PRIMERA LENGUA MODERNA 8 (INGLÉS)

GRADO EN LMCC, 4º Curso Unit 1

HANDOUT
Unit 1
Basic sentence structure

Prof. Amaya Mendikoetxea

Room 204-VI Bis

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GRADO EN LMCC, 4º Curso Unit 1

Unit 1
Basic sentence structure

TOPIC 1: A REVIEW OF THE LEXICON AND CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE

TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONAL CATEGORIES IN CLAUSE STRUCTURE (1)
TOPIC 3: FUNCTIONAL CATEGORIES IN CLAUSE STRUCTURE (2)
TOPIC 4: MOVEMENT INVOLVING FUNCTIONAL HEADS

Unit 1 provides an introduction to the course by going back to two concepts which were central
in PLM6: the Lexicon and constituent structure and which are now reformulated within the
theoretical framework adopted. Thus, one of the purposes of this topic to make the transition
from description to theory. Regarding the Lexicon, notions such as argument structure and
subcategorization are discussed in relation to the Theta-Criterion and the Projection Principle.
As for constituent structure, the principles of X'-theory are revised and crucial relations between
the different constituents are introduced and defined precisely. In Topics 1 and 3 we expand
on the structure of the clause and Topic 4 introduces the notion of movement and in particular,
Head-Movement.

Basic references:

Haegeman, L. (1994): chap.1 and 2.

Radford, A. 1988 Transformational Grammar. Cambridge: CUP. Ch 8: sec. 8.3

TOPIC 1: A REVIEW OF THE LEXICON AND CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE

1. A REVIEW OF THE LEXICON
1.1. Categorial information
1.2. Subcategorization
1.3. Argument Structure
1.4. Beyond verbs: Nouns and Adjectives as lexical predicates
2. THETA THEORY AND ARGUMENT STRUCTURE
2.1. Theta Criterion and the Projection Principle
2.2. Expletives and existential sentences
3. CONSTITUENTS: A REVIEW OF PHRASE STRUCTURE
3.1. Basic principles of X’-theory: restricting grammars
3.2. The internal structure of phrases

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1. A REVIEW OF THE LEXICON

1.1. Categorial Information

➢ Words belong to categories; the category a word belongs to determines its

distribution

Lexical Categories
(1) a. They have no car, conscience, friends….
b. *They have no went, older, conscientiously….

(2) a. They can stay, leave, hide, starve, die….

b. *They can happily, book, green, ….

(3) a. He is very slow, foolish, intelligent, ashamed…

b. *He is very fool, play, slowly…

(4) a. She treats him very kindly, roughly, badly…

b. *She treats him very careful, nurse, down

Functional categories
Determiners
(5) a. The village store is near
b. This stupid comment of his!
c. Your dog has bitten me!
Quantifiers
(6) a. Most people have some money
b. Many politicians have no conscience
b. Every child needs all the attention he can get
Inflection
(7) a. You can/could/may/must/should stay
b. I would like you to stay
Complementiser
(8) a. I think that you should think more about this
b. I doubt if you can help me
c. I’m not sure whether it is a good idea
d. I’m anxious for you to pass your exam

1.2. Subcategorization

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Phrasal Complements
(9) a. Nobody abandons a search for happiness without resignation.[__NP]
b. He couldn't sleep after reading the financial news. [___]
c. They never told voters the truth about the situation. [__ NP [NP]]
d. You can always rely on him [__ PP on]
e. They have provided the staff with new offices. [__ NP [PP with]]

Clausal Complements
(10) a. They wanted [ to show their discontent ]
b. They feared [ that things would get much worse]
c. He remembered [ thinking that something was going to happen ]
d. Somebody has encouraged [people] [ to complain]

1.3. Argument Structure

(11) a. John rolled the ball. b. The ball rolled.

(12) a. I gave Mary the motorcycle helmet.

b. I gave the motorcycle helmet to Mary.

(13) a. Michael bought Chris a ticket for 'Kill Bill'.

b. Michael bought a ticket for 'Kill Bill' for Chris.

(14) a. i. Fred sang a song for his baby ii. Fred sang his baby a song.
b. i. Peter drew a picture for Julia ii. Peter drew Julia a picture.

(15) a. Peter drank his mug of Cocoa.

b. Peter drinks.

1.4. Beyond verbs: Nouns and Adjectives as lexical predicates

(16)a. She envies her cat envy: V

[__ NP]
(x, y)
<Exp, Theme>

b. She is envious of her cat. envious: A

[__ PP of]
(x, y)
<Exp, Theme>

(17) a. John analysed the situation

b. John’s analysis of the situation

(18) a. Her reply to my letter

b. A total ban on smoking
c. Her appeal for justice
d. A fight against poverty

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2. THETA THEORY AND ARGUMENT STRUCTURE

[mostly from Haegeman 1994: chapter 1]

2.1. The Theta Criterion and the Projection Principle

(19) a. The womani killed the burglarj.

b. *The womani killed
c. *The womani killed the burglarj the dogk

(20) NPi NPj NPi ? NPi NPj NPk

| | | | | | |
Agent Theme Agent Theme Agent Theme ?

►We need to define a mechanism whereby certain syntactic properties are associated with
particular θ-roles; the θ-assigning properties of lexical items don´t, on their own, allow us to
determine the category of a syntactic argument […].
The standard way to express statements about the category of a constituent to which
a particular θ-role is assigned is by means of c(ategorial) selection features
[from Carnie 2003: 85]

(21)Theta Criterion [Haegeman 1994: 54]

a Each argument is assigned one and only one theta role
b Each theta-role is assigned to one and only one argument

(22)Projection Principle
Lexical information is syntactically represented
[Haegeman 1994: 55]

(23)Extended Projection Principle

S→ NP INFL VP
All clauses must have subjects
[adapted from Haegeman: 69]

2.2. Expletives and Existentials

(24) a. The burglary surprised the woman.

b. That only a toothbrush and an old teapot had been stolen
surprised the woman.
c. It surprised the woman that only a toothbrush and an old teapot had been
stolen.
(25) a. Three pigs are escaping.
b. There are three pigs escaping.

(26) a. Many problems remain.

b. There remain many problems

(27) a. (*Ello) es una pena que Julia no hable chino

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b. (*Ciò) è chiaro che Louisa non partirà

3. CONSTITUENTS: A REVIEW OF PHRASE STRUCTURE

3.1. Basic principles of X’-theory: Restricting Grammars

3.1.1.Endocentricity
(28)Head:
The head of a construction Xn is the constituent Xo (i.e. a zero-level constituent) such
that no maximal projection Yn dominates Xo and is dominated by Xn.

a. la casa verde y [la azul] b. *the green house and the blue

NP

Det N'

la AP

A'

azul

[+N] [+Count]

3.1.2. Binary branching

(29)a. Sarah will buy the ticket for the concert on Tuesday
b. Peter will put the ticket for the concert on the shelf
XP

ZPspec X'

X YPcompl
Head-Compl relation:
Semantic: theta-role, selectional restrictions
Syntactic: subcategorization, Case

Spec-Head relation:
Semantic: theta-role; selectional restrictions (if X = lexical category)
Syntactic: agreement, Case

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3.2. The internal structure of phrases

(30)a. Heather is [a student of Linguistics]

b. She is [very proud of her knowledge]
c. She discovered it [quite independently of me]
d. One day she threw her grammar book [right out of the window]
e. But she is [seriously thinking of becoming a linguist]

(31)a. Of all the students of Linguistics, Heather is the most brilliant one.
b. She used to be [very proud of her knowledge], but now she is much less so.
c. She threw her grammar book right there.

(32) a. Heather is a brilliant [student of Linguistics] and [teacher of

Maths].
b. She is thinking of giving up dancing and becoming a linguist.

(33) a. *Brilliant student of Linguistics came to see me yesterday

b. *I saw brilliant student of Linguistics yesterday
c. *I like talking to brilliant student of Linguistics

(34) A student of Linguistics at the U.A.M.

XP (X'')

Spec X'

X' Adjunct

X Complement

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Topic 1: Exercise

Constituent structure : complements and adjuncts

What is the constituent structure of the following phrases? Discuss and provide PS
rules & P-Markers.

1a I don't [agree with you over this]

b I`ll [send some flowers to Mary for you]
c I got [so cross with her about the key]
d [Out from under the bed] crawled a naked man.
e People are much the same [the whole world over]
f. [His reply to my letter last week] meant a lot to me.

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TOPIC 2: FUNCTIONAL CATEGORIES IN CLAUSE STRUCTURE (1)

1.THE CLAUSE AS A PROJECTION OF INFL

2. ENGLISH AUXILIARY FORMS AND CONJUGATION
3. THE CATEGORY ASP

1. THE CLAUSE AS A PROJECTION OF INFL

(1) a. [ [NPThese students] [INFLwill] [VPstudy grammar]]
b. [ [NPMary] [INFLmight] [VPseem keen on tennis]]
c. [[NPHe] [INFLhad] [VPgiven the girl an apple]]
d. [[NPHis mother] [INFLwas] [VPreading in the living room]]
e. [ [NPHis mother] [INFL(past, 3rdperson, sing.)] [VPread in the living room]]

(2) a. Abandon the investigation, Poirot did indeed.

b. What Poirot did was abandon the investigation.
(3) a. I did not expect Poirot to abandon the investigation.
b. Poirot must abandon the investigation.

(4) Syntactic evidence for INFL and VP as independent constituents

i. VP-fronting a. I never will give in to blackmail.

b. Give in to blackmail, I never will!
ii. Adverb-insertion The team can certainly rely on my support.
iii. Coordination He may go to London and visit his mother.
iv. Shared-Constituent Coordination John will, and Mary may, go to the party.
v. Pro-form
a. That John could find the way by himself, which we all hoped he could, was
the key to believe in the doctor.
b. John will help me with the dishes and his brother will do so too.
vi. Ellipsis John won’t help me with the dishes but his brother will.
vii. Pseudo-cleft What Daniel will do is meet his friends in the park after school

(5) The nature of INFL

finite INFL [+tense] [+agreement] can, do, -s/-ed

non-finite INFL [-tense] [-agreement] to -ing

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➢ Heads select the feature of their complements: XPcompl has the features of X
(6) a. They are anxious that the president should go there.
b. They are anxious for the president to go there.
(7) a. They regret that so many people should lose their jobs.
b. They regret to lose their jobs.

(8) a.*I want that they come b.*I know to come

➢ Constituent structure: INFL forms a constituent with VP

(9) a. The man next door | may be moving house soon
b. I am anxious for you to enter a race and to win it,
c. Rita wants Paul - and Flora wants Phil - to enter the race

IP [+/- finite]
NP I’
I VP
[+/-finite]
MODALS
AUXILIARY VERBS
EMPHATIC DO
‛DUMMY' do
-s, -ed, -ø
–––––––––
INFINITIVAL MARKER TO
-ing
ø

a. HEAD–COMPL: INFL categorially selects a verbal constituent as complement

b. SPEC-HEAD:
• Agreement: e.g. the NP in the Spec position determines the agreement
features of the [+FIN] INFL
• Case: e.g. Nominative Case is imposed by a [+FIN] INFL on the NP in the Spec
position

2. ENGLISH AUXILIARY FORMS AND CONJUGATION

(10)a. can, could, shall, should, will, would, may, might, must, ought , need b.
be, have, do (in their tensed and participial forms)

(11)a. Ask not what your country can do for you b. *Askn't

(12) a. can't, couldn't, shan't, shouldn't, won't, wouldn't, ?mayn't, mightn't,

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mustn't, oughtn't (to)
b. isn't, aren't, wasn't, weren't, haven't, hasn't, hadn't, don't, doesn't,
didn't.

(15) a. I must talk to him immediately.

b. What I must do is [talk to him]
c. …..and [talk to him] I must!

(16) a. *I must should talk to him

b. *I might can talk to him

(17) a. *I must talked to him.

b. *She mays talk to him

→ Tense features on modals occupy a position outside the verbal domain (VP)
(18)a. I did talk to him. b. She does talk to him

(19)a. What I did was [talk to him] b. … and [talk to him] I did

→ Tense features on affixes occupy a position outside the verbal domain (VP)

(20) a. She tried to leave.

b. *She tried to left What do these examples indicate about the status of to?
c. *She tried to may leave
d. *She tried to do leave

(21) Grammatical properties of INFL elements

Tag questions You will be there, won't you?
Inversion Will you be there?
VP-deletion He will be there, but you won't__

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3. THE CATEGORY ASP

IP

NP I’

I VP

[±TENSE] V ASPP
have/

be ASP’

ASP VP
[±perf]

(22) a. *John will can come

b. *John would must come
(23) a. John must have had a brilliant time.
b. Fergus could be a genius, but he must be hiding his talent.
(24) a. *Fergus does NOT [VP have [VP come]]
b. *Fergus did NOT [VP be [VP calling you yesterday]]
(25) a. Fergus [I will] NOT [VP have [VP come]]
b. *Fergus [I will have] NOT [VP t [VP come]]
c. Fergus [I will] NOT [VP be [VP calling you]]
d. *Fergus [I will be] NOT [VP t [VP calling you]]

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Topic 2: Exercises

Exercise 1: clauses as IPs

Discuss the derivation of the following sentences, concentrating on inflectional

elements and auxiliary verbs
a. I have rarely seen John so angry
b. John must have completely forgotten about the appointment.
c. He must have been thinking about something else.

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TOPIC 3: FUNCTIONAL CATEGORIES IN CLAUSE STRUCTURE (2):

THE FUNCTIONAL CATEGORY C

[from Wikipedia]

• A complementizer, as used in linguistics (especially generative grammar), is a syntactic

category (part of speech) roughly equivalent to the term subordinating conjunction in
traditional grammar.

(1) Mary believes that it is raining.

• The term "complementizer" was apparently first used by Rosenbaum (1967).

• The complementizer is widely held to be the syntactic head of a full clause, which is
therefore often represented by the abbreviation CP (for complementizer phrase).
Evidence that the complementizer functions as the head of its clause includes the fact
that it is commonly the last element in a clause in languages like Korean or Japanese, in
which other heads follow their complements, and always first in "head-initial" languages
such as English.

(2) Uste dut etorriko dela. 'I think she will come.' Basque

Ez dut esan etorriko denik. 'I didn't say (that) he is going to come.'

Hor dabilen gizona nire aita da. 'The man who is walking there is my father.'

(Cf. Hor dabil gizona. 'The man is walking there.')

• It is common for the complementizers of a language to develop historically from other

syntactic categories (a process known as grammaticalization).
o Across the languages of the world, it is especially common for determiners to be
used as complementizers (e.g., English that).
o Another frequent source of complementizers is the class of interrogative words. It
is especially common for a form that otherwise means what to be borrowed as a
complementizer, but other interrogative words are often used as well; e.g.,
colloquial English I read in the paper how it's going to be cold today, with
unstressed how roughly equivalent to that).
o English for in sentences like I would prefer for there to be a table in the corner
shows a preposition that has arguably developed into a complementizer. (The
sequence for there in this sentence is not a prepositional phrase under this
analysis.)
o In many languages of West Africa and South Asia, the form of the
complementizer can be related to the verb say. In these languages, the
complementizer is also called the quotative. The quotative performs many
extended functions in these languages.

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(3) a. I know that they will be arriving late.

b. I had arranged for them to stay in a nice hotel.
c. I asked if they would like to rent a car.
d. I don’t know whether [they will stay] / [to stay or not]

(4) C’

C IP
[± wh]

[± fin] NP I’
|
Feature-matching between C and I
(5) a. I know that [they will be arriving late]
*[them to arrive late]
b. I arranged for [them to stay in a nice hotel]
*[they will stay in a nice hotel]

The features of CP are selected by V

(6) a. I asked [if they would like to rent a car]
*[that they would like to rent a car]
b. I think *[whether/if they are going to enjoy themselves]
[that they will enjoy themselves]

(7)
V’

V CP

Spec C’

C IP
[+/-wh]

NP I’

I VP

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(8) a. *It was hard for to do that

b. It was hard for them to do that

(9) (i) a. I know [CP [C that] they will be arriving late]

b. I know [CP [C Ø] they will be arriving late]
(ii) a. We arranged [CP [C for] them to stay in a nice hotel]
b. We arranged [CP [C Ø PRO to stay in a nice hotel]

(10) a. [C Will] [IP they stay]?

b. I asked [CP [C whether] they would stay]
c. I asked [CP where [C Ø ] they would stay]?

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TOPIC 3: Exercises
Exercise 1: The features of C [adapted from Haegeman & Guéron 1999: 149 (Ex. 9)]

Explain why the following sentences are ungrammatical and modifiy them so that they become
Grammatical
1. *I wonder for John to come
2. *I think for John to come
3. *That John came
4. *I asked if John to come
5. *I wondered whether John to come
6. *I believe whether John will come
7. *I want that he leaves immediately

Exercise: if vs. whether [adapted from Radford: p. 525]

On the basis of examples such as the following and other that you may devise, discuss the
various differences between interrogative complementizers and wh-phrases like when, where,
how and others:

[1] a. When did it rain?

b. *Whether/*if it rained?

[2] a. I think that John left but I am not really sure when
b. *Peter thinks that John left but I'm not really sure if/whether

[3] a. SPEAKER A: I have decided to leave

b. SPEAKER b: When/*whether/*if?

[4] I very much doubt whether/if/*when we will go

In addition, on the basis of examples such as those below, try and work out some of the
differences between whether and if.

[1] I don't know whether/if he is coming

[2] I'm not sure whether/if he is coming
[3] There is some doubt about whether/*if he is coming
[4] Whether/*if he has won is not clear
[5] The prisoner begged if/*whether he could be transferred to another prison
[6] I don't know whether/*if or not he will turn up
[7] She doesn’t know whether/*if to get married

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TOPIC 4: MOVEMENT INVOLVING FUNCTIONAL HEADS.

1.INFLECTIONAL/TENSE MARKERS ON VERBS AND HEAD MOVEMENT

1.2. Affix movement
1.2. Do-support in English

2.I – MOVEMENT
2.1 I-movement is movement from I
2.2 I-movement is movement to C
2.3.. Elements that undergo I-movement

1.INFLECTIONAL/TENSE MARKERS ON VERBS AND HEAD MOVEMENT

1.1. Affix movement

(1) a. Lisa started the fight

b. She knows all the answers
(2) Lisa [-ed] [VP start the fight]

(3) a. Lisa could finally start the fight

b. She will always know all the answers
(4) a. Lisa finally started the fight
b. She always knows all the answers
(5) a. *Lisa started finally the fight
b. *She knows always all the answers

►In present day English, lexical verbs get their affixes through affix-movement
(6) a. Lisa is always right
b. *Lisa always is right

(7) Lisa [-s] [VP be right] Verb-movement (or Verb-raising)

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1.2. Do-support in English

(8) a. I was not sitting under a tree → sentential negation.
b. I was not eating a peach
(9) a. I was sitting not under a tree (but under a bush) → constituent negation.
b. I was eating not a peach (but an apple)

(10) a. I haven´t got any money

b. I have no money
(11) a. Lisa could not start the fight
b. She will not avoid the issue

Neg vs. adverbs

(12) a. I was eating a peach but Peter was not.
b. Eating a peach, he was not!
c.
(13) a. *I am always eating peaches but Peter is never
d. *Eating a peach, he was always!

→ NEG heads its own projection between I and VP

IP

Spec I’

I NegP

Neg’

Neg VP

(14) a. Lisa will NOT start the fight.

b. *Lisa NOT started the fight
c. *Lisa started NOT the fight
d. Lisa did NOT start the fight

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(15) Do-support = a last resort mechanism to avoid affix-stranding

IP

Spec I’

I NegP
-ed
Neg’

Neg VP

2.I - MOVEMENT

(14) a. [IP You will tell the truth]

b Will [IP you __ tell the truth]?

(15) Wh-Movement = Movement to <Spec, CP>

(16) a. [IP You will tell the truth tomorrow]

b. [IP You will tell the truth when]?
c. [CP When will [IP you __ tell the truth __]]?

2.1 I-movement is movement from I

(17) a. *Will he can tell the truth?

b. *Will he to tell the truth?

(18) a. Can we do anything for you?

b. I don't know whether we can do anything for you.

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(19) a. Should I have/*I've called the police?

b. Will we have/*we've finished by 4 o'clock?
c. Would you have/*you've wanted to come with me?

(20) [C Will[C Ø[Q]]] [IP you __ tell the truth]? → adjunction

2.2 I-movement is movement to C

(20) a. *She wondered [whether/if would she come back]
b. She wondered [whether/if she would come back]

(21) a. If you should need more information...

b. Should you need more information...
c. *If should you need more information...

2.3.. Elements that undergo I-movement

(22) a, Has he a car?
b. Have you finished your assignment?
c. Is John happy?
d. Are you going to be good?
e. Does everybody agree?
f. Can anybody solve this problem?

(23) *Want they to start arguing?

(24) a. Has Fergus done the job?

b. *Have Fergus -s done the job?
c. *Have Fergus does done the job?

(25) a. Will John be interested?

b. *Be John will interested?

(26) a. *[C Have] [IP Fergus [I -s] [VP t done the job]]?
|--------------------------|

b. *[C Be] [IP John [I will] [VP t be interested]]?

|---------------------------|

(27) Head Movement Constraint (HMC)

[adapted from Chomsky (1986) Barriers]

Movement of an Xo category A is restricted to the position of a head B that
governs the maximal projection of A.

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EXERCISES TOPIC 4
Exercise 1

Can you explain the following grammatical and ungrammatical structures?

(1) *Fergus could be not convinced of your arguments

(2) *John have must though I was lying
(3) *Fergus did not have thought of a solution
(4) *I have seen rarely John so angry
(5) *I just have talked to him
(6) *Fergus askn't that question

Exercise 2

Below are typical utterances produced by two to three year old children Try and work
out what rule the children appear to have devised in each case, and how it differs from
the adult rule: (1) represent typical negative sentences produced by children at around
two years of age, and (2) represent negative structures typical of two and a half-years-
old, (3) is a dialogue between a child and an adult:

(1) a. No the sun shining

b. No Fraser drink all tea
c. No mum sharpen it

(2) a. He no bite you

b. I no want envelope
c. I no taste them

(3) CHILD: Nobody don't like me

ADULT: No, say 'Nobody likes me'
CHILD: Nobody don't like me
(eight repetitions of this dialogue)
ADULT: No, now listen carefully 'Nobody likes me'
CHILD: Oh, Nobody don't likes me

Exercise 3

It has been suggested that in French V may raise to I, while in English it may not
(except for have & be). Thus we find the following contrasts between the two
languages (examples from Pollock 1989)[assume that pas is the negative]:

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GRADO EN LMCC, 4º Curso Unit 1
(1) a. *John likes not Mary
b. Jean (n') aime pas Marie

(2) a. *John kisses often Mary

b. Jean embrasse souvent Marie

(3) a. John often kisses Mary

b. *Jean souvent embrasse Marie

What would be the phrase structure analysis of the French and English data? How
does this analysis lead to the conclusion that V raises to I in French but not in English?

Exercise 4: Verbs, auxiliaries and modals

[adapted from Haegeman & Guéron 1999: 148 (Ex. 8)]

Explain how our grammar can account for following contrasts:

(1) a. Louise is not sleeping well.

b. *Louise sleeps not well.

(2) a. Louise often sends material to Thelma.

b. *Louise sends often material to Thelma.

(3) (i) a. Women need not apply for this job.

b. *Women not need apply for this job.
(ii) a. Women don’t need to apply for this job.
b. *Women need not to apply for this job.

(4) a. Thelma has not written a report.

b. *Thelma does not have written a report

(5) a. Thelma must not write a report.

b. *Thelma does not must write a report.

(6) a. Thelma does not have to write a report.

b. *Thelma has not to write a report.

(7) a. Thelma hasn’t enough money (British, formal)

b. Thelma does not have enough money (American, British)

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