Geography Foundation

21/May/25 Biogeography & Env Geography

Timing-12:00-2:30pm
Lecture-5

Patterns of Life Form Distribution:

1. Introduction

The distribution of plants and animals across the Earth's surface is influenced by various
factors, including climate, evolutionary history, migration, and human activities.
Understanding these patterns is essential for comprehending biodiversity and ecosystem
dynamics.

2. Biomes: Climate-Based Distribution

Definition: Biomes are large ecological areas on the Earth's surface, with flora and fauna
adapting to the climate and geography of the region.

● Equatorial Climate: Tropical rainforests characterized by high biodiversity and dense

vegetation.
● Temperate Climate: Temperate forests and grasslands with distinct seasonal changes.
● Desert Climate: Arid regions with sparse vegetation and specialized animal
adaptations.
● Cold Conditions: Taiga forests and tundra ecosystems with low temperatures and
specific plant and animal life.

Biomes provide a framework for studying life form distribution in relation to climate.
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3. Biogeographical Realms: Evolutionary and Historical Distribution

Definition: Biogeographical realms are large spatial units that represent distinct areas of the
Earth, characterized by specific biological communities and the organisms that inhabit them.

● Nearctic Realm: Includes most of North America, characterized by temperate forests,

grasslands, and tundra.
● Palearctic Realm: Encompasses Eurasia and North Africa, with diverse climates
ranging from tundra to deserts.
● Neotropical Realm: Covers Central and South America, known for tropical rainforests
and high biodiversity.
● Afrotropical Realm: Spans Sub-Saharan Africa, featuring savannas, deserts, and
tropical forests.
● Indomalayan Realm: Comprises South and Southeast Asia, with tropical forests and
rich species diversity.
● Australasian Realm: Includes Australia, New Guinea, and neighboring islands, home
to unique marsupials and monotremes.
● Antarctic Realm: Consists of Antarctica and surrounding islands, characterized by
extreme cold and specialized species.
● Oceania Realm: Encompasses Pacific Islands, known for coral reefs and island
biodiversity.
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These realms are shaped by historical factors like continental drift and climate, influencing the
distribution of species.

4. Factors Influencing Distribution Beyond Climate

● Evolutionary History: Species evolve in isolation due to geographical barriers, leading

to distinct biogeographical realms.
● Migration: Movement of species across regions can introduce new species and alter
existing ecosystems.
● Human Activities: Agriculture, domestication, and global trade have led to the spread
of species beyond their native ranges.

5. Gene Pool Centers: Human-Induced Distribution Patterns

Definition: Gene pool centers refer to regions where domesticated plants and animals
originate and from which they spread globally.
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● Cotton: Native to China, now cultivated worldwide.

● Tomato: Originated in South America, now a global crop.
● Potato: Grown in the Andes Mountains by the Incas, now widespread.
● Soybean and Pulses: Native to South America, now cultivated globally.

These centers highlight how human activities have reshaped the distribution of life forms.

The distribution of life forms is a complex interplay of climatic conditions, evolutionary history,
migration, and human influence. Understanding these patterns through biomes and
biogeographical realms provides insight into the Earth's biodiversity and the factors that shape

Biomes of the World-

1. Equatorial Rainforest Biome

Climate & Temperature

● Location: Within 10° latitude of the Equator (e.g., Amazon Basin, Congo Basin, Nicobar
Islands, Borneo).
● Temperature: Consistently warm throughout the year, typically exceeding 25°C, often
reaching 30–35°C.
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● Rainfall: Heavy, daily convectional rainfall with frequent thunderstorms; no distinct

seasons.
● Humidity: Extremely high relative humidity.

Vegetation

● Dominant Trees: Tall hardwoods with buttressed stems for stability.

● Leaves: Broad, thick, leathery leaves with drip tips to facilitate water runoff.
● Additional Flora: Epiphytes, creepers, and a diverse range of plant species.

Life Forms

● Primary Species: Monkeys, apes, birds, reptiles, and insects.

● Adaptations: Species are adapted to dense canopies and limited ground movement.
● Note: Large mammals are scarce due to dense vegetation.

2. Savanna Biome

Climate & Temperature

● Location: Tropical regions between 8° and 20° latitude (e.g., Venezuela, Suriname,
Guyana, parts of Africa, Australia, and India).
● Temperature: Warm to hot throughout the year, with summer temperatures reaching
40–45°C.
● Rainfall: Annual precipitation ranges from 70–150 cm, with a pronounced dry season
lasting 5–7 months.
● Seasons: Distinct wet and dry seasons, with the wet season receiving 80–90% of annual
rainfall

Vegetation

● Dominant Flora: Acacia trees, baobab trees, and various grasses.

● Adaptations: Plants are adapted to survive prolonged dry periods and occasional fires

Life Forms
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● Primary Species: Large mammals such as lions, elephants, giraffes, zebras, and various
herbivores.
● Adaptations: Species are adapted to open landscapes and seasonal availability of water.

3. Tropical Hot Desert Biome

Climate & Temperature

● Location: Subtropical regions (e.g., Sahara, Arabian Desert, Kalahari Desert, parts of
Australia).
● Temperature: Extremely high, with daytime temperatures reaching 40–50°C and
nighttime temperatures dropping to around 5°C.
● Rainfall: Annual precipitation is less than 40 cm, often irregular and infrequent.
● Humidity: Very low, with relative humidity ranging from 10% to 30%

Vegetation

● Dominant Flora: Cacti, xerophytes, and drought-resistant shrubs.

● Adaptations: Plants have specialized structures to conserve water and withstand
extreme temperatures.

Life Forms
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● Primary Species: Camels, reptiles, rodents, and various insects.

● Adaptations: Species are adapted to conserve water and regulate body temperature.

4. Mediterranean Climate Biome

Climate & Temperature

● Location: Regions bordering the Mediterranean Sea, parts of California, central Chile,
southwestern Australia, and the Cape Province of South Africa.
● Temperature: Hot, dry summers with temperatures exceeding 35°C; mild, wet winters
with occasional snowfall.
● Rainfall: Annual precipitation ranges from 70–100 cm, concentrated in winter months.

Vegetation

● Dominant Flora: Evergreen shrubs, olive trees, grapevines, and citrus fruits.
● Adaptations: Plants have sclerophyllous leaves to reduce water loss and are adapted to
fire-prone environments

Life Forms

● Primary Species: Deer, mountain goats, wild boars, and various bird species.
● Adaptations: Species are adapted to seasonal availability of food and water.

5. Temperate Grassland Biome

Climate & Temperature

● Location: Central North America (Prairies), Eurasian steppes, Pampas of South

America, Downs of Australia, and Canterbury Plains of New Zealand.
● Temperature: Hot summers with temperatures up to 30°C; cold winters with
temperatures dropping below freezing.
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● Rainfall: Annual precipitation ranges from 60–90 cm, with occasional droughts.

Vegetation

● Dominant Flora: Grasses such as ryegrass, bluestem, and fescue.

● Adaptations: Plants are adapted to withstand grazing and periodic fires

Life Forms

● Primary Species: Bison, antelope, prairie dogs, and various bird species.
● Adaptations: Species are adapted to open landscapes and seasonal changes in
temperature and precipitation.

6. Taiga (Boreal Forest) Biome

Climate & Temperature

● Location: Northern regions of North America, Europe, and Asia (e.g., Canada, Russia,
Scandinavia).
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● Temperature: Cold winters with temperatures dropping below -30°C; short, cool
summers with temperatures around 10–15°C.
● Rainfall: Annual precipitation ranges from 30–85 cm, primarily in the form of snow.

Vegetation

● Dominant Flora: Coniferous trees such as pine, spruce, and fir.

● Adaptations: Trees have needle-like leaves to reduce
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A. Climate

● Though important, climate alone does not explain the current distribution of
biodiversity.
● Temperature and rainfall are significant but not exclusive determinants.

B. Orientation of Physical Barriers

● Barriers like mountain ranges influence biodiversity distribution.

○ Example: The Alps in Europe separate Northern and Southern ecosystems.
■ Despite similar latitudes and climates, biodiversity in Germany differs
from that in Italy or Greece.
○ In North America, the absence of east-west mountain barriers allows freer
north-south migration of life forms.

C. Migration

● Migration of species contributes to their distribution.

○ Example: Goats, pigs, horses, and sheep migrated into North America via the
Bering Strait during the Ice Age from Asia.
○ These species are not native to North America.

D. Tectonic History

● Tectonic activities and continental drift have played significant roles in shaping current
biogeographical patterns.
○ Example: North and South America have distinct fauna due to:
■ Late tectonic connection via the Isthmus of Panama.
■ Desert barriers (Mexican, Colorado, Californian deserts) limiting
migration.
○ South America: Rich in amphibians and colorful birds (e.g., toucans, parrots),
but poor in large mammals.
○ Unique species like llamas and alpacas are found only in the Andes of South
America.

E. Evolutionary Isolation
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● Certain regions were isolated during key periods of evolution.

○ Example: Australia
■ Separated from Africa and Asia before the evolution of large carnivorous
mammals.
■ Preserved ancient forms like:
■ Marsupials (e.g., kangaroo, koala)
■ Monotremes (e.g., duck-billed platypus)
■ Distinct flora: e.g., eucalyptus varieties (trees, shrubs – mallee, mulga).

3. Definition of Biogeographical REMs

● A study that includes climate, tectonics, migrations, evolutionary history, and physical
geography is termed a biogeographical realm or REMs.
● More comprehensive than biome-based classification.

4. Major Biogeographical Realms (Wallace’s Scheme)

A. Holarctic Realm

● Comprised of:
○ Nearctic (North America)
○ Palearctic (Eurasia)

B. Holotropical Realm

● Comprised of:
○ Neotropical (South America)
○ Ethiopian (Africa)
○ Oriental (South and Southeast Asia, including India)
○ Australian (Australia)

C. Antarctica
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● Considered a separate realm due to its isolation and unique biodiversity.

5. Transition Zones (Ecotones)

● Zones where two or more biogeographical realms meet.
● Contain a mixture of species from adjoining realms.
● Seven recognized transition realms:
1. Mexican Transition
2. Patagonian Transition
3. Saharan Transition
4. Cape Transition (South Africa)
5. Chinese Transition
6. Indo-Malayan Transition
7. New Zealand Transition

6. Alternate Biogeographical Classification Schemes

A. Wallace Scheme

● Pioneer of the concept.

● Focused on animal distribution.

B. Sclater Scheme

● Based on the distribution of bird species.

C. Schmidt Scheme

● Similar to Wallace’s, with slightly different nomenclature:

○ Combines Nearctic and Palearctic into Arctogean.
○ South America becomes Neogean.
○ Australia becomes Notogean.
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7. Summary of Realms and Alternate Names

Realm Name Alternate Name Region

Nearctic — North America

Palearctic — Europe, North Africa,

Northern Asia

Neotropical Neogean South America

Ethiopian African Sub-Saharan Africa

Oriental Indomalayan South and Southeast Asia

Australian Notogean Australia and nearby islands

Antarctica — Antarctic continent

8. Key Life Forms by Realm

Australia

● Marsupials: kangaroo, koala, wallaby

● Monotremes: duck-billed platypus
● Flora: Eucalyptus (tall trees, mallee shrubs), mulga

South America

● Unique mammals: llamas, alpacas

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● Birds: vibrant parrots, toucans

● Dense amphibian biodiversity in the Amazon

Africa (Ethiopian)

● Savannas: lions, elephants, zebras

● Congo Rainforest: biodiversity hotspot

Major Biogeographical Realms(Detailed

Description)-

1. Nearctic Realm

● Regions Included: Most of North America, including Greenland and parts of Mexico.
● Representative Species:
○ Mammals: American bison, North American beaver, white-tailed deer.
○ Birds: Bald eagle, American robin, Canada goose.
○ Reptiles: Gila monster, western rattlesnake.
○ Amphibians: American bullfrog, wood frog.
● Climate: Ranges from Arctic in the north to temperate in the south.

2. Palearctic Realm

● Regions Included: Europe, northern Asia (excluding the Indian subcontinent), and
North Africa.
● Representative Species:
○ Mammals: Brown bear, Eurasian wolf, red fox.
○ Birds: European robin, Eurasian magpie, common raven.
○ Reptiles: European green lizard, sand lizard.
○ Amphibians: European common frog, Alpine newt.
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● Climate: Varies from Arctic tundra to temperate forests and deserts.

3. Neotropical Realm

● Regions Included: South America, Central America, the Caribbean, and southern
Florida.
● Representative Species:
○ Mammals: Jaguar, capybara, sloth.
○ Birds: Harpy eagle, toucan, hummingbird.
○ Reptiles: Green anaconda, caiman.
○ Amphibians: Poison dart frog, axolotl.
● Climate: Primarily tropical rainforests, with some temperate zones in the southern
regions.
● Endemism: High levels of endemism, especially among birds and amphibians.

4. Afrotropical (Ethiopian) Realm

● Regions Included: Sub-Saharan Africa, Madagascar, and parts of the Arabian

Peninsula.
● Representative Species:
○ Mammals: African elephant, lion, giraffe.
○ Birds: Secretary bird, hornbill, ostrich.
○ Reptiles: Nile crocodile, chameleon.
○ Amphibians: Goliath frog, African bullfrog.
● Climate: Ranges from tropical rainforests to savannas and deserts.
● Endemism: Notable endemism in Madagascar, including species like lemurs and the
fossa.

5. Indomalayan (Oriental) Realm

● Regions Included: Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, and parts of southern China.
● Representative Species:
○ Mammals: Bengal tiger, Indian rhinoceros, orangutan.
○ Birds: Indian peafowl, hornbill, sunbird.
○ Reptiles: King cobra, monitor lizard.
○ Amphibians: Purple frog, Chinese giant salamander.
● Climate: Tropical and subtropical climates, with significant monsoon influence.
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● Endemism: High diversity and endemism, especially in the Western Ghats and
Himalayas.

6. Australasian Realm

● Regions Included: Australia, New Guinea, and neighboring islands.

● Representative Species:
○ Mammals: Kangaroo, koala, platypus.
○ Birds: Emu, lyrebird, kookaburra.
○ Reptiles: Saltwater crocodile, thorny devil.
○ Amphibians: Giant tree frog, green tree frog.
● Climate: Ranges from tropical rainforests to deserts and temperate regions.
● Endemism: High levels of endemism, particularly among marsupials and monotremes.

7. Oceanian Realm

● Regions Included: Pacific islands, including Polynesia, Micronesia, and Melanesia

(excluding New Zealand).
● Representative Species:
○ Mammals: Pacific flying fox, Polynesian rat.
○ Birds: Kākāpō (New Zealand), various seabirds.
○ Reptiles: Marine iguana (Galápagos), various geckos.
○ Amphibians: Limited amphibian diversity.
● Climate: Tropical and subtropical climates, with significant marine influence.
● Endemism: Notable endemism in isolated island ecosystems.

8. Antarctic Realm

● Regions Included: Antarctica and surrounding islands.

● Representative Species:
○ Mammals: Antarctic fur seal, killer whale.
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