Soil Resources

Soil is the thin upper layer of the Earth’s crust that supports plant life. It is a mixture of mineral
particles, organic matter, water and air. Soil provides nutrients and moisture to plants and is
crucial for agriculture. In India, soils are treated as a vital natural resource, with different types
(alluvial, black, red, laterite) each having distinct properties and uses.

Types of Soil in India

Major soil types of India. Alluvial soils (green) dominate the northern plains; other soils cover
the peninsular plateau (brown=black, orange=red, yellow=laterite).

Alluvial Soil (North Indian Plains and deltaic plains): Deposited by the Indus, Ganges and
Brahmaputra rivers. It covers the entire northern plains (Punjab, UP, Bihar, Bengal, etc.) and
extends in deltas of eastern rivers (Mahanadi, Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri). Alluvium varies from
sandy loam to clay. It is generally very fertile (rich in potash, lime and phosphates) and
supports crops like rice, wheat, sugarcane and pulses.

Khadar (New Alluvium): Low-lying floodplains that are regularly flooded, receiving fresh fine silt
each year. Khadar soils are moisture-retentive, sticky when wet, and very fertile.

Bhangar (Old Alluvium): Higher ground beyond flood level. Bhangar contains rounded lime
nodules (kankar) and does not get new silt each year. It is less fertile than Khadar because it is
not replenished by floods.

Black Soil (Regur/“Black Cotton Soil”): Derived from weathered Deccan trap basalt. It covers
about 15% of India, mainly over the Deccan Plateau – large parts of Maharashtra, Madhya
Pradesh (Malwa), Saurashtra (Gujarat), Andhra Pradesh and parts of Tamil Nadu. These soils
are deep, dark and rich in clay (very moisture-retentive). They are rich in calcium carbonate,
magnesium, potash and lime but deficient in nitrogen and phosphoric acid. They swell when
wet and develop deep cracks when dry (aiding self-ploughing and aeration). Black soil is ideal
for cotton (hence “black cotton soil”) and also grows jowar, bajra, pulses, oilseeds, sugarcane,
vegetables and citrus fruits.
Red and Yellow Soils: Developed on old crystalline igneous rocks of the peninsular plateau
(Deccan and parts of central India). They occur in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Odisha,
Chhattisgarh, southern Maharashtra, parts of Madhya Pradesh and the eastern Ghats foothills.
Their red colour comes from iron oxide (turning yellow when hydrated). These soils are usually
shallow, porous and low in humus, nitrogen and phosphorus. Fine red soils (with more clay) are
moderately fertile, while the coarse-grained red soils on uplands are poor. Crops grown include
millets, wheat, cotton, oilseeds, tobacco and pulses.

Laterite Soil: Forms under hot, humid monsoon conditions (heavy rainfall causes intense
leaching). It is rich in iron and aluminium oxides (hence red colour) and poor in organic matter,
nitrogen, phosphate and lime. Laterite soils occur over the Western Ghats (Karnataka, Kerala,
Tamil Nadu), parts of Madhya Pradesh, Odisha and Assam. Because of hardening on exposure,
they are often used for brick-making. With proper soil conservation measures (e.g. terracing,
manuring), laterite soils on hill slopes can grow tea and coffee; in southern India the red
laterites are also used for cashew cultivation.

Soil Erosion – Causes and Types

Photo: Gully erosion in a grassland (Anamalai Tiger Reserve, India) – heavy rains have cut deep
trenches in the topsoil. Soil erosion is the wearing away of the fertile topsoil by natural forces.
In India, both water and wind cause major erosion: an estimated 3 billion tonnes of soil are lost
each year to water and wind. By 2015, soil degradation (from water erosion, wind, salinity, etc.)
affected about 40% of India’s land area. Erosion removes nutrients and lowers productivity.

Water erosion: Heavy rainfall or irrigation runoff detaches soil. Splash erosion (raindrop
impact) loosens particles; sheet erosion removes a thin surface layer; rill erosion carves small
channels; and gully erosion forms large trenches (as in the photo). Steep slopes, deforestation
and unprotected fields greatly increase runoff and erosion.

Wind erosion: In arid and semi-arid regions, dry topsoil is picked up by wind. Larger particles
are nudged along the surface (creep) or hop in short leaps (saltation), while fine dust stays
suspended in air. Wind then “sandblasts” the land and forms dunes. Areas like western
Rajasthan often suffer wind erosion if vegetation cover is lost.
Soil Conservation & Government Schemes

To combat erosion and maintain fertility, conservation measures are used: contour ploughing
and terracing on slopes, strip-cropping and mulching to protect against rain impact, planting
grass cover or shelterbelts of trees, and building check dams or gully plugs to trap runoff.
Under India’s watershed programmes (e.g. NWDPRA, IWMP/PMKSY), earthwork (contour
bunds, trenches), agro-forestry (silvipasture) and tree planting are emphasized. For example,
the National Watershed Development Project for Rainfed Areas involved construction of
contour bunds, trenches, tree planting and grassing to hold soil and moisture.

The government has launched major schemes for soil health and conservation (as of 2025):

Soil Health Card Scheme (2015–now): Farmers get a card with laboratory test results on 12 soil
nutrients, plus fertilizer and amendment recommendations. Over 24 crore cards have been
issued nationwide. From 2022–23, the scheme was merged into the Rashtriya Krishi Vikas
Yojana as the “Soil Health & Fertility” component.

Pradhan Mantri Krishi Sinchai Yojana (PMKSY, 2015–): Aims for “Har Khet Ko Pani” (water for
every field) through rainwater harvesting and watershed development. It consolidates earlier
watershed missions and promotes soil-moisture conservation on farms.

Mahatma Gandhi NREGA (2005–): Rural employment guarantee work includes water harvesting
structures, check dams, trenches, afforestation and other soil-conservation works. In fact,
about 70% of MGNREGA projects relate to soil and water conservation. This integration with
the Integrated Watershed Management Programme (now under PMKSY) helps restore degraded
lands and reduce erosion.

National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture (NMSA, 2014–): Supports rainfed agriculture by
improving soil health (soil testing labs, land use planning, organic farming practices) and
efficient water use in dry regions.
State Soil Conservation Projects: Many states implement their own afforestation, terrace
cultivation and anti-erosion campaigns in hilly and erodible areas.

These measures help reduce soil loss and restore productivity. Soil science and land-mapping
bodies (e.g. Soil & Land Use Survey of India) also guide land use and conservation planning.
Together, such efforts aim to safeguard India’s soil resource for future generations.

Sources: Authoritative geography texts and government publications on Indian soils and
conservation.

Soil Conservation

Soil Conservation refers to methods used to prevent the loss of fertile topsoil and maintain soil
health and productivity. It is essential in India where large areas are prone to erosion due to
deforestation, overgrazing, and improper farming practices.

Major Soil Conservation Methods:

1. Terrace Farming: Common on hill slopes. Land is cut into step-like flat surfaces, which
reduces the speed of water flow and prevents soil from washing away.
2. Contour Ploughing: Ploughing along the natural contours of the land (instead of up and
down slopes). Helps trap water and reduce runoff, preventing soil erosion on gentle
slopes.
3. Strip Cropping: Alternating strips of different crops (especially tall and short crops)
across a slope. Reduces wind and water erosion by acting as a physical barrier.
4. Shelter Belts: Rows of trees or shrubs planted along the edges of fields, especially in dry
and windy areas. These reduce the speed of wind and prevent wind erosion.
5. Afforestation: Planting trees and increasing vegetation cover. Roots hold the soil
together and prevent both wind and water erosion.
6. Gully Plugging: Filling up gullies (deep cuts formed by flowing water) with vegetation,
sandbags, or stones. Stops further deepening and spreading of gullies.
7. Mulching: Covering soil with organic residues like straw or dry leaves.