphorus is found in the form of the phosphate ion (PO43-) or the hydrogen
phosphate ion (HPO42-) which is found in terrestrial rock formations and ocean sediments. Phosphorus is
released from terrestrial rock formations by weathering and action of acid rain and is a very slow process.
Phosphorus becomes dissolved in soil water and is then taken up by plant roots. However, it is often a
limiting factor for both terrestrial and aquatic plant growth because phosphates exist in small amounts
since they are relatively insoluble.
 Inorganic phosphorus taken in by producer organisms (plants) are incorporated into organic
molecules (nucleic acids, cell membranes, energy transfer systems, ATP) and then passed on to
consumers. It returns to the environment by excretion of organisms and decomposition. Animals
eliminate excess phosphorus from their diets by excretion of phosphorus salts through their urine.
Decomposition of organic matter also releases phosphates through the action of phosphatizing bacteria.

Figure 9. Phosphorus Cycle

Source: enviroliteracy.org
Sea birds help move phosphorus from the aquatic ecosystem to terrestrial ecosystem. They feed
on fish and defecate on their roosting places. The manure of sea birds called guano contains large
amounts of phosphorus and nitrate. The guano finds its way back to the land and some may be able to
enter the terrestrial food chain and the cycle continues.

Human Impact on Phosphorus Cycle

Human activities such as large scale fishing move large amounts of phosphorus from the ocean to
the land. Large quantities of rocks containing phosphates are being mined and used for the production of
inorganic fertilizer and detergents. Runoff into streams from fertilizers and detergents contribute to
phosphorus accumulation in lakes and ponds. This accumulation causes an increase in the growth of
cyanobacteria(blue-green algae), green algae, and aquatic plants. This increase causes sunlight to be
blocked and for aerobic decomposes to decrease oxygen content in water, thereby killing aquatic animals
and plants.
Clear cutting areas for agriculture in the tropics decrease available phosphorus. Most phosphorus
is found in vegetation in tropical zones, little is found in soil. Upon decomposition of plant material by
decomposers, phosphorus is washed away in streams. Similarly, excessive land cultivation and
deforestation cause erosion and contribute to high amounts of phosphorus in runoff water.

Sulfur and Hydrologic Cycle

Sulfur circulates in various forms through nature. Sulfur occurs in all living matter as a
component of certain amino acids, proteins, vitamins and hormones. It is abundant in the soil, in organic
matter and through a series of microbial transformations, it ends up as sulfates usable by plants. The
sulfur cycle is primarily a gaseous cycle (Figure 11)
 Figure10. Sulfur Cycle
Source: slideshare.net
Most sulfur is found in underground rocks (FeS2 and CaSO4 or gypsum) and deep oceanic
deposits. Natural release of sulfur into the atmosphere comes from weathering, gases released from
seafloor vents, and volcanic eruptions and venting.
Hydrogen sulfide (H2S) and sulfur dioxide (SO2) gases enter the sulfur cycle through volcanoes
and geysers. Hydrogen sulfide is also released on breakdown of organic matter in swamps by anaerobic
decomposers. Some species of marine phytoplankton also produce fairly large quantities of dimethyl
sulfide (CH3-S-CH3)Sulfur dioxide in the atmosphere reacts with oxygen gas to produce sulfur trioxide
(SO3) gas. Sulfur trioxide then reacts with water droplets to form sulfuric acid (H2SO4), which is a major
contributor to acid rain.The essential steps of the sulfur cycle are:
 Mineralization of organic sulfur to the inorganic form, hydrogen sulfide: (H2S).
 Oxidation of sulfide and elemental sulfur (S) and related compounds to sulfate, (SO42-).
 Reduction of sulfate to sulfide
 Microbial immobilization of the sulfur compounds and subsequent incorporation into the organic
form of sulfur.

Human Impact on the Sulfur Cycle and Its Consequence

Human activities such as the burning of coal and oil (sulfur containing) and petroleum refining
releases twice as much as sulfur dioxide (SO2) into the troposphere as nature. Smelting of metal ores that
contain sulfur and utilization of sulfuric acid in industrial processes and manufacture are among the
human activities that impact the sulfur cycle. Sulfur dioxide and sulfate aerosols create human health
problems and damage crops. These gases also damage buildings, reduce visibility and absorb ultraviolet
radiation. The cloud cover that they create increased the earth’s reflectivity and tends to produce a cooling
effect, which may offset a minor portion of the heat caused by carbon dioxide and other greenhouse
gases.
Water or Hydrologic Cycle
The water cycle is powered by energy from the sun and gravity (Figure 12). Solar energy
evaporates water from oceans, lakes, rivers, streams, soil and vegetation. Approximately 85% of the water
vapor in the air initially comes from the oceans. In the waters on Earth, 97% is found in the oceans, 2% in
ice caps and glaciers and the remaining 1% is found in rivers, lakes, the atmosphere, ground water, soil
and living organisms. There are five processes at work in the hydrologic cycle: a) condensation, b)
precipitation, c) infiltration or percolation, d) runoff, and e) evapotranspiration

Figure 11. Water or Hydrologic Cycle

Source: www.canada.ca

On a global scale the role of living organisms in water cycle is very small compared to the
massive interactions of precipitation and evaporation from land and water surfaces. Plants and animals
take in large quantities of water. Some water taken in by green plants is used in photosynthesis, liberating
oxygen. Water taken by terrestrial organisms is given back to the environment by evaporation from the
body surfaces, such as skin of animals and leaves of plants. Animals also lose water vapor through their
respiratory surfaces shown for example as “gases as you breath” on a cold day. Animals also return water
to the environment through their urine and excrement. Plants participate in the water cycle as ground
cover to reduce evaporation of soil moisture. Vegetation reduces soil erosion due to runoff, especially on
slopes and areas of heavy rainfall. The long roots draw moisture from deep water sources making it
available to soil and surface ecosystem.
While the water cycle is itself a biogeochemical cycle, the flow of water over and beneath the
Earth is a key component of the cycling of other biogeochemical cycles. Runoff is responsible for almost
all of the transport of eroded sediment and phosphorus from land to water bodies. The salinity of the
oceans derived from erosion and transport of dissolved salts from the land. Eutrophication of lakes is
primarily due to phosphorus, applied in excess to agricultural fields in fertilizers, and then transported
overland and down rivers. Both runoff and groundwater flow play significant roles in transporting
nitrogen from the land to water bodies. Runoff plays a part in the carbon cycle, through the transport of
eroded rock and soil.
Human Impact on the Hydrologic Cycle and Its Consequence
Water is essential for the existence of man. It is a commodity which demand increases as
the human population increases. As human population increases so will our need to withdraw freshwater
from rivers, lakes, and underground aquifers. Withdrawal of large amounts of water from these sources is
often accompanied by saltwater intrusion and ground water depletion thus threatening local resource and
future supplies.The increasing human population also demands higher food production and shelter. This
entails clearing of land for agriculture or habitation thereby increasing surface runoff, decreasing
infiltration due to cemented areas, and consequently increasing flood risks, accelerating soil erosion and
increasing potential for landslides.Also a large population will not only use large amounts of water but
will also discharge more wastewater. Domestic, agricultural, and industrial wastes often overload water
supplies with hazardous chemicals and bacteria threatening the health of people.
Because of the importance of water in human existence it is vital for us to conserve and protect
our water resources.