what are hackers?

discuss various types of hackers

Hackers are individuals who use their technical knowledge and skills to gain unauthorized access to
systems, networks, or data. Not all hackers have malicious intent; they are categorized based on their
purpose and methods.

Types of Hackers:

1. White Hat Hackers (Ethical Hackers)

 Work legally to improve security.

 Employed by organizations to find and fix security vulnerabilities.

2. Black Hat Hackers

 Malicious hackers who break into systems for personal or financial gain.

 Involved in cybercrimes like data theft, malware attacks, etc.

3. Grey Hat Hackers

 Operate between ethical and unethical behavior.

 May hack without permission but don't usually have harmful intentions.

4. Script Kiddies

 Inexperienced hackers who use pre-written scripts or tools.

 Often hack for fun or recognition without deep technical knowledge.

5. Hacktivists

 Hack for political or social causes.

 Aim to spread awareness or disrupt systems to protest.

6. State-Sponsored Hackers

 Employed by governments for cyber-espionage, surveillance, or attacks on other

nations.

7. Insider Threats

 Individuals within an organization who misuse their access for malicious purposes.

what is malware and what are its type

Malware (short for malicious software) is any software designed to harm, exploit, or gain
unauthorized access to computers, networks, or data.

Types of Malware:

1. Virus

 Attaches to files and spreads when the file is run.

 Can corrupt or delete data.

 2. Worm

 Self-replicating and spreads without user action.

 Consumes bandwidth and slows systems.

3. Trojan Horse

 Disguised as legitimate software.

 Creates backdoors for attackers.

4. Ransomware

 Locks or encrypts data and demands payment for access.

 Often used in cyber-extortion.

5. Spyware

 Secretly gathers user information (like passwords, browsing habits).

 Often used for surveillance or identity theft.

6. Adware

 Automatically displays or downloads unwanted ads.

 May come bundled with free software.

7. Rootkit

 Hides the presence of malware and allows continued privileged access.

 Very hard to detect and remove.

8. Keylogger

 Records keystrokes to steal sensitive information like passwords and credit card
numbers.

what is ftp , http , smtp?

1. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)

 Purpose: Transfers files between computers over a network.

 Port: Uses port 21.

 Use Case: Uploading or downloading files from a web server.

2. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)

 Purpose: Used for accessing and transferring web pages on the internet.

 Port: Uses port 80.

  Use Case: Loading websites in a browser (like www.google.com).

3. SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol)

 Purpose: Sends emails from a client to a server or between mail servers.

 Port: Uses port 25 (also 587 for secure transmission).

 Use Case: Sending outgoing emails from applications like Gmail or Outlook.

What is a Proxy Server?

A proxy server is an intermediate server that sits between a user's device and the internet. It
forwards requests from the client to the target server and then sends the response back to the client.

Purpose of a Proxy Server:

1. Privacy Protection

 Hides the user's IP address to keep their identity and location private.

2. Security

 Filters harmful content and can block malicious websites.

3. Access Control

 Used in organizations to restrict access to certain websites or services.

4. Content Caching

 Stores frequently accessed data to speed up requests and save bandwidth.

5. Bypassing Geo-restrictions or Censorship

 Allows users to access blocked or region-restricted content.

6. Monitoring and Logging

 Tracks user activity for administrative or security purposes.

what is brute force attack

What is a Brute Force Attack?

A Brute Force Attack is a trial-and-error method used by attackers to guess passwords, encryption
keys, or login credentials by trying all possible combinations until the correct one is found.

Key Points:

 Very time-consuming, especially with strong passwords.

  Often automated using scripts or tools.

 Weak or simple passwords (like "1234", "password") are easily cracked.

Types of Brute Force Attacks:

1. Simple Brute Force – Tries all combinations.

2. Dictionary Attack – Tries common words or passwords from a list.

3. Hybrid Attack – Combines dictionary and brute force (adds numbers/symbols).

4. Credential Stuffing – Uses stolen usernames/passwords from data breaches.

Prevention Methods:

 Use strong, complex passwords

 Enable account lockout after several failed attempts

 Use CAPTCHA, two-factor authentication (2FA)

 Limit login attempts and monitor suspicious activity

What is Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)?

Cross-Site Scripting (XSS) is a type of web security vulnerability where an attacker injects malicious
scripts (usually JavaScript) into a trusted website or web application.

How it Works:

 The attacker tricks the website into displaying their script.

 When a user visits the site, the malicious script runs in their browser.

 This can steal cookies, session tokens, or other sensitive data.

Types of XSS:

1. Stored XSS

 Malicious script is permanently stored on the server (e.g., in a comment or post).

2. Reflected XSS

 Script is in the URL or form input and reflected back in the web page response.

3. DOM-based XSS

 The vulnerability exists in the client-side script (JavaScript) that modifies the page
content using user input.
Impact of XSS:

 Data theft

 Session hijacking

 Redirecting users to malicious sites

 Defacing websites

Prevention:

 Sanitize and validate all user inputs.

 Use HTML escaping to prevent code injection.

 Apply Content Security Policy (CSP) headers.

Use modern frameworks that auto-handle XSS (e.g., React, Angular)

IDS (Intrusion Detection System)

 A security tool that monitors network traffic or system activities to detect suspicious
behavior or attacks.

 It only alerts administrators but does not take action to stop the attack.

IPS (Intrusion Prevention System)

 A security tool that detects and also actively blocks threats in real-time.

 It can drop malicious packets, block IPs, or terminate connections.

Difference Between IDS and IPS:

Feature IDS (Intrusion Detection) IPS (Intrusion Prevention)

Function Detects threats Detects and blocks threats

Action Taken Sends alerts only Takes preventive action

Placement Usually outside the traffic flow In-line with traffic flow

Impact on Traffic No delay May introduce slight delay

Use Case Monitoring and logging Real-time protection

Wireless Access Point (WAP):

 A Wireless Access Point is a network device that allows Wi-Fi devices (like phones, laptops)
to connect to a wired network wirelessly.

 It acts as a bridge between wireless devices and a wired LAN.

Key Points:

 Uses radio signals to transmit data.

 Commonly used in homes, offices, and public areas.

 Works with a router to provide internet access.

Cellular Network:

 A Cellular Network is a wireless communication system that uses cell towers to

provide mobile phone and data services over large areas.

 Devices connect via SIM cards and radio frequencies.

Key Points:

 Covers large geographical areas.

 Uses technologies like 2G, 3G, 4G, 5G.

 Enables mobile calling, SMS, and internet access.

Difference Between WAP and Cellular:

Feature Wireless Access Point (WAP) Cellular Network

Range Limited (within a building) Wide (city-wide to nationwide)

Technology Used Wi-Fi 2G/3G/4G/5G

Requires SIM Card? No Yes

Internet Source From wired router From mobile service provider

What is a Dictionary Attack?

A Dictionary Attack is a method used by attackers to crack passwords by trying a list of common or
likely passwords, called a dictionary.
How it Works:

 The attacker uses a pre-made list of words (like “password”, “123456”, “qwerty”, etc.).

 These words are tried one by one to guess the correct password.

Key Points:

 Faster than brute force (because it skips random combinations).

 Often targets weak or simple passwords.

 Commonly used in login attacks and offline password cracking.

Prevention:

 Use strong, complex passwords (with letters, numbers, symbols).

 Implement account lockout after failed login attempts.

 Use multi-factor authentication (MFA).

 Avoid using common passwords.

What is Phishing?

Phishing is a type of cyber attack where attackers try to trick users into revealing sensitive
information, such as passwords, credit card numbers, or personal details, by pretending to be
a trusted entity (like a bank, website, or company).

How It Works:

 Victims receive fake emails, messages, or websites that look real.

 They are asked to click a link, enter login info, or download a file.

 The attacker then steals the entered data or infects the device.

Common Types of Phishing:

1. Email Phishing – Fake emails pretending to be from trusted sources.

2. Spear Phishing – Targeted phishing aimed at a specific person or company.

3. Smishing – Phishing through SMS/text messages.

4. Vishing – Voice phishing through phone calls.

5. Clone Phishing – A copy of a legitimate email with a malicious link.

Prevention Tips:

 Do not click on suspicious links or attachments.

 Always verify the sender’s email address.

 Use spam filters and antivirus software.

 Enable two-factor authentication (2FA).

 Check website URLs carefully before entering login info.

Difference Between Packet Filter Firewall and Application Level Gateway Firewall

Application Level Gateway Firewall

Feature Packet Filter Firewall (Proxy Firewall)

Layer of Network layer (Layer 3) and

Operation Transport layer (Layer 4) Application layer (Layer 7)

Based on IP addresses, ports, and Based on specific application data (like

Traffic Filtering protocols HTTP, FTP requests)

Slower, more processing due to deep

Speed Faster, less processing inspection

High (can detect application-specific

Security Level Basic attacks)

Stateful or
Stateless Usually stateless Usually stateful

Complexity Simple to configure More complex configuration

Web filtering, content inspection,

Example Use Case Basic network access control preventing SQL injection

User
Authentication Not supported or limited Supports user-level authentication

Summary:

 Packet Filter Firewall: Simple, fast, filters by IP/port.

  Application Level Gateway: Detailed, secure, filters by app-level data (e.g., website URLs,
commands).

1. Data Theft

 Definition: Unauthorized copying, transferring, or stealing of sensitive data.

 Examples: Stealing customer records, credit card numbers, or confidential files.

 Goal: Financial gain, blackmail, or corporate espionage.

2. Identity Theft

 Definition: Using someone else's personal information (like name, Aadhaar, bank info)
without permission.

 Purpose: To commit fraud, such as opening bank accounts or making online purchases in the
victim's name.

3. Email Spoofing

 Definition: Sending emails with a fake sender address to trick the recipient.

 Used For: Phishing, scams, or spreading malware.

 Example: An email appearing to be from your bank but actually sent by an attacker.

4. Cyber Terrorism

 Definition: Use of computers and the internet to cause harm, fear, or disruption for political
or religious reasons.

 Examples: Attacking critical infrastructure, spreading propaganda, or hacking government

systems.

5. Email Spamming

 Definition: Sending unwanted, bulk emails to many users.

 Purpose: Advertising, phishing, or spreading malware.

 Effect: Fills inboxes, wastes bandwidth, and can lead to security risks.

🦠 Difference Between Virus, Worm, and Trojan Horse:

Feature Virus Worm Trojan Horse

Malicious code that

attaches to files and Self-replicating malware
spreads when the file is that spreads automatically Malware disguised as
Definition executed. through networks. legitimate software.

User action (e.g., opening Automatically, without user Trickery — user installs
Spreads By infected file) action it thinking it's safe

Needs a host file to

Replication replicate Replicates on its own Does not replicate itself

Damage Slows systems, consumes Creates backdoors,

Caused Corrupts or deletes files bandwidth steals data

Easier to detect due to Can be harder to detect Hard to detect as it

Detection file infection early looks like real software

🔁 Summary:

 Virus: Needs a file to spread.

 Worm: Spreads by itself over networks.

 Trojan Horse: Hides inside fake legitimate programs.

 SSL: Secure Sockets Layer

A protocol used to secure communication over the internet using encryption (now replaced by TLS).

 ITA: Information Technology Act

Refers to the Information Technology Act, 2000 in India, which provides legal recognition for
electronic transactions and cybercrime laws.

What is 2FA (Two-Factor Authentication)?

2FA stands for Two-Factor Authentication. It is a security method that requires two types of
verification to log in to an account, making it harder for attackers to gain access.
How It Works:

You need to provide:

1. Something you know – like a password or PIN

2. Something you have – like a phone (OTP), security token, or app code
(Sometimes includes a third factor: Something you are – fingerprint or face)

Examples:

 Logging in with a password and an OTP sent to your phone

 Using a password and an authenticator app (like Google Authenticator)

 ATM: Card (something you have) + PIN (something you know)

Benefits:

 Adds an extra layer of security

 Prevents access even if your password is stolen

What is a Firewall?

A firewall is a network security device or software that monitors and controls incoming and
outgoing network traffic based on predefined security rules.

Purpose of a Firewall:

 To protect a computer or network from unauthorized access, cyberattacks, or malicious

traffic.

 Acts like a barrier between a trusted internal network and untrusted external networks (like
the internet).

Types of Firewalls:

1. Packet Filtering Firewall – Filters traffic based on IP, port, and protocol.

2. Stateful Firewall – Tracks active connections and allows traffic based on connection state.

3. Application-Level Gateway (Proxy Firewall) – Filters traffic at the application layer (e.g.,
HTTP, FTP).

4. Next-Generation Firewall (NGFW) – Combines traditional firewall with advanced features

like intrusion prevention, deep packet inspection, etc.

5. Software Firewall – Installed on individual devices.

6. Hardware Firewall – A physical device placed between the network and gateway.
Benefits:

 Blocks unauthorized access

 Prevents malware and hacking attempts

 Helps enforce network policies

Two Common Hashing Algorithms:

1. MD5 (Message Digest 5)

 Output Length: 128-bit (32-character hexadecimal)

 Use: Data integrity checks, file verification.

 Note: Not secure for passwords due to known vulnerabilities (e.g., collisions).

2. SHA-256 (Secure Hash Algorithm 256-bit)

 Output Length: 256-bit (64-character hexadecimal)

 Use: Secure password hashing, digital signatures, blockchain.

 Stronger and more secure than MD5.

✅ Bonus Info (if needed):

 Hashing is one-way (irreversible).

 Used in password storage, digital signatures, and data integrity checks.

What is Hashing?

Hashing is the process of converting any data (like a password, file, or message) into a fixed-size
string of characters, called a hash value or digest, using a hash function.

Key Features:

 One-way function: You cannot reverse a hash to get the original data.

 Fixed length output: Regardless of input size (e.g., “hello” and a whole book both produce
same-length hash).

 Deterministic: Same input always gives the same output.

 Sensitive to changes: Even a small change in input gives a completely different hash.
Uses of Hashing:

 Password storage (store hash instead of actual password)

 Data integrity checks (e.g., file checksums)

 Digital signatures

 Blockchain and cryptocurrency

Examples of Hashing Algorithms:

 MD5

 SHA-1, SHA-256, SHA-512

What is SQL Injection?

SQL Injection is a web security vulnerability that allows an attacker to interfere with the
queries that a web application sends to its database.

How It Works:

 An attacker enters malicious SQL code into a form input (like a login or search box).

 The application fails to properly validate the input and sends it directly to the database.

 This lets the attacker view, modify, or delete data.

Example:

Suppose a login form uses this SQL query:

sql

CopyEdit

SELECT * FROM users WHERE username = 'admin' AND password = '1234';

An attacker enters:

 admin' -- as username
(The -- is a comment in SQL, which ignores the rest of the query)

Final query becomes:

sql
CopyEdit

SELECT * FROM users WHERE username = 'admin' --' AND password = '1234';

This bypasses password checking and logs in as admin.

Dangers of SQL Injection:

 Unauthorized access to data

 Deleting entire tables

 Bypassing login authentication

 Gaining full control over the database

Prevention Methods:

 Use prepared statements / parameterized queries

 Validate and sanitize user input

 Use ORM frameworks that handle SQL safely

 Limit database user permissions

What is the Concept of VPN (Virtual Private Network)?

A VPN (Virtual Private Network) is a secure tunnel between your device and the internet.
It encrypts your data and hides your IP address, allowing for private and secure browsing.

Key Concepts:

 Privacy: Your internet activity is hidden from ISPs, hackers, or public Wi-Fi snoopers.

 Encryption: Data is converted into unreadable code while traveling over the network.

 IP Masking: Your real IP address is replaced with the VPN server’s IP, hiding your location.

 Secure Remote Access: Lets users safely access company or personal networks over the
internet.

Uses of VPN:

 Secure browsing on public Wi-Fi

 Access restricted content (e.g., geo-blocked websites)

 Bypass censorship in restricted regions

 Remote work with access to corporate networks

How It Works (Simplified):

1. You connect to a VPN server.

2. Your data is encrypted and routed through the VPN.

3. The VPN server connects to the actual website.

4. The response is sent back to you securely.

Comparison Between IPv4 and IPv6

Feature IPv4 IPv6

Internet Protocol version

Full Form 4 Internet Protocol version 6

Address Length 32-bit 128-bit

Decimal Hexadecimal
Address Format (e.g., 192.168.0.1) (e.g., 2001:0db8:85a3::8a2e:0370:7334)

Number of
Addresses ~4.3 billion addresses Approximately 340 undecillion (vastly more)

Header Size 20 bytes 40 bytes

Auto-configuration (Stateless Address

Configuration Manual or DHCP Autoconfig)

Optional (IPSec is
Security optional) Built-in IPSec support

Broadcasting Supports broadcasting Does not support broadcasting (uses multicast)

Widely used and

Compatibility supported Not fully adopted yet, but future-proof

Done by sender and

Fragmentation routers Done by sender only
✅ Summary:

 IPv4 is older and more common, but limited in address space.

 IPv6 is the future — more secure, efficient, and scalable.

Different Layers of Network Security

Network security is built in multiple layers to protect data, devices, and systems from cyber threats.
Here are the main layers:

🔒 1. Physical Security Layer

 Protects hardware (servers, routers, etc.) from physical threats.

 Examples: Locks, surveillance cameras, access control systems.

🌐 2. Network Security Layer

 Protects data during transmission across the network.

 Examples:

 Firewalls

 Intrusion Detection/Prevention Systems (IDS/IPS)

 VPNs

 Secure routers and switches

👤 3. Perimeter Security Layer

 Acts as the first line of defense between the internal network and the outside world.

 Examples: Firewalls, proxy servers, demilitarized zones (DMZ)

🔐 4. Endpoint Security Layer

 Secures user devices (PCs, laptops, phones) that connect to the network.

 Examples: Antivirus software, endpoint detection and response (EDR), device encryption

🧑‍💼 5. Application Security Layer

 Protects software and apps from threats like malware and vulnerabilities.
  Examples: Secure coding, web application firewalls (WAF), patch management

6. Data Security Layer

 Ensures confidentiality, integrity, and availability of data.

 Examples:

 Data encryption

 Access control

 Backup systems

🧠 7. User Awareness Layer (Human Layer)

 Educates users to recognize and avoid threats like phishing, social engineering.

 Examples: Security training, strong password policies, 2FA

✅ Summary:

Layer Purpose

Physical Protect hardware

Network Secure data transmission

Perimeter Defend network entry points

Endpoint Protect user devices

Application Secure software/apps

Data Protect stored/transferred data

User Awareness Educate and train users

What is CIA in Cybersecurity?

CIA stands for the Confidentiality, Integrity, and Availability triad — the core
principles of information security.
🔐 1. Confidentiality

 Ensures that only authorized users can access sensitive data.

 Goal: Prevent data leaks or unauthorized access.

 Examples: Encryption, passwords, access controls.

✍️2. Integrity

 Ensures that data is accurate and unaltered.

 Goal: Prevent unauthorized or accidental changes.

 Examples: Checksums, hashing, version control, digital signatures.

🌐 3. Availability

 Ensures that systems and data are accessible when needed.

 Goal: Prevent downtime or service disruptions.

 Examples: Backup systems, DDoS protection, failover servers.

✅ Summary Table:

Component Focus Techniques Used

Confidentiality Privacy & Access Encryption, Authentication

Integrity Data Accuracy Hashing, Audit Logs

Availability Uptime & Access Backups, Load Balancing, Redundancy

What is DoS (Denial of Service)?

A DoS (Denial of Service) attack is a cyberattack that aims to make a website, server, or network
unavailable to users by flooding it with fake traffic or requests, overwhelming the system.

🚫 Goal of a DoS Attack:

To disrupt services, slow down, or crash a target so that real users cannot access it.
💥 How It Works:

 Attacker sends a massive amount of requests or data to a server.

 The server gets overloaded and stops responding to legitimate users.

🧨 Types of DoS Attacks:

1. Volume-Based Attacks – Flood the network with traffic (e.g., UDP flood, ICMP flood)

2. Protocol Attacks – Exploit network protocols (e.g., SYN flood)

3. Application-Layer Attacks – Target specific apps like web servers (e.g., HTTP flood)

❗ Difference:

 DoS: Single system attacker

 DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service): Multiple systems attack together

Prevention:

 Firewalls and intrusion detection systems (IDS)

 Rate limiting

 Load balancers

 Anti-DDoS services (e.g., Cloudflare, AWS Shield)

🍪 What Are Cookies?

Cookies are small text files stored on a user's device by a web browser when visiting a website.

📌 Purpose of Cookies:

 To remember user information and preferences.

 Help websites provide a personalized experience.

🔍 Types of Cookies:

Type Purpose

Session Cookies Temporary, deleted when browser is closed.

Type Purpose

Persistent Cookies Stay saved to remember info (like logins).

Third-Party Cookies Set by external domains (for ads, tracking).

✅ Common Uses:

 Keeping you logged in to a website.

 Remembering shopping cart items.

 Tracking user behavior for analytics or ads.

⚠️Privacy Note:

 Some cookies can track you across websites (used by advertisers).

 Websites must often ask for cookie consent (GDPR law in Europe).

🔐 Different Types of Password Attacks

Password attacks are techniques used by attackers to guess or steal passwords to gain unauthorized
access. Here are the most common types:

1. Brute Force Attack

 Tries every possible combination of characters until the correct password is found.

 Time-consuming but effective against weak passwords.

2. Dictionary Attack

 Uses a predefined list of common words or passwords (like a dictionary) to guess the
password.

 Faster than brute force and works against simple passwords.

3. Phishing

 Tricks the user into voluntarily giving away their password using fake websites or emails.

4. Keylogging
  A malware-based attack that records everything typed on a keyboard, including passwords.

5. Credential Stuffing

 Uses leaked usernames and passwords from one site to try and log in to other sites
(because many people reuse passwords).

6. Shoulder Surfing

 Physically watching someone enter their password (in public places).

7. Social Engineering

 Manipulates a person into revealing their password through trust, deception, or

impersonation.

8. Rainbow Table Attack

 Uses a precomputed table of hashes to reverse-engineer password hashes.

Defense Tips:

 Use strong, unique passwords.

 Enable 2FA (Two-Factor Authentication).

 Avoid common or reused passwords.

 Be cautious of phishing emails.

Phases of Cyber Attack Life Cycle

A cyber attack life cycle describes the common stages attackers follow to breach a system. Here are
the main phases:

Phase Description

Attacker gathers information about the target (e.g., scanning,

1. Reconnaissance researching).

2. Weaponization Preparing the attack tools (e.g., malware, exploit code).

Phase Description

3. Delivery Sending the weaponized payload to the target (e.g., phishing email).

4. Exploitation Triggering the exploit to gain access (e.g., exploiting a vulnerability).

5. Installation Installing malware or backdoor for persistent access.

6. Command & Control

(C2) Attacker remotely controls the compromised system.

7. Actions on Objectives Attacker achieves their goal: data theft, destruction, spying, etc.

Diagram of Cyber Attack Life Cycle

[Reconnaissance]

[Weaponization]

[Delivery]

[Exploitation]

[Installation]

[Command & Control]

[Actions on Objectives]
Summary:

 The attacker first gathers info, then creates the attack.

 The attack is delivered and triggered.

 Malware is installed for control.

 Finally, attacker completes their mission.

Key Elements of Cybersecurity

Cybersecurity is built around several fundamental elements that help protect information and
systems from cyber threats. The main key elements are:

Element Description

1. Confidentiality Ensuring information is accessible only to authorized users.

2. Integrity Protecting data from unauthorized modification or corruption.

3. Availability Ensuring reliable and timely access to data and systems.

4. Authentication Verifying the identity of users or systems before granting access.

5. Authorization Granting users or systems permission to access resources based on their rights.

6. Non- Ensuring that a party cannot deny the authenticity of their signature or the
repudiation sending of a message.

Tracking user activities through logging and monitoring to hold users

7. Accountability responsible.

What is Pharming?

Pharming is a cyber attack where users are redirected from a legitimate website to a fake
one without their knowledge, usually by compromising DNS servers or modifying local host files on
the victim’s computer. The fake site looks real and is used to steal sensitive information like
passwords or credit card details.

Difference Between Phishing and Pharming

Aspect Phishing Pharming

Uses fake emails, messages, or links to Redirects users to a fake website by

Method lure users to a fake website corrupting DNS or hosts file

User Requires user to click on a malicious link No user action needed beyond
Interaction or attachment entering URL or browsing

Technical attack on DNS or computer

Attack Vector Social engineering settings

Harder to detect because URL may

Detection Easier to detect if user is cautious look correct

Steal credentials by redirecting to fake

Goal Steal credentials or install malware sites

Active and Passive Attacks in Cybersecurity

Active Attack

 Definition: An attack where the attacker actively alters, modifies, or disrupts the data or
system.

 Examples: Data modification, impersonation, denial of service (DoS), session hijacking.

 Goal: To damage, disrupt, or gain unauthorized control.

 Detection: Easier to detect because it causes noticeable changes or disruptions.

Passive Attack

 Definition: An attack where the attacker only monitors or eavesdrops on communication

without altering it.

 Examples: Traffic analysis, eavesdropping, sniffing data.

 Goal: To gather information secretly without being detected.

 Detection: Harder to detect since the system is not altered.

Differences Between Active and Passive Attacks

Feature Active Attack Passive Attack

Nature Involves modification or disruption Involves only monitoring or eavesdropping

Goal To alter, damage, or gain control To gather information secretly

Detection Easier to detect due to noticeable effects Difficult to detect as no changes made

Examples Data tampering, DoS, impersonation Eavesdropping, traffic analysis

🔓 What is a MITM (Man-in-the-Middle) Attack in Cybersecurity?

A Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) attack is a cyberattack where the attacker secretly intercepts and
possibly alters communication between two parties without their knowledge.

‍♂️How It Works:

1. Two users (e.g., you and a website) think they're communicating directly.

2. The attacker positions themselves between them.

3. The attacker can read, steal, or modify the data being transferred.

💡 Example:

You're logging into your bank on public Wi-Fi. An attacker on the same network captures your login
details by acting as the "middle" between you and the bank.

Common MITM Techniques:

 Packet sniffing (e.g., on unsecured Wi-Fi)

 Fake Wi-Fi hotspots

 DNS spoofing

 HTTPS stripping (forcing connections to use HTTP)

🔐 Prevention Tips:

 Use HTTPS websites only

 Avoid public Wi-Fi for sensitive transactions

 Use a VPN for encrypted communication

  Enable 2FA (Two-Factor Authentication)

🐴 What is a Trojan Horse in Cybersecurity?

A Trojan Horse, or simply Trojan, is a type of malware that pretends to be a legitimate or useful
program but actually contains malicious code.

⚙️How It Works:

1. User downloads or installs a file or app thinking it’s safe (like a game, utility, or software).

2. The hidden malicious part runs in the background.

3. It may steal data, install more malware, or give attackers control over your device.

❗ Key Features:

 Disguised as safe software

 Requires user action to activate (like clicking or installing)

 Unlike viruses or worms, it doesn't replicate itself

🔥 Common Types of Trojans:

 Backdoor Trojan – Gives attackers remote access.

 Downloader Trojan – Downloads other malware.

 Banking Trojan – Steals banking credentials.

 Spyware Trojan – Spies on user activities.

Prevention:

 Download software only from trusted sources

 Use antivirus/anti-malware tools

 Avoid clicking suspicious links or email attachments

✅ Definitions: Cyber Law, Cyber Attack, and Cyber Crime

⚖️1. Cyber Law

 Definition: Cyber law refers to the legal rules and regulations that govern activities
conducted over the internet and digital networks.

 Purpose: To protect users, systems, and data from misuse or harm online.
  Covers:

 Data protection

 Hacking

 Intellectual property rights

 Online frauds

 Cyber bullying, etc.

💣 2. Cyber Attack

 Definition: A cyber attack is a deliberate attempt by hackers to damage, steal, or

disrupt computer systems, networks, or data.

 Examples:

 Denial of Service (DoS)

 Phishing

 Ransomware

 SQL injection

 Man-in-the-Middle (MITM)

‍♂️3. Cyber Crime

 Definition: Cyber crime is a criminal activity carried out using computers, networks, or the
internet.

 Goal: To commit fraud, steal data, harass, or damage someone's digital property or privacy.

 Examples:

 Identity theft

 Email spoofing

 Cyberstalking

 Online scams

 Hacking bank accounts

🥪 What is a Salami Attack in Cybersecurity?

A Salami Attack (also known as Salami Slicing Attack) is a type of cybercrime where an attacker
makes small, almost unnoticeable changes or thefts repeatedly over time to avoid detection.
🧠 Concept:

Just like slicing a salami very thin — each slice is tiny, but together it adds up to something
significant.

💡 Example:

 In banking software, an attacker programs the system to round off fractions of a cent from
many customer transactions and transfer the tiny amounts to their own

✍️What is a Digital Signature?

A Digital Signature is a mathematical technique used to validate the authenticity and integrity of a
digital message, document, or software.

It acts like an electronic fingerprint that proves:

 Who sent the message

 That it has not been altered

🔐 How It Works:

1. The sender creates a hash of the message.

2. The hash is encrypted using the sender's private key.

3. This encrypted hash becomes the digital signature.

4. The receiver uses the sender’s public key to verify the signature and check the hash.

✅ Purpose:

 Authentication – Confirms the sender's identity.

 Integrity – Ensures the message wasn't changed.

 Non-repudiation – Sender can't deny sending it.

‍♀️What is Cyberstalking?

Cyberstalking is a form of online harassment where someone uses the internet, social media, email,
or other digital platforms to repeatedly follow, threaten, or intimidate a person.

🔍 Key Features:

 Repeated and unwanted online contact

  Sending threatening or abusive messages

 Monitoring someone’s online activity

 Spreading false information or rumors online

 Hacking or attempting to access private accounts

💥 What is DoS and DDoS Attack?

1. DoS (Denial of Service) Attack

 A cyber attack where a single attacker floods a server or network with traffic to make
it unavailable to users.

 Overloads the system so that legitimate users can’t access services.

🧠 Example: Sending too many requests to a website so it crashes or slows down.

2. DDoS (Distributed Denial of Service) Attack

 A more powerful version of DoS.

 Multiple compromised devices (called a botnet) are used from different locations to attack
the target simultaneously.

 Much harder to block because the attack comes from many sources.

🧠 Example: A hacker uses thousands of infected computers to flood a company’s server and shut it
down.

Feature DoS Attack DDoS Attack

Full Form Denial of Service Distributed Denial of Service

Attack Source Single machine Multiple machines (botnet)

Power Limited impact Very powerful and harder to stop

Detection Easier to detect Harder to detect and block

Feature DoS Attack DDoS Attack

Cost & Damage Usually lower Much higher; can bring down large systems

Protection Measures:

 Firewalls & Intrusion Prevention Systems (IPS)

 Load balancers and traffic filtering

 Anti-DDoS services (like Cloudflare, Akamai)

💻 What is Electronic Evidence?

Electronic Evidence (also called Digital Evidence) refers to any information or data stored or
transmitted in digital form that can be used as evidence in a court of law.

📂 Sources of Electronic Evidence:

 Emails

 Chat logs (e.g., WhatsApp, Messenger)

 Social media posts

 Computer files and documents

 Browser history

 CCTV footage

 Call recordings

 Mobile phone data

 Logs from servers or websites

⚖️Importance in Cybercrime:

Electronic evidence is crucial for investigating cybercrimes, such as:

 Hacking

 Cyberstalking

 Fraud

 Identity theft

 Data breaches
✅ Legal Validity (India Example):

Under Indian Evidence Act (Section 65B), electronic records are admissible in court if they meet
certain conditions (like certificate of authenticity).

Key Characteristics:

 Must be authentic and untampered

 Should be relevant to the case

 Must be collected legally and preserved properly

💣 What is Cyber Terrorism?

Cyber Terrorism refers to the use of internet and digital technology to carry out terrorist activities.
It involves attacks on computer systems, networks, or data with the intent to cause fear, harm, or
disruption to a nation, organization, or group of people.

⚠️Goals of Cyber Terrorism:

 To create panic or fear in the public

 To disrupt critical infrastructure (e.g., power grids, transportation, hospitals)

 To steal sensitive government or military data

 To spread propaganda or radical messages

Prevention Measures:

 Strengthening national cybersecurity policies

 Using firewalls, IDS/IPS systems

 Monitoring cyber activity for threats

 International cooperation and cyber intelligence

Let me

⚖️Advantages and Disadvantages of Cyber Law

✅ Advantages of Cyber Law:

1. Protects Individuals and Organizations

– Safeguards against cybercrimes like hacking, fraud, and data theft.
 2. Legal Framework for Digital Activities
– Regulates e-commerce, digital signatures, and online contracts.

3. Supports Cybercrime Investigation

– Allows authorities to trace and take legal action against cybercriminals.

4. Data Protection and Privacy

– Helps in protecting users’ personal and financial data.

5. Boosts Digital Economy

– Builds trust among people to use online services safely.

❌ Disadvantages of Cyber Law:

1. Complexity and Lack of Awareness

– Many users are unaware of their rights and the technical terms used in cyber law.

2. Jurisdiction Issues
– Cybercrimes often cross national borders, making legal enforcement difficult.

3. Misuse of Law
– Sometimes laws are misused to suppress free speech or target innocent users.

4. Delayed Justice
– Legal processes related to cybercrimes can be slow and time-consuming.

5. Technology Outpaces Law

– Laws may become outdated quickly as new technologies emerge.

🧑‍💻 What is Hacking?

Hacking is the act of gaining unauthorized access to a computer system, network, or digital data —
often by exploiting weaknesses or vulnerabilities.

🔍 Purpose of Hacking Can Be:

 Malicious (e.g., stealing data, spreading viruses)

 Ethical (e.g., testing security for improvement)

 Political or Social (e.g., hacktivism)

🧠 Types of Hackers:

 White Hat – Ethical hackers who help improve security

 Black Hat – Malicious hackers who break into systems illegally

 Grey Hat – Hackers who may break laws but not with harmful intent
⚠️Common Hacking Methods:

 Phishing

 Malware

 Brute force attacks

 SQL injection

 Man-in-the-middle (MITM) attack

Protection Against Hacking:

 Use strong passwords

 Keep software updated

 Enable firewalls and antivirus

 Avoid clicking suspicious links or attachments

Let me know if you'd like real-life hacking cases or more on ethical hacking!

You said:

what is identity theft

ChatGPT said:

🆔 What is Identity Theft?

Identity Theft is a type of cybercrime where a person illegally obtains and uses someone else's
personal information — such as name, credit card number, or Aadhaar details — usually
for fraudulent or criminal purposes.

🔍 What Can Be Stolen?

 Full name

 Date of birth

 Bank account or credit card details

 PAN/Aadhaar number

 Email and passwords

 Social media or online account credentials

💡 Common Uses of Stolen Identity:

 Making unauthorized purchases

  Opening bank accounts or loans in someone else’s name

 Gaining access to secure systems

 Committing online fraud or scams

⚠️Signs of Identity Theft:

 Unknown transactions on your account

 Getting bills for services you didn’t use

💿 What is Software Piracy?

Software Piracy is the illegal copying, distribution, or use of software without proper licensing or
permission from the copyright owner.

🚫 What is Cyberbullying?

Cyberbullying is the use of digital platforms like social media, messaging apps, emails, or
websites to harass, threaten, or humiliate someone repeatedly.

🌐 What is DNS Redirection?

DNS Redirection is a technique where the Domain Name System (DNS) requests are manipulated to
send users to a different IP address or website than the one they intended to visit.

🔍 How It Works:

 When you type a website name (like example.com), your device asks a DNS server for the
corresponding IP address.

 In DNS redirection, this lookup is altered or hijacked so you are sent to a malicious or fake
website instead of the real one.

⚠️Uses of DNS Redirection:

 Cyber attacks like phishing, to steal your login info by sending you to fake sites.

 Content filtering by ISPs or organizations to block certain sites.

 Ad injections to redirect traffic for profit.

How to Protect Yourself:

 Use trusted DNS servers (like Google DNS or Cloudflare DNS).

 Keep your router and devices secure with updated firmware.

  Use VPNs to encrypt DNS queries.

 Be cautious with links and websites you visit.

🧑‍💻 Crackers and Phreakers

1. Crackers

 Definition: Crackers are hackers who break into computer systems or software
with malicious intent, often to bypass security, steal data, or cause damage.

 Activities:

 Cracking software to remove copy protections (software piracy)

 Hacking into networks or accounts illegally

 Installing malware or causing disruptions

 Purpose: Illegal and harmful activities

2. Phreakers

 Definition: Phreakers are individuals who manipulate telephone systems (especially old
analog phone networks) to make free calls or exploit telecom services.

 Activities:

 Hacking into phone networks

 Bypassing call charges

 Exploring telecom system vulnerabilities

 Origin: The term comes from “phone” + “freak” and was popular in the 1970s-80s.
Difference Between Software Attack and Hardware Attack

Aspect Software Attack Hardware Attack

Attack targeting software programs,

applications, or operating systems to exploit Attack targeting physical components
Definition vulnerabilities. or devices of a computer system.

Physical devices like CPU, memory,

Target Software bugs, vulnerabilities, or code flaws. peripherals, or network hardware.

Hardware tampering, side-channel

Viruses, worms, ransomware, SQL injection, attacks, hardware Trojan, device
Examples malware. theft.

Physically damaging or modifying

Exploiting software weaknesses via code, hardware or intercepting hardware
Method data, or network. signals.

Harder to detect; may require

Can often be detected by antivirus or physical inspection or specialized
Detection software security tools. tools.

Software patches, firewalls, antivirus, secure Physical security, tamper-evident

Prevention coding. seals, secure hardware design.
Various Types of Web Threats

1. Malware

 Malicious software like viruses, worms, trojans, ransomware that infect websites or
users.

2. Phishing

 Fake websites or emails designed to steal sensitive information like passwords and
credit card details.

3. Cross-Site Scripting (XSS)

 Injecting malicious scripts into trusted websites to attack users who visit them.

4. SQL Injection

 Inserting malicious SQL code into web forms to access or manipulate databases
illegally.

5. Denial of Service (DoS) / Distributed DoS (DDoS)

 Flooding a website with excessive traffic to make it unavailable to users.

6. Man-in-the-Middle (MITM) Attack

 Intercepting communication between a user and a website to steal data.

7. Session Hijacking

 Taking over a user’s session to gain unauthorized access.

8. Drive-by Downloads

 Unintended downloading of malicious software when visiting a compromised

website.

9. Clickjacking

 Tricking users into clicking hidden elements on a web page, causing unintended
actions.

10. Zero-Day Exploit

 Exploiting unknown or unpatched vulnerabilities in web applications.

🔎 What is Cyber Forensics?

Cyber Forensics (also called Computer Forensics) is the process of collecting, analyzing, and
preserving digital evidence from computers, networks, and digital devices in a way that is legally
acceptable for use in investigations and court cases.

🔍 Purpose:

 To investigate cybercrimes like hacking, data theft, fraud, and malware attacks.

 To recover deleted, encrypted, or damaged data.

 ⁷To trace the origin of cyber attacks.

 To provide evidence for legal proceedings.

Steps Involved:

1. Identification – Recognize potential digital evidence.

2. Preservation – Secure the evidence without altering it.

3. Collection – Gather data carefully from devices or networks.

4. Examination – Analyze the data to find relevant information.

5. Analysis – Interpret the evidence and reconstruct events.

6. Presentation – Prepare a report and present findings in court.

⚖️Importance:

 Helps in proving guilt or innocence in cybercrime cases.

 Assists law enforcement agencies in catching cybercriminals.

 Ensures digital evidence is handled properly to avoid tampering.

🔗 What is Linking and Profiling in Cybersecurity?

1. Linking
Linking refers to the process of connecting different pieces of digital information to identify a user,
activity, or pattern.

📌 Example:

 Connecting a person’s email address, social media profile, and IP address to track their
online behavior or activity.

2. Profiling

Profiling is the creation of a detailed digital profile of a person or entity by analyzing their online
activities, preferences, and behaviors.

📌 Example:

 Tracking someone’s browsing habits, purchase history, and location data to build a
behavioral or risk profile.

✅ Used In:

 Targeted advertising

 Cyber forensics

 Identifying suspicious or criminal behavior

 User authentication and risk scoring

1. Cryptography

Cryptography is the science of securing information by converting it into an unreadable

format (called ciphertext) using encryption techniques.

✅ Purpose:

 Protect data confidentiality

 Ensure secure communication

 Prevent unauthorized access

🔑 Key Concepts:

 Encryption: Converting plain text into ciphertext

 Decryption: Converting ciphertext back to plain text

 Keys: Used in both encryption and decryption (symmetric or asymmetric)

📌 Example:

Sending a message like HELLO encrypted as KHOOR using a Caesar cipher.

2. Steganography

Steganography is the technique of hiding information within other non-secret data so that the
existence of the message is not even noticeable.

✅ Purpose:

 Conceal the fact that a message is being sent

 Secret communication

 Data watermarking

📌 Example:

Hiding a secret text message inside an image or audio file.

🔍 Key Differences:

Aspect Cryptography Steganography

Goal Make data unreadable to outsiders Hide the existence of the data

Visibility Data is visibly scrambled Data is hidden in another file

Focus Data confidentiality Data concealment

Detection Easy to detect encrypted data Hard to detect hidden data

🔐 Types of Cryptography and Steganography

📘 Types of Cryptography

1. Symmetric Key Cryptography

 Same key is used for encryption and decryption.

 🔑 Example: AES, DES

 ✅ Fast and efficient

 ⚠️Key must be shared securely

2. Asymmetric Key Cryptography

 Uses a public key for encryption and private key for decryption.

 🔑 Example: RSA, ECC

 ✅ More secure for communication

 ⚠️Slower than symmetric

3. Hash Functions

 Converts data into a fixed-length string (hash)

 One-way process — cannot be reversed

 🔑 Example: MD5, SHA-256

 ✅ Used for password protection and data integrity

Types of Steganography

1. Image Steganography

 Hiding data within image files (e.g., by modifying pixel values slightly)

 🔍 Example: LSB (Least Significant Bit) technique

2. Audio Steganography

 Embedding secret data into sound files

 Uses techniques like echo hiding or phase coding

3. Video Steganography

 Hiding data in video files (in frames or audio tracks)

  Provides large space for data hiding

4. Text Steganography

 Hiding data within text using formatting, invisible characters, or pattern changes

 ⚠️Less space for hiding and easier to detect

5. Network Steganography

 Hiding data in network protocols or packet headers

 Used in covert communication

📶 OSI Model and Its Layers

The OSI Model (Open Systems Interconnection Model) is a conceptual framework used to
understand and design how different networking systems communicate with each other.

It has 7 layers, each with specific functions.

📚 7 Layers of the OSI Model (Top to Bottom)

Layer Name Function

7️⃣ Application Layer User interface and network services (e.g., web browsers, email).

6️⃣ Presentation Layer Data translation, encryption, compression (e.g., JPEG, SSL).

5️⃣ Session Layer Manages sessions between applications (e.g., login sessions).

4️⃣ Transport Layer Reliable data transfer (e.g., TCP/UDP, error correction).

3️⃣ Network Layer Routing and addressing (e.g., IP addresses).

2️⃣ Data Link Layer Error detection and frame management (e.g., MAC addresses).

1️⃣ Physical Layer Physical transmission of data (e.g., cables, signals).

🧠 Tip to Remember Layers (Top to Bottom):

All People Seem To Need Data Processing

🌐 TCP/IP Model (Transmission Control Protocol / Internet Protocol)

The TCP/IP model is a practical and widely used framework for understanding how data is
transmitted over the internet. It is the foundation of modern networking, including the Internet.

🧱 Layers of the TCP/IP Model

It has 4 layers, each mapping roughly to OSI model layers:

OSI
TCP/IP Layer Equivalent Function

4. Application OSI Layer 5–7 Provides services to users (HTTP, FTP, SMTP, DNS, etc.)

3. Transport OSI Layer 4 End-to-end communication and reliability (TCP/UDP)

2. Internet OSI Layer 3 Logical addressing and routing (IP, ICMP)

1. Network Access Physical transmission and hardware addressing

(Link) OSI Layer 1–2 (Ethernet, Wi-Fi)

🧪 Key Protocols in TCP/IP:

 TCP (Transmission Control Protocol): Reliable, connection-based data delivery.

 UDP (User Datagram Protocol): Faster, connectionless, less reliable.

 IP (Internet Protocol): Handles addressing and routing of packets.

 HTTP/HTTPS, FTP, SMTP, DNS: Application layer protocols.

📌 Main Features:

 Connection-based and connectionless support

 Scalable and robust

 Globally adopted (basis of the internet)

🌐 Concept of NAT (Network Address Translation)

NAT (Network Address Translation) is a technique used in networking to translate private (local) IP
addresses into public IP addresses, and vice versa.

Why NAT is Used:

 To allow multiple devices in a private network to access the internet using a single public IP
address.

 To conserve IPv4 addresses, which are limited.

 To hide internal network structure for security.

🔄 How NAT Works:

1. A device in a private network (e.g., 192.168.1.2) sends a request to access a website.

2. The router changes the private IP to its own public IP.

3. The website sends data to the router's public IP.

4. The router translates it back and forwards it to the correct private IP.

🔍 Types of NAT:

Type Description

Static NAT Maps one private IP to one public IP (1:1 mapping).

Dynamic NAT Maps a private IP to a public IP from a pool of public IPs.

PAT (Port Address Maps multiple private IPs to a single public IP using different port
Translation) numbers. Also known as NAT Overload.

✅ Benefits:

 Saves public IP addresses

 Adds a layer of security

 Allows multiple devices to share a single IP

🧑‍💻 What is Ethical Hacking?

Ethical Hacking is the practice of legally breaking into computers and networks to test and improve
their security.
It is done with permission to identify vulnerabilities before malicious hackers can exploit them.

🔒 Ethical hackers are also called White Hat Hackers.

✅ Purpose of Ethical Hacking:

 Identify and fix security weaknesses

 Improve system defenses

 Protect data from cyber attacks

 Comply with security standards

📘 Phases of Ethical Hacking:

Phase Name Description

Reconnaissance (Information Collect data about the target (e.g., IP address, domain
1️⃣ Gathering) info, social engineering).

Use tools to identify open ports, services, and

2️⃣ Scanning vulnerabilities.

3️⃣ Gaining Access Attempt to exploit vulnerabilities to enter the system.

Ensure continued access (for testing) without being

4️⃣ Maintaining Access detected.

Clean logs and traces (ethically done to mimic how real

5️⃣ Clearing Tracks attackers hide).

Document findings, risks, and suggestions for security

6️⃣ Reporting improvements.

🦠 Types of Computer Viruses

A computer virus is a malicious program designed to infect, replicate, and spread across systems,
often damaging data or disrupting operations.

🔟 Common Types of Viruses:

1. File Infector Virus

 Attaches to executable files (.exe) and activates when the file is run.

 🧪 Example: Cascade

2. Macro Virus

 Written in macro languages (like for MS Word/Excel), infects documents and

templates.

 🧪 Example: Melissa

3. Boot Sector Virus

 Infects the boot sector of hard drives or removable media.

 🧪 Example: Michelangelo

4. Polymorphic Virus

 Changes its code each time it infects a new file to avoid detection.

 🧪 Example: Storm Worm

5. Resident Virus

 Hides in system memory and activates whenever the OS runs a function.

 🧪 Example: Randex

6. Direct Action Virus

 Immediately executes and infects files in a specific directory but does not stay in
memory.

 🧪 Example: Vienna

7. Multipartite Virus

 Combines multiple infection methods (e.g., boot + file infection).

 🧪 Example: Tequila

8. Overwrite Virus

 Overwrites file content, destroying original data.

 🧪 Example: Trj.Reboot

9. Spacefiller (Cavity) Virus

 Fills empty spaces in files to avoid size change and detection.

  🧪 Example: Stealth virus

10. Web Scripting Virus

 Embedded in malicious web pages; attacks via browser vulnerabilities.

 🧪 Example: Cross-site scripting (XSS)

🦠 What is a Macro Virus?

A Macro Virus is a type of computer virus that is written using the macro programming language of
applications like Microsoft Word or Excel. It infects documents, not programs, and spreads when the
infected file is opened.

📌 Characteristics:

 Targets .doc, .xls, etc.

 Activates when you open or enable macros in the document.

 Often spreads via email attachments.

🧪 Example:

Melissa Virus – spread through infected Word documents via email.

🧬 What is a Multivariant Virus? (Also called Polymorphic Virus)

A Multivariant Virus (better known as a Polymorphic Virus) is a virus that changes its code or
appearance every time it replicates or infects a new system, making it hard to detect by antivirus
software.

📌 Characteristics:

 Self-modifying code

 Avoids signature-based detection

 Often used in advanced malware

🧪 Example:

Storm Worm, Marburg – known for changing their code structure to bypass security.

🔍 Key Difference:

Feature Macro Virus Multivariant (Polymorphic) Virus

Targets Office documents Executable programs & systems

Language Macro languages (VBA) Machine code / assembly

Feature Macro Virus Multivariant (Polymorphic) Virus

Detection Easier with macro settings Harder due to changing code

Spread Method Email, USB, infected docs Internet, infected programs, scripts

Three Popular Antivirus Tools

1. Norton Antivirus

 Comprehensive protection against malware, spyware, ransomware, and viruses.

 Features: Real-time scanning, firewall, phishing protection, and automatic updates.

 Suitable for both personal and business use.

2. McAfee Total Protection

 Offers antivirus, identity theft protection, and secure browsing.

 Features: Malware detection, firewall, password manager, and VPN.

 Good for multi-device coverage.

3. Kaspersky Antivirus

 Strong malware detection and removal capabilities.

 Features: Real-time protection, email scanning, anti-phishing, and ransomware

protection.

 Known for high detection rates in independent tests.

🔐 Types of Passwords

1. Alphanumeric Passwords

 Combine letters (a-z, A-Z) and numbers (0-9).

  Example: Pass1234

2. Complex Passwords

 Include letters, numbers, and special characters (like !, @, #, $).

 Example: P@ssw0rd!

3. Passphrases

 Use a sequence of words or a sentence, easy to remember but long.

 Example: BlueSky!SunnyDay2025

4. Graphical Passwords

 Use images, patterns, or gestures instead of text.

 Example: Drawing a pattern on a smartphone screen.

5. One-Time Passwords (OTP)

 Valid for a single login session or transaction.

 Example: Codes sent via SMS or generated by authenticator apps.

6. Biometric Passwords

 Use physical traits like fingerprints, facial recognition, or iris scans.

 Example: Unlocking a phone with fingerprint.

Explain 3-Way Handshaking in TCP

Three-way handshaking is a process used by TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) to

establish a reliable connection between a client and a server:

1. SYN (Synchronize): Client sends a SYN request to initiate a connection.

2. SYN-ACK (Synchronize-Acknowledge): Server responds with SYN-ACK to
acknowledge.
3. ACK (Acknowledge): Client replies with ACK, confirming the connection.

After this, data transfer begins, ensuring reliable and ordered communication.

🔒 Steps to Stay Safe in the Digital World

1. Use Strong, Unique Passwords

 Combine letters, numbers, and special characters

  Avoid using same password on multiple sites

2. Enable Two-Factor Authentication (2FA)

 Adds extra layer of security by requiring a second verification step

3. Keep Software and Devices Updated

 Regularly install updates and security patches to fix vulnerabilities

4. Be Cautious with Emails and Links

 Don’t click on suspicious links or open unknown attachments (avoid phishing)

5. Use Secure Networks

 Avoid public Wi-Fi for sensitive transactions; use VPN if needed

6. Backup Important Data Regularly

 Use cloud storage or external drives to avoid data loss

7. Install and Update Antivirus Software

 Protect devices from malware and viruses

8. Limit Sharing Personal Information Online

 Be mindful of what you post on social media and websites

9. Use Encryption and Secure Websites

 Look for HTTPS in URLs to ensure secure communication

10. Monitor Accounts for Unusual Activity

 Regularly check bank, email, and social media accounts for suspicious behavior

Explain Tabnabbing (aka Tabjacking)

Tabjacking is a phishing technique where an attacker changes the content of an inactive

browser tab to mimic a trusted login page (e.g., Google or Facebook). When the user returns,
they might enter their credentials, unknowingly submitting them to the attacker.

Prevention:

 Use up-to-date browsers

 Enable anti-phishing extensions
 Avoid logging in via suspicious tabs