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Biology - Theory

This document provides summarized notes on the CAIE IGCSE Biology syllabus, covering the classification of living organisms, characteristics of life, and the organization of cells. It details the five kingdoms of life, including features of vertebrates and invertebrates, as well as the structure and function of cells. Additionally, it discusses biological molecules and methods for testing for various substances.

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Biology - Theory

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ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
BIOLOGY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Namrata for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY

Organisms are classified into groups by the features they

1. Characteristics and share.
Species: a group of organisms that can reproduce to
Classification of Living produce fertile offspring.
Sequence of Classification: Kingdom → Phylum →
Organisms Classes → Orders → Families → Genus → Species.
Acronym: King Philip, Come Over For Good Soup
1.1. Characteristics of Living Organisms The Binomial Nomenclature
The Age-Old Acronym: MRS GREN The Binomial System of Naming Species is an
internationally agreed system in which an organism's
scientific name is comprised of two parts, namely, the
genus and species.
The format is Genus species. The genus is capitalised,
and the species are not.
The binomial name is typed in ***italics ***or written
with an ++underline++
The classification of organisms helps show the
evolutionary relationships between them.
Scientists also use the DNA base sequence to help
classify organisms.
The similarity in DNA chains base sequence shows how
Movement: an action by an organism or part of an closely the two organisms are related.
organism causing a change of position or place
Respiration: the chemical reactions in cells that break
down nutrient molecules and release energy for
metabolism
Sensitivity: the ability to detect and respond to changes
in the internal or external environment
Growth: a permanent increase in size and dry mass
Reproduction: the processes that make more of the
same kind of organism
Excretion: the removal of the waste products of
metabolism and substances in excess of requirements
Nutrition: the taking in of materials for energy, growth,
and development Dichotomous Keys

1.2. Concept and Uses of Classification

System
Sequence of Classification

Dichotomous Keys use visible features to classify Animals: Multicellular ingestive heterotrophs (eat living
organisms. They give you a choice of two features, and organisms). Ex: cat, ladybird, newt, etc.
you follow the one that applies: each option leads to Plants: Multicellular photosynthetic autotrophic (make
another option until the organism is narrowed down to their food) organism with a cellulose cell wall and
its genus and species. chloroplasts. Ex: cactus, oak tree.
Fungi: Single-celled or multicellular heterotrophic and
saprotrophic (feeds on dead and decaying organic
matter) organisms with cell walls not made of cellulose,
spread by spreading spores in moist/dark/warm
environments. Most have hyphae and mycelium in
structure. Ex: yeast, mushrooms.
Prokaryotes: Single-celled organisms with no true
nucleus and mitochondria. Many also have plasmids
(important for Genetic Engineering). Ex: E.coli,
Salmonella.
Protist or Protoctist: Single-celled organism with a
nucleus. Some are multicellular. Ex: Amoeba, seaweed.
Protoctists, fungi, plants, and animals are all eukaryotes
1.3. Features of Organisms (having a well-defined nucleus), whereas monera are
prokaryotes.
Animals are classified as vertebrates (have a backbone)
The Five Kingdoms and invertebrates (do not have a backbone).

1.4. Vertebrates

Types of Vertebrates Features

Mammals Fur on the skin, External ears (pinna), Internal fertilisation,
Mammary Glands
Reptiles Thick, dry, scaly skin, Usually four legs, Internal fertilisation, Soft
Shelled Eggs
Fish Wet scales, Streamlined body shape, External fertilisation, and
soft eggs
Amphibians Smooth, moist skin, External fertilisation, and soft eggs, Gills, &
Lungs can live on land and water. Most have four legs.
Birds Feathers on the body and scales on legs, Constant internal body
temperature, Hard eggs, Internal fertilisation, birth through eggs

1.5. Arthropods
Arthropods are the largest group under invertebrates
(Organisms that do not have a backbone).
All arthropods have three standard features:

1. Exoskeleton Viruses are not part of any classification system because

2. Jointed legs they are not considered living things.
3. Segmented body They do not carry out the seven life processes for
themselves; instead, they take over a host cell’s
Type of
Arthropod Number of Legs Body parts Wings Antennae metabolic pathways to make multiple copies of
Crustacean
5 pairs (1
modified as All body segments tucked
under carapace None 2 pairs themselves.
Myriapods
claws)
Many Many None 1 pair
Virus structure contains only a genetic material (RNA
Insects 3 pairs 3 (head, thorax, abdomen) 2may
pairs (1 or both 1 pair
or DNA) inside a protein coat.
be vestigial)
2 (cephalothorax and Example of virus structure below (No mitochondria or
Arachnids 4 pairs None None
abdomen)
ribosomes)

1.6. Classification of Plants

In IGCSE Biology, the plant kingdom is classified into ferns
and flowering plants.

Ferns:
Do not produce flowers/seeds
They are plants with roots, stems, and feathery
leaves (fronds)
Reproduce by spores, produced on the undersides of
their fronds
Flowering plants:
They are plants with roots, stems and leaves
Reproduce sexually through flowers and seeds
Seeds are produced inside the ovary in the flower
2. Organisation of the
Monocotyledons Dicotyledons
Organism
One cotyledon/One-seed leaf Two cotyledons/Two-seed leaf
Parallel veins Branching veins
Long Narrow Leaf
The Number of Petals is a Multiple of 3
Broad leaves
The Number of Petals is a Multiple of 4 or 5
2.1. Cell Structure
Scattered Vascular Bundles Ringed Vascular Bundles

Tip: Differentiating monocotyledons and

dicotyledons comes up frequently in Multiple
Choice Questions

1.7. Viruses

All living things are made of cells. One example of a prokaryote is bacteria.
New cells are produced by the division of existing cells A bacterial cell only contains a cell wall made of
All typical eukaryotic cells (multicellular) have: peptidoglycan, cell membrane, cytoplasm, ribosomes,
Cell Membrane: controls movement in and out of and plasmids.
cells It lacks a nucleus and is represented by a circular
Cytoplasm: where chemical/metabolic reactions take chromosome of DNA.
place Plasmids are small, circular rings of DNA in the
Nucleus: contains DNA, stores genetic information cytoplasm with extra genes outside the chromosomal
and controls the activity of the cell DNA.
Mitochondria: where aerobic respiration happens
Ribosome: allows protein synthesis in the cytoplasm
Endoplasmic reticulum: Studded with ribosomes, it
looks rough under the microscope.
A typical animal cell (e.g., the liver cell) has all the above.
Plant cells especially also have:
Vacuole: cell sap to keep cell turgid
Cell Wall: rigid to hold the shape of the cell,
strengthens the cell
Chloroplasts: contain chlorophyll, which absorbs
light energy for photosynthesis
A typical plant cell (e.g., the palisade cell) has
everything above.
Syllabus 2.1.3: You must be able to identify
Prokaryotes the cell structures in diagrams and images of
plant, animal and bacterial cells
Prokaryotes (Unicellular) DO NOT have mitochondria and a
true nucleus. 2.2. Levels of Organisation
The division of existing cells produces new cells.

Key Terms

Cells: Building Blocks of Life

Tissue: Groups of cells with similar structures working
together to perform a shared function
Organ: Group of tissues working together to perform a
specific function
Organ system: Group of organs with related functions
working together to perform body functions.
Organism: A human

Specialised Cells
Specialised Cells have Specific Functions.

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Specialised Cells Specific Function Location of Cell
Ciliated cells Movement of mucus in the trachea
and bronchi
Respiratory Tract, Fallopian
Tube, Testes Energy for diffusion comes from the kinetic energy of
Root Hair cells Absorption Roots the random movement of molecules and ions.
Palisade Mesophyll cell Photosynthesis Leaf Cells
Neurones Conduction of electrical impulses Everywhere in an organism
The diffusion of gases and solutes is important as
Red Blood cells Transport of oxygen Everywhere in an organism without it, molecules that are needed for life, (Such as
Sperm and Egg cells/ovum
(gametes) For reproduction In their respective gonads glucose and oxygen for respiration) would not be able to
get to the places they are required.
2.3. Magnification Some substances move into and out of cells by diffusion
through the cell membrane.
The general formula is represented in this way: Factors that influence diffusion (Passive Transport)
size of drawing image I
M agnif ication = = = Concentration gradient
size of specimen actual

A Temperature
Other Forms in Magnification Formula Surface area to volume ratio
Distance
Actual size = image size ÷ magnification
Image size = magnification x actual size 3.2. Osmosis
Unit Conversions (μm - micrometre)
The role of water acts as a solvent in organisms to aid
1cm = 10mm with digestion, excretion, and transport.
1mm = 1000μm Knowing the definition of Diffusion, Osmosis and
1μm = 0.001mm Active Transport is COMPULSORY!
The cell membrane is partially permeable, allowing small
Magnification does NOT have any units (‘x 50’ or ‘x 5000’) molecules (like water) through but not larger molecules.
Tip: This comes out frequently in all three Osmosis: Net movement of water molecules from a region
papers of higher water potential (dilute solution) to a region of
lower water potential (concentrated solution) through a
3. Movement Into and Out of partially permeable membrane.

Cells
3.1. Diffusion
Diffusion: Net movement of particles down the
concentration gradient (high → low) as a result of their
random movement. Conc. of Solute (In-Cell)
Low
Conc. of Solute (Outside-Cell)
High
Condition of the Cell
Cell Shrinks (Flaccid/Hypertonic)
Same Same No Change (Isotonic)
High Low Turgid/Hypotonic

In Animals
Increasing solute concentration inside a cell can cause it
to burst (cell lysis) because it has too much water and
no cell wall.

In Plants

Increasing solute concentration inside the cell causes the Carrier Proteins or Protein Carriers are also used
cell to become turgid, and the vacuole fills up. The cell during active transport.
wall can withstand the higher turgor pressure.
Decreasing solute concentration inside the cell causes
the cell to become flaccid, losing water, and the vacuole
to get smaller. The cell body shrinks, pulling away from
the cell wall.
Plants are supported by the water pressure inside the
cells pressing outwards on the cell wall.

It is embedded in the cell membrane, where it picks up

specific molecules and moves them through the
membrane against their concentration gradient.
Active transport is needed when an organism wants to
Dialysis Tubing Experiment optimise the nutrients it can take up - ion uptake by
root hair cells.
Dialysis Tubing (or Visking tubing) is a non-living, Some particles are too large to cross a membrane by
partially permeable membrane made from cellulose. diffusion or active transport. A few very specialised cells
Pores are small enough to prevent the passage of large
have developed a method for taking up these particles;
molecules (such as sucrose) but allow smaller the particles are engulfed by the cell surface membrane
molecules (such as glucose and water) to pass through flowing around them. This process of phagocytosis is
by diffusion and osmosis. used by white blood cells.

4. Biological Molecules
4.1. Biological Molecules
Carbohydrates: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Fats and Oils: made from Carbon, Hydrogen and
Oxygen (CHO)
Proteins: made from Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen,
3.3. Active Transport Nitrogen and sometimes Sulfur (CHON{S})
Smaller molecules Larger molecules
Active Transport: The movement of particles through a cell Simple sugars Starch, glycogen and cellulose
membrane from a lower concentration region to a higher Fatty acids and glycerol Fats and oils
Amino acids Proteins
concentration region (i.e., against a concentration gradient)
uses energy from respiration.
4.2. Food Tests

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Test for: Solution Process Positive Negative
Result Result
Reducing Benedict Add Benedict solution into a Chromosomes are made of a molecule called DNA
Brick Red Blue
Sugars Solution beaker and Heat Up to 70-80°C DNA is also called deoxyribonucleic acid.
Starch Iodine Add Iodine solution to the Blue-Black Brown
Solution specimen
Biuret
Protein Solution Add Biuret solution to the sample Purple/Violet Blue

Fats (Physical Add ethanol to the sample and Cloudy

Ethanol shake with an equal volume of N/A
test) water. Emulsion
Vitamin C DCPIP Add DCPIP solution to the sample Colourless Blue

Each chromosome is a very long molecule of tightly

coiled DNA
Two strands coiled together to form a double helix
Each strand contains chemicals called Bases
Cross-links between strands are formed by pairs of bases
The bases always pair up in the same way:
A and T
4.3. Structure of a DNA C and G
You do NOT need to know the names of the DNA bases
for this syllabus.

5. Enzymes
5.1. Enzymes
General Characteristics of an Enzyme
Catalyst: A substance that increases the rate of reaction
and is not used up itself.
Biological Catalyst: A living substance that speeds up a
chemical reaction and is not changed by the reaction
Enzymes: Specific proteins involved in all metabolic
reactions, functioning as biological catalysts.
Enzyme lowers the activation energy needed for a
reaction to take place.
It is essential in all living organisms for sustaining life.
Enzymes are unchanged and can be reused

Lock and Key Model (Hypothesis)

5.4. Graphs for Changes in Enzyme

Activity
Effect of Temperature Effect of pH

Substrate: the molecule(s) before they are made to

react, complementary to the active site.
Product: the molecule(s) that are made in a reaction 6. Plant Nutrition
Different sequences of amino acids may lead to varying
shapes of protein molecules, as these slight differences 6.1. Photosynthesis
(temperature/pH) may be deferred in their function.
Photosynthesis: the process by which plants manufacture
5.2. Temperature on Enzymes carbohydrates from raw materials using energy from light.

Enzymes have an optimum temperature: the

temperature at which they work best. In animals and
humans, the fastest reaction ≈ is at 37 °C.
When temperature increases, molecules move faster,
more effectively, and frequently collide.
Having more kinetic energy makes them more likely to
bind to active sites.
If the temperature is too high, enzyme molecules vibrate
too vigorously; the enzyme is denatured, losing shape
and no longer binding with a substrate.
When the temperature is too low, there is not enough
kinetic energy for the reaction, so it reacts too slowly. light+chlorophyll
CarbonDioxide + Water Glucose + Ox
5.3. pH on Enzymes 6CO2 + 6H2 O

light+cholorophyll
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2

Enzymes are sensitive to pH. Only EXTENDED Students must know the Balanced
Some enzymes work best in an acid, and others in an Chemical Equation
alkaline. The carbon dioxide diffuses through the open stomata of
Enzymes work best at their optimum pH. a plant leaf, and water is taken up through the roots.
If the pH changes, the hydrogen bond is broken, Chlorophyll is a green pigment that traps light energy
denatures the enzyme, making it no longer fit with the and converts it into chemical energy to form
substrate’s active site; therefore, no reaction occurs. carbohydrates and their subsequent storage.
Pepsin is used in acidic conditions, Amylase is used in Glucose is used for respiration, energy storage, cellulose
neutral conditions, and trypsin is used in alkaline cell walls, and making proteins and sugars.
conditions.
Use and Storage of the Carbohydrates Made in
Photosynthesis

starch as an energy store De-starch the plant by keeping it in darkness for 48

cellulose to build cell walls hours
glucose used in respiration to provide energy Place a stencil over part of a leaf
sucrose for transport in the phloem Place the leaf in sunlight for 4-6 hours
Remove the stencil and test for starch
6.2. Mineral Requirements +ve result = parts which received light turn blue-
black
Nitrate ions Magnesium ions -ve result = parts which didn’t receive light remain
Making amino acids
Deficiency: small plant due to slow/stunted
Making chlorophyll
Deficiency: The plant lacks chlorophyll, leaves
brown
growth turn yellow.

Tip! You need to know the purpose of these

required nutrients.

6.3. Investigation of Chlorophyll

Take a potted plant with variegated (green and white)
leaves.
De-starch the plant by keeping it in complete darkness 6.5. Investigation of Carbon Dioxide
for about 48 hours. Concentration
Expose the plant to sunlight for a few days.
Leaf boiled in water for 2 minutes to break down cell Take two de-starched potted plants.
walls, denature enzymes and allow for easier penetration Cover both the plants with bell jars and label them A and
by ethanol. B.
Warmed in ethanol until the leaf is colourless to extract Inside A, keep N aHCO3 (Sodium Bicarbonate). It

chlorophyll, which would mask the observation produces CO2 .

Dipped into the water briefly: to help soften the leaf

Inside B, keep N aOH (Sodium Hydroxide). It absorbs

The leaf is placed on a white tile, and iodine is added. If
CO2 .
starch is present, the colour will be blue-black; if absent,

Keep both set-ups and do the starch test in the sunlight

it will remain brown.
for at least 6 hours

6.4. Investigation of Light Intensity

NOTE: This type of question is famous in IGCSE Biology
Paper 2.
The leaves of Plant A will turn black after the starch test
The leaves of Plant B will remain brown after the starch
test

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Hydrogencarbonate indicator: measures the carbon Most dicotyledonous plant leaves have a large surface area
dioxide concentration and are thin.

Key: PMROY, purple being the lowest carbon dioxide Structure Function
concentration, and yellow the highest. Waxy Cuticle A waterproof waxy layer that prevents water loss from the
top of the leaf
Upper & Lower Epidermis Thin and transparent to allow light to enter the palisade

6.6. Limiting Factors

mesophyll cells
Palisade Mesophyll Cells Found at the top of the cell and contains the MOST
chloroplasts that absorb sunlight for photosynthesis.
Irregularly shaped cells create air spaces to allow the gaseous
Spongy Mesophyll Cells
Limiting Factors: something present in the environment Vascular Bundle
exchange to take place; do not contain many chloroplasts
Made up of xylem and phloem
(Temperature, Carbon Dioxide Concentration and Light Xylem A tissue vessel that transports water and mineral ions
Intensity) in such short supply that it restricts life processes. Phloem A tissue vessel that transports sucrose and amino acids
Little holes that open and close to allow the gaseous
Stomata/Stoma exchange to occur
Guard Cells Control the opening and closing of stomata

Light Intensity

As the amount of light increases, the rate of

photosynthesis increases (a-b)

The limiting factor is light

Increasing the amount of light after a certain

point does not affect the rate (c) Syllabus 6.2.3: You must be able to explain
how the structures above adapt leaves for
photosynthesis
The limiting factor is now carbon dioxide or
temperature

6.8. Adaptations of Leaf Structure for

6.7. Leaf Structure Photosynthesis

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Incisors Canines Premolars Molars
Here is a table of different adaptations of the specific leaf
structure helping towards photosynthesis.
Adaptation Functions
Large Surface Area of Leaf Increase surface area for diffusion of carbon dioxide and
absorption of light for photosynthesis.
Thin Allow carbon dioxide to diffuse quickly into the palisade
mesophyll cells
Chlorophyll Absorb light energy so photosynthesis can take place.
Network of Veins Allow efficient transport of water and mineral ions
throughout the plant
Epidermis is thin Allow more light to reach the palisade mesophyll cells Blunt for chewing and Blunt chewing and
Allow oxygen and carbon dioxide to continuously diffuse in Rectangular shape, Sharp-pointed for grinding, one or two grinding. Two or three
Stomata/Stoma and out of the leaf sharp for cutting and piercing and
biting tearing roots, cusps/bumps at roots, ridges at the
the end end

7. Human Nutrition Structure of Tooth

Our teeth are embedded in bone, and the gums
7.1. Diet
Balanced Diet: A diet containing proper proportions of
carbohydrates, fats, proteins, vitamins, minerals, and water
to maintain good health and metabolism.

Diet-related to age/gender/lifestyle:
Children Below 12: Require more calcium
Teenagers: Highest calorie intake
Adults: Balanced meal with fewer calories
Pregnant Women: more iron, calcium
Males: Generally require more energy

7.2. Nutrition Enamel: the strongest tissue in the body made from
Nutrients Uses
calcium salts
Carbohydrates Energy Cement: helps to anchor tooth
Fats and oils
Source of energy, building materials, energy store, insulation,
buoyancy, making hormones
Pulp: contains tooth-producing cells, blood vessels, and
Proteins Energy, building materials, enzymes, haemoglobin, structural material
(muscle), hormones, antibodies
nerve endings that detect pain.
Vitamin C Collagen, resistance to diseases Dentine: calcium salts deposited on a framework of
Vitamin D
Calcium
Absorption of calcium
Development and maintenance of strong bones and teeth
collagen fibers
Iron Making haemoglobin Nerves: Detect sensation
Fibre (Roughage) Provides bulk for faeces, helps peristalsis Blood vessels: Provide nutrition
Water Chemical reactions, solvent for transport

7.3. Deficiencies 7.5. Digestive System

Vitamin C: Scurvy; loss of teeth, pale skin & sunken eyes
Calcium/Vitamin D: Rickets, Osteoporosis; weak bones
and teeth

7.4. Teeth
Our teeth play a key role in mechanical digestion to help
increase the surface area of food.

Mouth: contains teeth used for mechanical Digestion, an

area where food is mixed with salivary amylase & where
ingestion takes place
Salivary glands: produce saliva, which contains amylase
and helps food slide down the oesophagus
Oesophagus: tube-shaped organ that uses peristalsis
(circular muscle contract and relax) to transport food
from mouth to stomach
Stomach: has pepsin (a protease that works best in
acidic conditions) to break down proteins into amino
acids and kills bacteria with hydrochloric acid. They also
have elastic walls.
Mechanical digestion in the stomach occurs via
Process of Digestion peristaltic contractions of the smooth muscle.
Small intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of three
Ingestion: taking substances (e.g. food, drink) into the parts:
body through the mouth. Duodenum: fats are emulsified by bile and digested
Physical/Mechanical Digestion: breakdown of food into by pancreatic lipase to form fatty acids and glycerol.
smaller pieces without chemical change. Pancreatic amylase and trypsin (a protease) break
It increases the surface area of food for the action down starch.
of enzymes in chemical digestion. Jujenum (not in syllabus)
Chemical Digestion: breakdown of large, insoluble food Ileum: Maltase breaks down maltose to glucose. This
molecules into small, soluble molecules. is where absorption also takes place.
Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the Pancreas: produces amylase, trypsin (a protease that
intestines into the blood works best in alkaline conditions), and lipase.
Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by cells Liver: produces bile (emulsifies fats, neutralises acidic fat
Egestion: the removal of undigested food from the body molecules), deamination, and makes urea to be sent to
as faeces the kidney. Also, it is the site of the breakdown of alcohol
and other toxins.
Main Organs in the Alimentary Canal Gall bladder: stores bile from the liver
Large intestine: tube-shaped organ composed of two
parts:
Colon: organ for absorption of minerals and vitamins
and reabsorbing water from waste to maintain the
body’s water levels
Rectum: where faeces are temporarily stored
Anus: a ring of muscle that controls when faeces is
released.
Appendix: is not part of the syllabus, so it doesn’t need
to be known.

7.6. The Stomach

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
The stomach lining contains many smooth muscles that
contract to squeeze physically and mix the food with the Maltase: breaks down maltose into glucose in the
strong digestive juices present, a process also known as membrane of the epithelium lining in small intestines.
"stomach-churning."

The food will be digested within the stomach for several

hours
First stop for protein digestion

Protease: breaks down proteins into peptides and

amino acids. Pepsin comes from the stomach (acidic),
and trypsin comes from the pancreas (alkali).

7.7. Chemical Digestion

Lipase: breaks down lipids into fatty acids and glycerol,
Chemical Digestion: the breakdown of large insoluble produced by the pancreas.
molecules into small soluble molecules
The role of chemical digestion in producing small soluble
molecules that can be absorbed

7.8. Enzymes in Digestion 7.9. Hydrochloric Acid and Bile

Amylase: breaks down starch into maltose; it is Functions of Hydrochloric acid in gastric juice:
produced in the pancreas (secreted into the duodenum) Denaturing enzymes in harmful microorganisms
and salivary glands. Giving the optimum pH for pepsin activity
Kills pathogens
Bile: an alkaline mixture that neutralises the acid
mixture of food and gastric juices entering the
duodenum from the stomach to provide a suitable pH
for enzyme action.

8. Transport in Plants
8.1. Xylem and Phloem
Functions of Xylem

transport water and mineral ions, and support the

plant’s overall structure.

Functions of Phloem

transport sucrose and amino acids from the source to

7.10. Absorption and Villus the sink (and vice versa)

Adaptations of Xylem
Absorption: the movement of nutrients from the intestines
into the blood 1. thick walls with lignin (dead cell)
2. no cell contents
3. cells joined end to end with no cross walls to form a
long, continuous tube

The small intestine is the region for absorption of

digested food. Syllabus 8.1.2: You must be able to identify in diagrams and
The small intestine is folded into many villi, increasing images the position of the xylem and phloem as seen in
the surface area for absorption. One villus will have sections of roots, stems, and leaves of non-woody
tiny folds on the cells on its outside called microvilli. dicotyledonous plants
The epithelium is one cell thick, allowing efficient
diffusion of nutrients.
A large surface area means more absorption of
8.2. Water Uptake
nutrients can happen. Root Hair Cells
Lacteals: absorbs fatty acid and glycerol
Capillaries: provide a good blood supply and a steep
concentration gradient.
Most water is absorbed from the small intestine, and
some from the colon (large intestine).

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Transpiration: loss of water vapour from leaves, which
Function: to absorb water and minerals from the soil evaporates from the surface of the mesophyll cells into the
They have an elongated shape for a larger surface area, air spaces and diffuses out of the leaves through the
which increases the water absorption rate by osmosis stomata.
and ions by active transport.

The large surface area of root hairs is crucial as it increases

the uptake of water and mineral ions.
Water enters root hair cells from moist soil via osmosis
because water potential is higher in soil than in the
cytoplasm.
Then, it enters the root cortex cells, xylem, and
mesophyll cells.

Investigate the Pathway of Water through the

Above-Ground Parts of a Plant
Water uptake can be investigated by placing a plant (like Water leaves mesophyll cells into air spaces created by
celery) into a beaker of water with a stain (dye, food an irregular shape of spongy mesophyll cells, then
colouring) added. diffuses out of the stomata.
A few hours later, the celery leaves turn the same colour Water vapour loss is due to the large internal surface
as the dyed water. area provided by the interconnecting air spaces
When the cross-section of the celery is cut, only certain between mesophyll cells and the size and number of
areas are stained by the colour of the water, showing stomata.
that it is being carried in specific vessels through the Water moves upwards in the xylem in terms of a
stem - a.k.a xylem vessels. transpiration pull that draws up a column of water
molecules held together by forces of attraction between
water molecules.

Wilting
Wilting occurs if water loss exceeds water uptake. Cells
become flaccid, and tissues become limp.

This is when all the cells of the plant are not full of water,
so the strength of the cell walls cannot support the plant
and it starts to collapse

Factors affecting Rate of Transpiration

8.3. Transpiration

Temperature: The kinetic energy of the water molecules Single Circulation System (fish):
increases, so they evaporate and diffuse faster from the Blood flows through the heart once every complete
mesophyll cells, increasing the transpiration rate circuit (No Septum)
Humidity: Low humidity increases the concentration Two heart chambers (Atrium and Ventricle)
gradient between the leaf and the atmosphere, hence Blood absorbs oxygen in the gills in lower-pressure
increasing the transpiration rate, while high humidity Released in body cells, then back to the heart
decreases the gradient, reducing the transpiration rate. Double Circulation System:
Wind Speed: Removing water molecules to maintain a Four heart chambers
steep concentration gradient Blood passes through the heart twice every complete
circuit
8.4. Translocation Oxygenated in the lungs, to the heart, to the body,
and back to the heart
Translocation: Movement of sucrose and amino acids in the Advantages: delivers greater blood flow rate to tissues
phloem from regions of production (sources) to regions of around the body as the heart pumps the rich oxygenated
storage or regions of utilisation in respiration or growth blood to it from the lungs, preventing the mixing of
(sinks). oxygenated and deoxygenated blood.

Translocation in different seasons: 9.2. Heart

Spring: sucrose transported from stores in roots to
leaves The mammalian heart contains a systemic and pulmonary
Summer & early autumn: sucrose goes from circuit.
photosynthesizing leaves to root stores,
Below is a picture of a girdle in a tree trunk.

9. Transport in Animals
9.1. Circulatory Systems
Circulatory System: a system of tubes (veins, capillaries,
arteries) with a pump (heart) and valves (in heart and veins)
to ensure a one-way flow of blood.

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Explain the reasons for changes in pressure seen in
Right Atrium: collect deoxygenated blood & pump it to arteries (0610/42/F/M/23)
the right ventricle
Right Ventricle: pumps deoxygenated blood to lungs caused by contraction of muscles (of the heart/ventricle)
Pulmonary Artery: carries deoxygenated blood from pressure increases when the heart / ventricles
the right ventricle to the lungs contract/pump
Septum: separates the left and right sides of the heart pressure decreases when the heart/ventricles relax
and keeps deoxygenated and oxygenated blood
separate. 9.4. Exercise on Heart Rate
Pulmonary Vein: carries oxygenated blood from the
lungs to the left atrium The heart's electrical activity can be monitored by the
Left Atrium: collect oxygenated blood and pump it to electrocardiogram (ECG), pulse rate, stethoscope and
the left ventricle listening to the sounds of the valves closing.
Left Ventricle: pumps oxygenated blood to the body via Physical activity makes the heart beat more quickly and
the aorta deeply for increased blood circulation so that more
Aorta: carries oxygenated blood from the left ventricle oxygen and glucose can get to the muscle.
to the rest of the body
Atrioventricular and Semi-lunar Valves: prevent
backflow of blood 9.5. Coronary Heart Disease
IMPORTANT! Relative Muscle Wall Thickness: Atria < Right The coronary arteries are the heart’s blood supply.
Ventricle < Left Ventricle
The coronary artery becomes blocked, interrupting
blood supply to the heart muscle.
9.3. Functioning of the Heart Part of the heart muscle stops contracting, causing a
heart attack
The deoxygenated blood incoming from the body flows Risk factors are diet, lack of exercise, stress, smoking,
into the right atrium via the vena cava. genetic predisposition, age and sex
Once the right atrium has filled with blood, the blood is This can be prevented by not smoking, avoiding fatty
pushed through the atrioventricular valve into the food (a good diet) and exercising regularly
right ventricle.
The ventricle contraction occurs, and the blood is pushed
into the pulmonary artery through the semilunar 9.6. Blood Vessels
valve, which prevents blood from flowing backwards Vessel Function Structure
into the heart. Elastic tissue walls stretch and relax as
blood is forced out; causes pulse
The blood travels to the lungs and moves through the Arteries Transport high-pressure blood away Thick walls to withstand high pressure
from heart
capillaries, passing the alveoli. Small lumen maintains (high) blood
pressure.
Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium via the Valves prevent backflow of blood.
pulmonary vein Transport low pressure blood to the
Blood is at low pressure, but nearby
muscles squeeze veins and help push
Veins
It passes through the atrioventricular valve into the heart blood to the heart
Large and wide lumen to reduce
left ventricle resistance to the flow of blood
One cell thick wall for easy diffusion
The thicker muscle walls of the ventricle contract to push Highly branched; large surface area
Capillaries Allow substances to diffuse into cells
the blood forcefully into the aorta and around the body Capillary beds constantly supplied with
fresh blood, so diffusion occurs
The semilunar valve in the aorta prevents the blood
from flowing back down into the heart Major Blood Vessels
Example Past Year Question Heart: Vena Cava, Aorta, Pulmonary Arteries & Vein
Lungs: Pulmonary Arteries and veins
Kidney: Renal Arteries and veins
Liver: Hepatic Artery, Hepatic Veins and Hepatic Portal Vein

The hepatic artery brings oxygenated blood from the

heart to the liver
The hepatic vein brings deoxygenated blood from the
liver back to the heart
The hepatic portal vein transports deoxygenated blood
from the gut to the liver White Blood Cells
Phagocyte Lymphocyte
Phagocytes have lobed/irregular C-shaped
nuclei and vesicles containing digestive Lymphocytes have a circular nucleus and are
enzymes. found in blood
Phagocytosis: engulfs pathogen, vesicles fuse Large nucleus/small cytoplasm, and they
with the vacuole, enzymes digest bacteria. produce antibodies,
Antigens: protein/carbohydrate on the surface Antibodies: Y-shaped proteins bind to label
of the pathogen which provokes the immune pathogens, marking them for destruction by
system the phagocytes.

Blood Clotting
Reduces blood loss and keeps pathogens out
Arterioles and Venules Fibrinogen (inactive) turns to fibrin (activated), forms a
mesh to trap red blood cells, and eventually dries to
form a scab.

10. Diseases and Immunity

10.1. Pathogens
Pathogen: a disease-causing organism.
The vessels that connect arteries to capillaries are called Transmissible Disease: a disease in which the pathogen
arterioles can be passed from one host to another.
The vessels that connect capillaries to veins are called The pathogen for a transmissible disease may be
venules transmitted either:
Direct Contact: the pathogen is passed directly from
one host to another through blood, body fluids,
9.7. Blood semen, etc.
Indirect Contact: the pathogen leaves the host and
Red blood cells: biconcave shape, haemoglobin and
is carried in some way to another e.g., contaminated
oxygen transport (oxy-haemoglobin)
surfaces/food, from animals, from air
White blood cells: phagocytosis and antibody
production
Platelets: allows/promotes blood clotting 10.2. Body Defences
Plasma: transport of blood cells, ions, nutrients, urea,
hormones and carbon dioxide (mostly water and The human body has many natural defences against
dissolved substances) pathogens.

Syllabus 9.4.2: You must be able to identify

red and white blood cells in
photomicrographs and diagrams

Mechanical barriers: Active Immunity is gained after infection by a pathogen

Nostrils contain hairs that help trap dust or by vaccination.
The skin has a thick outer layer of dead cells Vaccines immunise children against diseases caused by
Chemical barriers: pathogens.
Sticky mucus which can trap pathogens Having a population vaccinated against a particular
In the stomach, hydrochloric acid is secreted, which disease helps to achieve herd immunity.
kills many of the bacteria in food Process of Vaccination:
Cells: Pathogens that manage to get through all these weakened pathogens or their antigens are put into
defences are destroyed by white blood cells: the body
Some of these cells take in and digest the pathogens the antigens stimulate an immune response by
by phagocytosis lymphocytes, which produce antibodies
Others produce antibodies that incapacitate or kill memory cells are produced that give long-term
the pathogen and vaccination against disease helps immunity
antibodies to be made very quickly
Passive Immunity
Ways of Controlling the Spread of Diseases
Passive Immunity: short-term defences against a pathogen
a clean water supply by antibodies acquired from another individual.
hygienic food preparation
good personal hygiene Memory cells are NOT made in passive Immunity
waste disposal Babies get passive immunity by breastfeeding.
sewage treatment Breast milk contains antibodies from the mother,
which are passed on to her baby.
Useful because a young baby’s immune system is not
10.3. Active and Passive Immunity well developed; the mother’s antibodies can protect it
against any diseases.
Antibody: proteins that bind to antigens, directly destroying Some diseases are caused by the immune system
or marking pathogens for destruction by phagocytes.
targeting and destroying body cells.
The surface of the pathogen contains antigens, and they
have specific shapes. 10.4. Cholera
Specific antibodies have complementary shapes which
fit specific antigens. Diarrhoea: loss of water from watery faeces
To destroy a pathogen, antibody molecules must be Oral rehydration therapy and antibiotics are used to
made that are exactly the right shape to fit into antigens cure this.
outside the pathogen. The bacterium, “Vibrio cholerae”, causes Cholera.
Antibodies lock onto antigens, leading to the destruction The bacterium is transmitted through contaminated
of pathogens/marking of pathogens for phagocytes to water.
engulf. The cholera bacterium produces a toxin that causes
If a pathogen enters the body, it meets many the secretion of chloride ions into the small intestine,
lymphocytes. One of these will recognise the pathogen decreasing water potential in the gut, water moves
and divide rapidly by mitosis. into the gut down the water potential gradient,
These lymphocytes then secrete antibodies, creating causing diarrhoea, dehydration, and loss of salts and
active immunity. water from the blood.

Active Immunity
11. Gas Exchange in Humans
Active Immunity: defence against a pathogen by antibody
production in the body.
11.1. Gas Exchange Surfaces

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Properties Reasons
Thin surface
Large surface area
Short distance to diffuse (one cell thick)
Many molecules can diffuse at once/More alveoli
Physical activity increases the breathing rate – more
Good ventilation Regular fresh air supplies keep up concentration gradients for respiration - and higher CO2 concentration in the blood.
oxygen and carbon dioxide.
Good blood supply Gases can be carried to/from the cells that need/produce them This is measured with a spirometer to produce a
Moist Allow gases to dissolve, ready for diffusion spirogram.
During exercise, tissues respire at a higher rate; the
11.2. Structure of the Lungs change in breathing volume and rate helps keep CO2
concentration and pH safe.
The lung contains a diaphragm, ribs, intercostal muscles,
larynx, trachea, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli and associated 11.4. Breathing
capillaries
Inspiration Expiration
External intercostal muscles contract – pulls External intercostal muscles relax – ribcage
ribcage upwards and outwards falls downwards and inwards
Diaphragm muscles contract – the diaphragm
Diaphragm
moves downwards, and the volume of the shape, and the muscles relax – return to a dome
thorax increases volume of the thorax decreases
Atmospheric Pressure > Pressure in Thorax Atmospheric Pressure < Pressure in Thorax
Air moves into the lungs Air moves out of the lungs

Cartilage (in the trachea): prevents the trachea from

collapsing during the absence of air and protects it by
keeping it open.
Ribs: to protect vital organs and blood vessels and
expand and contract (and efficient breathing).
Intercostal (internal & external) muscles: situated
Internal intercostal muscles are used in coughing and
between the ribs that create and move the chest wall.
sneezing.
Diaphragm: produces volume and pressure changes in
Mucus & cilia: goblet cells produce sticky mucus to trap
the thorax, leading to the ventilation of the lungs.
and eliminate particulate matter and microorganisms.
Ciliated cells have cilia, little hairs which sweep/beat
Composition of Breathing Dry Air
back and forward in a coordinated way to brush mucus
Inspired Air Expired Air up the lungs into the mouth.
Oxygen 21% 16%
Carbon Dioxide 0.04% 4%
Nitrogen
Water Vapour
78%
Lower
78%
Higher 12. Respiration
Test for CO2: Add CO2 through limewater. +ve result =
turns cloudy 12.1. Respiration
Respiration: Chemical reactions that break down nutrient
11.3. Physical Activity on Breathing molecules in living cells to release energy.

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Anaerobic Respiration: chemical reactions in cells break
Uses of energy in the body of humans: muscle down nutrient molecules to release energy without using
contraction, protein synthesis, cell division, active oxygen.
transport, growth, the passage of nerve impulses and the
maintenance of a constant body temperature. In muscles (vigorous exercise):
Respiration involves the action of enzymes in cells to Glucose → Lactic Acid
speed up the reaction. In yeast (single-cell fungi):
Glucose → Ethanol + Carbon Dioxide
Effect of Temperature on Respiration in Yeast C6 H12 O6 → 2C2 H5 OH + 2CO2

Disadvantages of Anaerobic Respiration:

An indicator, Methylene Blue, can be used to investigate
Only produces 1/20 of the energy per glucose
the effect of temperature on yeast cells. molecule that aerobic respiration would
Yeast can respire both aerobically and anaerobically, Produces poisonous lactic acid
though, in this experiment, their aerobic respiration rate
Lactic Acid:
is being investigated.
Builds up in muscles and blood during vigorous
The time taken for the methylene blue to lose its colour
exercise
measures the respiration rate of the yeast cells in the The heart, liver and kidneys need extra oxygen to do
suspension. this, which causes you to continue breathing heavily
The faster the dye changes from blue to colourless,
after exercise.
the faster the respiration rate.
The extra oxygen is called the oxygen debt.
IV: Effect of Temperature
Oxygen Debt is removed by:
DV: Rate of Respiration (recording the time taken for continuation of fast heart rate to transport lactic acid
methylene blue dye to change from blue to colourless) in the blood from the muscles to the liver
continuation of deeper and faster breathing to supply
oxygen for aerobic respiration of lactic acid
aerobic respiration of lactic acid in the liver

12.4. Comparison of Aerobic and

Anaerobic Respiration
Aerobic Anaerobic
Oxygen Needed Not needed
Breakdown of Glucose Complete combustion Incomplete combustion
Products Carbon Dioxide and Animals: Lactic Acid & Yeast: Carbon
Water Dioxide and Ethanol
Amount of Energy More Less
Released
Exam Tip! In the exam, always state that
energy is released; it is NEVER made,
produced, or created. 13. Excretion in Humans
12.2. Aerobic Respiration 13.1. Excretion
Aerobic Respiration: chemical reactions in cells that use Excretion: the removal of toxic materials from organisms,
oxygen to break down nutrient molecules to release energy the waste products of metabolism (chemical reactions in
Glucose + Oxygen → CarbonDioxide + Water cells including respiration) and substances in excess of
requirements.
C6 H12 O6 + 6O2 → 6CO2 + 6H2 O

12.3. Anaerobic Respiration

Substances should include carbon dioxide (lungs), urea,

excess water and ions (kidney).
The importance of excretion is due to the toxicity of the
urea.

13.2. Function of Liver

The role of the liver is in the assimilation of amino acids by
converting them to proteins.

Cortex: contains Bowman’s capsules and coiled tubules

Ureter: carries urine from the kidney to the bladder
Medulla: has loops of Henlé and collecting ducts
Urethra: carrying urine from the bladder to the outside.
Bladder: stores urine
Renal artery: brings wastes and water from the blood
Renal vein: reabsorbs water and functional molecules
and leaves wastes behind

Deamination: removal of the nitrogen-containing part of

13.4. Structure and Function of the
amino acids to form urea. Nephron
Assimilation: uptake and use of nutrients by body cells

Urea is formed in the liver from excess amino acids.

Alcohol, drugs & hormones are broken down in the liver.

13.3. Function of Kidney

Removal of urea and excess water and the re-absorption
of glucose and some salts

1. Ultrafiltration: blood from the renal artery enters

the glomerulus. Water, urea, salts, and glucose are
forced into the Bowman’s capsule. Blood cells and
large proteins cannot pass through.
2. Selective reabsorption: in the tubule, two-thirds of
the salt and water and all the glucose move out of the
nephron by active transport. These substances are
reabsorbed back into the blood capillary.
3. Loop of Henlé: this part is permeable to water but
not salt. Water is drawn out of the filtrate in the
nephron by osmosis because of the low water
potential of the medulla tissue fluid.
4. Collecting duct: the remaining substances move into Sensory Neurone
the collecting duct, forming urine.
Carry impulses from the sense organs (sensory
receptors) to the CNS.
14. Coordination and
Response
14.1. Mammalian Nervous System
The mammalian nervous system consists of two parts:
Central Nervous System (CNS) consists of the brain
and spinal cord, which are the areas of coordination.
The peripheral nervous system (PNS) is comprised
of nerves and neurones that coordinate and regulate
body functions.
Electrical impulses travel through the neurones.
The nervous system helps with the coordination and Relay Neurone (Interneurone)
regulation of body functions.
The middleman inside the CNS connects sensory to
14.2. Types of Neurones motor neurones.

Nerve Impulse: an electrical signal that passes along the

nerve cells called neurones
Axons: Ensure less time is wasted when the impulse is
transferred from one neurone to another
Dendrites: Extensions which form a network for easy
communication.

Motor Neurone
Carry impulses from the CNS to effectors (muscles or
the glands)

14.3. Simple Reflex Arc

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Reflex Action: automatically and rapidly integrates and Synapse: a junction between two neurones, consisting of a
coordinates the stimuli with the responses of effectors gap across which impulses pass by diffusion of a
(muscles and glands). neurotransmitter

E.g. quickly removing your hand from the hot metal

surface
They involve three neurones: a sensory neurone, a relay
neurone and a motor neurone.
The gap between neurones is called a synapse.
How the simple reflex arc works:
A stimulus affects a receptor (cell or organ that
converts a stimulus into an electrical impulse)
A sensory neurone carries impulses from the
receptor to the CNS (spinal cord)
Connector/relay neurone carries impulse slowly
(because it has no myelin sheath) across the spinal
cord
The synapses ensure that impulses travel in one
The motor neurone carries impulses from the CNS to
direction only.
the effector
Synaptic cleft: the small gap between each pair of
The effector (either a muscle or a gland) carries out
neurones
the response
Inside the neurone’s axon, there are 100s of tiny
vacuoles (vesicles, each containing a chemical called
neurotransmitter)
When an impulse arrives, the vesicles move to the cell
membrane and empty their content into the synaptic
cleft.
The neurotransmitter quickly diffuses across the tiny gap
and attaches to receptor molecules in the cell membrane
of the relay neurone.
This can happen because the neurotransmitter
molecules' shape complements the receptor shape.

14.4. Synapse 14.5. Sense Organs

Sense Organ: groups of receptor cells responding to specific
stimuli: light, sound, touch, temperature, and chemicals.

The way the lens brings about fine focusing is called

accommodation
The lens is elastic, and its shape can be changed when
the suspensory ligaments attached to it become tight
or loose
The contraction or relaxation of the ciliary muscles
brings about the changes
Near Object Distant Object
Ciliary muscles Contract Relax
Suspensory Ligaments Slack Tighten
Lens Short and fat Long and thin

Cornea: refracts light

Iris: controls how much light enters the pupil
Lens: focuses light onto the retina
Retina: contains light receptors, some sensitive to light
of different colours (Rods and cones)
Optic nerves: carry impulses to the brain
Pupil: A hole which allows light to enter

14.6. Pupil Reflex

Example Past Year Question

Explain why a person cannot focus on distant objects if
the suspensory ligaments become permanently
overstretched. (0610/42/F/M/23)

1. ciliary muscles relax

2. suspensory ligaments can no longer become tight
3. the lens is not stretched/remains wide
4. the angle of refraction remains unchanged

Adjusting for high and low light intensity 14.8. Rods and Cones
An involuntary response
Rods Cones
Provide low detail, black & white images, Provide detailed, coloured images; they work in
Low Light Intensity High Light Intensity suitable for seeing in low-intensity light (at
Radial Muscles Contract Relax night). high light intensity.
Circular Muscles Relax Contract Packed most tightly around the edge of the Most tightly packed at the retina's centre,
Pupil Size Wide Narrow retina, so you can see things most clearly when objects are seen most clearly when directly
not looking directly at them. looking at them.
Amount of Light Entering More Less

14.7. Accommodation
Accommodation: Adjusting for near and distant objects.

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Gland Hormone Function
Fovea: Adrenal gland
Pancreas
Adrenaline
Insulin
Prepares the body for vigorous action
Reduces the concentration of glucose in the blood
Part of the retina where the receptor cells are pushed Testes Testosterone Causes the development of male sexual characteristics
most closely together Ovary Oestrogen Causes the development of female sexual characteristics
Pancreas Glucagon Increases concentration of glucose in the blood
Where light is focused when you look straight at an
object
Distribution of Rods and Cones 14.10. Homeostasis
More rod cells than cone cells
A number of cone cells peaked in the middle, Homeostasis: The maintenance of a constant internal
showing the location of the fovea. No rod cells are environment.
present in the peak. Insulin decreases blood glucose concentration.
No rod and cone cells at the blind spot, as the optic The concept of homeostatic control by negative feedback
nerve is located there. \n with reference to a set point

Negative Feedback Concept

Negative Feedback: controls the production of hormones
and regulates their own production

A negative feedback control is when the change in

hormone level acts as a signal to cancel out that change,
so when the blood hormone level is low, hormone
production is stimulated; when it is high, it is inhibited.

14.11. Nervous and Hormonal Control

14.9. Hormones Comparison Nervous system Endocrine system
Speed of action Very rapid Can be slow
Electrical impulses travelling Chemical messengers (hormones)
Hormones: A chemical substance produced by a gland and Nature of message along nerves travelling in the bloodstream
Duration of response Usually within seconds It may take years (puberty)
carried by the blood, altering the activity of one or more Localized response (only one Widespread response (in many
Area of response
specific target organs. Example of process-
area usually) organs)
Development of the reproductive
controlled Reflexes such as blinking system
Endocrine Glands
14.12. Homeostasis: Blood Glucose
adrenal glands and adrenaline
pancreas and insulin Control
testes and testosterone
ovaries and oestrogen Blood glucose levels are monitored and controlled by the
pancreas
Adrenaline The pancreas produces and releases different hormones
depending on the blood glucose level
A hormone secreted by the adrenal gland. Insulin is released when blood glucose levels are high –
It increases pulse rate, heart rate and pupil diameter. the liver stores excess glucose as glycogen
Increases blood glucose concentration for respiration. Glucagon is released when blood glucose levels are low –
Adrenaline is secreted, for example, bungee jumping or the liver converts stored glycogen into glucose and
riding a rollercoaster. releases it into the blood

When the control of blood glucose does not work, a

person is said to have diabetes Temperature Regulation by The Skin
Type 1 Diabetes Regulation is controlled by the brain which contains
thermoreceptors (sensitive to the temperature of the
Type 1 Diabetes: caused by the death of the cells that blood)
secrete insulin. The skin also has thermoreceptors and sends nervous
Symptoms: hyperglycaemia (feeling unwell, dry mouth, impulses to the brain via sensory neurones
blurred vision, and thirsty) or hypoglycaemia (tired, The brain responds to this information by sending nerve
showing confusion and irrational behaviour) impulses to the motor neurones, then to the effectors in
Treatment: eating little and often and avoiding large the skin to maintain the temperature within a narrow
amounts of carbohydrates, injecting insulin to reduce range of the optimum, 37°C
blood glucose concentration Fatty tissue under the dermis acts as a layer of insulation
to prevent too much body heat from being lost through
the skin
14.13. Homeostasis: Temperature
Regulation
Control of body temperature is a homeostatic mechanism

The human body maintains the temperature at which

enzymes work best, around 37°C
If body temperature increases over this temperature,
enzymes will denature and become less effective at
catalysing reactions such as respiration

The Structure of the Skin

Vasoconstriction and Vasodilation

Vasoconstriction: blood flow in capillaries slows down
because arterioles leading to the skin capillaries get
narrower when we are cold.

This reduces the amount of heat lost from the blood by Auxins’ role in phototropism:
radiation as less blood flows through the surface of the If the sun shines on the right side of a plant’s shoot,
skin auxins accumulate on the dark opposite left side.
Auxins accumulating makes cells on the left side grow
Vasodilation: blood flow in capillaries increases because faster than cells on the right.
blood vessels to the skin capillaries get wider when we are When the left side of the shoot starts growing faster
hot. than the right side, the shoot will start to bend to the
This cools the body as blood (which carries heat around right side towards sunlight.
the body) flows at a faster rate through the skin’s surface
and so more heat is lost by radiation 15. Drugs
Drugs: Any substance taken into the body that modifies or
affects chemical reactions in the body. All drug metabolism
is done in the Liver.

15.1. Antibiotics
Antibiotics work by disrupting crucial systems that
bacteria need to survive and multiply, such as their cell
walls, DNA, or protein synthesis, while not harming
human cells.
Some bacteria are resistant to antibiotics, which reduces
the effectiveness of antibiotics.
14.14. Tropic Responses The development of resistant bacteria such as MRSA can
be minimized by limiting antibiotics only when
Auxin: essential and ensuring treatment is completed.
Plant hormones or growth substances Antibiotics don’t work on viruses because they do not
Controls tropisms have a cell wall and make the host cell perform their
It is produced by cells at the tip of the roots and tasks.
shoots of plants

Gravitropism: a response in which a plant grows towards

15.2. Antibiotic Resistance
(positive) or away (negative) from gravity. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria can be reproduced through the
Auxins’ role in gravitropism: theory of natural selection:
Made in the shoot tip Mutation, giving rise to variation
Then, it diffuses through the plant from the shoot tip Antibiotics kill bacteria without changing genes
Auxin is unequally distributed in response to light Competition for food space, among others
and gravity Reproduce via binary fission
Auxin stimulates cell elongation
Then, alleles are passed on to offspring to reproduce.
Phototropism: a response in which a plant grows towards An example of antibiotic-resistant bacteria is Methicillin-
(positive) or away (negative) from the direction light is resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA)
coming.

16. Reproduction
16.1. Asexual Reproduction

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Asexual Reproduction: the process resulting in the
production of genetically identical offspring from one
parent.

Bacteria:
Reproduced by binary fission, each bacterium divides
into two.
The generation time is the time taken for a cell to
divide into 2.
Advantages Disadvantages
Fast: no need to find a mate, fertilise, etc. No genetic variation/biodiversity
Good characteristics are kept Harmful genes transferred
Do not need to carry offspring Overcrowding: fighting for food/competition
No pollinators Prone to extinction, disease, environmental
change
Wind Pollinated Flowers
16.2. Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction: a process involving the fusion of the
nuclei of two gametes (sex cells) to form a zygote and the
production of offspring that are genetically different from
each other

Fertilisation: the fusion of gamete nuclei

The nuclei of gametes are haploid, and the nucleus of a
zygote is diploid
Diploid: Full Set of Chromosomes
Haploid: Half Set of Chromosomes
Advantages Disadvantages
Produces genetically different offspring It takes lots of time and energy
Reduced risk of extinction Mate required Functions
Energy on improving appearances or pollen volume
for pollination (plants)
Sepal: protect the flower bud.
Petal: brightly coloured and scented and may have
16.3. Parts of a Flowering Plant nectars, which are all used to attract insects. Petals in
wind-pollinated flowers are tiny and used for pushing the
Flowers are the reproductive organ of the plant
bracts (leaf-like structures) apart from exposing stamens
They usually contain both male and female reproductive
and stigma.
parts
Anther: has pollen sacs with pollen grains that contain
The structure of insect and wind-pollinated flowers are
the male nucleus (male gamete).
slightly different as each is adapted for their specific
Stigma: platform on which pollen grains land
function
Ovary: hollow chamber, ovules grow from the walls.
Insect Pollinated Flowers
16.4. Pollination
Pollination: transfer of pollen grains from the male part of
the plant (anther of stamen) to the female part of the plant
(stigma).

Agents of pollination: insects, birds, mammals, water Pollen tube growing from a pollen grain
and wind Pollen (tube/grain) releases enzymes
Fertilisation occurs when a pollen nucleus fuses with a The pollen tube then grows down the style/grows into
nucleus in an ovule the ovary
Pollen nucleus travels down the pollen tube
Insect Pollinated Wind Pollinated
Bright, colourful petals – attract insects Dull petals Pollen tube grows and moves through the micropyle into
Sweetly scented No scent the ovule
Contains nectar No nectaries
A moderate amount of pollen Huge amount of pollen Fertilisation occurs
Pollen is spiky/sticky, large in size Pollen round and smooth, Small and light The pollen nucleus fuses with the female nucleus
A zygote is formed
Pollen tube: pollen grain lands on the stigma and
creates a tunnel down the style, through the micropyle
to ovules. 16.6. Germination
Ovule: seed
Ovary: fruit Germination: A process controlled by enzymes
Water: activates enzymes to turn insoluble food stores
Self Pollination into soluble substances, and makes tissues swell so that
the testa splits
Self Pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the
Oxygen: enters through the gaps in the testa (along with
anther of a flower to the stigma of the same flower or a
water), and is used in aerobic respiration.
different flower on the same plant. Temperature: must be suitable for enzymes to work (at
Advantages Disadvantages
Genetically identical Lack of genetic variation optimum temperature).
High chance of successful pollination Increases competition between plants
Fast and saves time Susceptible to the same disease
16.7. Sexual Reproduction In Humans
Cross-Pollination
Male Reproductive System
Cross-pollination: the transfer of pollen grains from the
anther of a flower to the stigma of a flower on a different Testes: have many coiled tubes that produce sperm, and
plant of the same species. the cells between tubes produce testosterone.
Advantages Disadvantages Scrotum: holds testicles
Increases variation Reliance on pollinators
Quick to adapt to surroundings Wastage of pollen Sperm duct: carries sperm from testicles to urethra.
Less susceptible to diseases More energy required Prostate gland: makes seminal fluid
Urethra: carries semen from the sperm duct to the tip of
the penis
Penis: male sex organ used to transfer semen to the
female.

16.5. Fertilisation in Plants

Development of a Zygote:
One sperm penetrates
The ovum membrane alters to form a barrier against
sperm
The head of the sperm (male nucleus) approaches
and then fuses with the nucleus of the ovum.
The zygote divides over and over to make a ball of
cells called an embryo.
It implants itself in the uterus (implantation) wall,
followed by conception.
Development of fetus: The zygote is changed through
growth (mitosis) and development (organisation of cells
into tissues and organs)
Female Reproductive System Umbilical cord: contains the umbilical artery, which
carries deoxygenated blood and waste products from
Ovary: contains follicles that develop into the ova and the fetus to the placenta and the umbilical vein, which
produces progesterone and oestrogen carries oxygenated blood and soluble food from the
Oviduct (fallopian tube): carries the ovum to the uterus placenta to the fetus. (Contains fetus’ blood)
Uterus (womb): where the fetus develops. Placenta: organ for exchange of soluble materials such
Cervix: neck of the uterus: a robust and rigid muscle, as foods, wastes and oxygen between mother and fetus;
moist by mucus with a small opening physical attachment between uterus and fetus. (Contains
Vagina: receives the penis during intercourse and way mother’s blood)
out for baby at birth. Moist tube of muscle, flexible and Amniotic Sac: membrane which encloses amniotic fluid,
secretes mucus broken at birth.
Amniotic Fluid: protects the fetus against mechanical
shock, drying out and temperature fluctuations
Some pathogens and toxins can pass across the placenta
and affect the fetus.

16.9. Adaptive Features of Gametes

Sperm (Male Gamete)
1. Small in size
2. Elongated and streamlined with energy storage
3. Millions in numbers containing 23 chromosomes

16.8. Fertilisation and Early

Development
Fertilisation: The fusion of the nuclei from a male gamete
(sperm) and a female gamete (egg cell).

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Features Functions
Flagellum
Mitochondria
Propels the sperm to swim
Respiration to release energy for swimming
In the ovary, FSH secreted by the Pituitary Gland to
Enzymes in the acrosome Release digestive enzymes to digest the jelly coat stimulate the maturation of ONE follicle in the ovary.
In the uterus: the endometrium breaks down;
Egg Cell (Female Gamete) menstruation
Day 5 to 12:
1. Larger in size In the ovary, the follicle keeps maturing
2. Spherical protein/fat in the cytoplasm In the uterus, oestrogen is secreted by follicle and the
3. Moved with the help of Cillia ovarian tissues to prepare the endometrium
4. Released once per month containing 23 Day 13/14/15:
chromosomes In the ovary, LH is also secreted by the Pituitary
Gland to trigger the release of the egg from the
follicle into the fallopian tube. Ovulation happens on
Day 14.
Day 15 to 28:
In the ovary, LH triggers the formation of Corpus
Luteum
In the uterus: progesterone is secreted by Corpus
Features Functions
Luteum to keep endometrium thick, waiting for
Energy storage Development of zygote possible embryo implants.
Jelly coat Changes at fertilisation
Day 28 – Scenario 1: Egg not fertilised
No implantation takes place, and the Corpus Luteum
16.10. Sexual Hormones in Humans degenerates, causing a lack of progesterone.
This means that endometrium is no longer kept thick,
The roles of testosterone and oestrogen in the development the cycle returns to Day 1
and regulation of secondary sexual characteristics during Day 28 – Scenario 2: The egg is fertilised
puberty Implantation occurs.
This makes the hormones keep the Corpus Luteum
Primary sexual characteristics: present during maintained, which means that progesterone is high.
development in the uterus and are the differences in This keeps the Endometrium thick for pregnancy
reproductive organs etc., between males and females
Secondary sexual characteristics: are the changes
that occur during puberty as children become
adolescents
At puberty, the pituitary gland starts to stimulate the
primary sex organs: the testes in males and the ovaries
in females.
They only affect the target organs, which have receptors
that can recognize them.
Causes secondary sexual characteristics such as the
growth of pubic hair and maturation of sexual organs.

16.11. The Menstrual Cycle

Day 1 to 5: 16.12. Hormones in Menstrual Cycle

Oestrogen: secreted by the ovaries. It stops FSH from Chromosomes: made of DNA, which contains genetic
being produced - so that only one egg matures in a cycle, information in the form of genes
and it stimulates the pituitary gland to release the Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a protein
hormone LH. Allele: an alternative form of a gene
Progesterone: secreted by the placenta during Inheritance of sex in humans is used with X and Y
pregnancy, while during the menstrual cycle is by the chromosomes.
ovaries. Its primary function is maintaining the uterus Haploid nucleus: a nucleus containing a single set of
lining during the middle of the menstrual cycle and unpaired chromosomes (e.g., sperm and egg)
pregnancy. Diploid nucleus: a nucleus containing two sets of
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): secreted by the chromosomes (e.g., in body cells)
pituitary gland. It causes an egg to mature in an ovary The sequence of bases in a gene determines the
and stimulates ovaries to release oestrogen hormone. sequence of amino acids used to make a specific
Luteinizing hormone (LH): secreted by the pituitary protein.
gland and causes mature eggs to be released from the Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes
ovary. to protein molecules.

16.13. Sexually Transmitted Infections 17.2. DNA and Protein Synthesis

Human Immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is one example of a DNA: controls cell function by controlling the production of
sexually transmitted infection. proteins, including enzymes, membrane carriers, and
receptors for neurotransmitters
Transmission: Intercourse, blood transfusion, organ
transplant or sharing a needle with an infected person DNA has 2 long strands and 4 nucleotides, AT and CG
How it affects the immune system: mRNA has AU and CG bases
Infects and destroys lymphocytes Overall, protein synthesis occurs outside of the nucleus
Decreases the efficiency of the immune system in the cytoplasm
The body becomes liable to infection by other Protein synthesis has two stages:
pathogens Transcription (rewriting the base code of DNA into
This may lead to AIDS and death from infection bases of mRNA)
Translation (using mRNA base sequence to build

17. Inheritance amino acids into a sequence in a protein)

How proteins are made:
the gene coding for the protein remains in the
17.1. Chromosomes, Genes and Proteins nucleus
messenger RNA (mRNA) is a copy of a gene
mRNA molecules are made in the nucleus and move
to the cytoplasm
the mRNA passes through ribosomes
the ribosome assembles amino acids into protein
molecules
the sequence determines the specific order of amino
acids of bases in the mRNA
All body cells in an organism contain the same genes, but
many genes in a particular cell are not expressed
because the cell only makes the specific proteins it needs

Meiosis is involved in the production of gametes.

17.3. Cell Division: Mitosis Meiosis results in genetic variation, so the cells produced
are not all genetically identical.
Mitosis: The nuclear division gives rise to genetically Gametes such as sperm and ovum are produced via
identical cells
meiosis.

17.5. Monohybrid Inheritance

Inheritance: The transmission of genetic information from
generation to generation.

Here are some common terminologies you should know

to understand monohybrid inheritance.
Mitosis is needed for:
Growth: in animals, each tissue provides its own new Terminologies
cells when needed.
Repair damaged tissues: for example, when you cut Genotype: the genetic makeup of an organism in terms
your skin, mitosis provides new cells to cover up cuts. of the alleles present (e.g. Tt or GG)
Replacement of worn-out cells Phenotype: the observable features of an organism (e.g.
Asexual reproduction: in plants tall plant or green seed)
The exact replication of chromosomes occurs before genotype + environment + random variation →
mitosis phenotype
During mitosis, the copies of chromosomes separate, Homozygous: having two identical alleles of a particular
maintaining the chromosome number in each daughter gene (e.g. TT or gg). Two identical homozygous
cell individuals that breed together will be pure-breeding
Heterozygous: having two different alleles of a
Stem Cells: unspecialised cells that divide by mitosis to particular gene (e.g. Tt or Gg), not pure-breeding
produce daughter cells that can become specialised for Dominant: an allele that is expressed if it is present (e.g.
specific functions T or G)
Recessive: an allele that is only expressed when there is
17.4. Cell Division: Meiosis no dominant allele of the gene present (e.g. t or g)

Meiosis: Reduction division in which the chromosome Pedigree Diagram

number is halved from diploid to haploid
Pedigree diagrams trace the inheritance pattern of a
specific characteristic (usually a disease) through
generations of a family.
Pure Breeding: The individual is homozygous for that
characteristic
This can determine the probability that someone in the
family will inherit the genetic disorder.

There is more variation in this cross, with a 3:1 ratio of

brown eyes: blue eyes, meaning each offspring has a
75% chance of having brown eyes and a 25% chance of
having blue eyes

Genetic Diagrams
Monohybrid Inheritance can be determined using a
genetic diagram known as a Punnett square.
A Punnett square diagram shows the possible
combinations of alleles that could be produced in the
offspring.
The dominant allele is shown using a capital letter, and 17.6. Modification of Mendelian
the recessive allele uses the same letter but lowercase. Genetics
If you are asked to use your own letters to represent the
alleles in a Punnett square, try to choose a letter that is Codominance
obviously different as a capital than the lowercase so the
examiner is not left doubt as to which is dominant and Codominance: a condition where two alleles of a gene are
which is recessive. equally dominant (50%)
1:1 Monohybrid Crosses Both alleles are equally expressed in the phenotype of
In this cross, there is a 1:1 ratio of boy to girl, meaning the heterozygote.
a 50% chance of the offspring being a boy and a 50% For example, if the parent phenotype is red and white, a
chance of the offspring being a girl. co-dominant will have both red and white colour in the
offspring.

ABO Blood Group (Codominance and Multiple

Allele)
Inheritance of blood group is an example of
codominance
There are three alleles for the blood group given by the
symbols IA, IB and IO.
IA and IB are co-dominant giving blood group AB or IAIB,
and both dominant to IO.

Sex-Linked Characteristics
3:1 Monohybrid Crosses
Sex-linked characteristic: a characteristic in which the
gene responsible is located on a sex chromosome, making it
more common in one sex than in the other.

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Syllabus 18.1.5: You must be able to investigate and
Generally, in the IGCSE syllabus, the most common is X- describe examples of continuous and discontinuous
linked recessive trait. variation
X-linked recessive disorders are more common in males
than in females.

Mutation
Mutation: A genetic change.

Gene Mutation: a change in the base sequence of DNA

Syllabus 17.4.18: You must be able to use Mutation is the way in which new alleles are formed
genetic diagrams to predict the results of Mutation, meiosis, random mating and random
monohybrid crosses involving codominance fertilisation are sources of genetic variation in
or sex linkage and calculate phenotypic ratios. populations
Ionising radiation and some chemicals increase the rate
of mutation
18. Variation and Selection
18.1. Variation
Variation: differences between individuals of the same
species
Both genetic and environmental factors cause
phenotypic variation
Continuous Variation: results in a range of phenotypes
between two extremes; examples include body length
and body mass
Discontinuous Variation: results in a limited number of
phenotypes with no intermediates (e.g. ABO blood
groups, seed shape in peas and seed colour in peas) 18.2. Adaptive Features
Continuous variation is caused by genes and the
environment Adaptive Feature: an inherited (structural) feature that
Discontinuous variation is usually caused only by genes helps an organism to survive and reproduce in its
environment

Xerophytes live in deserts where water is scarce, and 1. genetic variation within populations
evaporation is rapid or in windy habitats. Their features 2. production of many offspring
are: 3. struggle for survival, including competition for
Deep roots reach the water far underground resources
Leaves have reduced spines with minimum surface 4. Individuals better adapted to the environment have a
area for transpiration greater chance of reproduction than others; these
Shallow spreading roots to collect occasional rain individuals pass on their alleles to the next
Rolled leaves, leaf hairs, and stomata sunk in pits to generation.
trap moist air
Waxy leaf cuticle, impermeable to water Adaptation: the process of natural selection by which
Stomata open at night and close at midday when populations become more suited to their environment over
evaporation is highest many generations.
E.g. cactus and marram grass
Artificial Selection
Hydrophytes: live wholly or partly submerged in water.
Their features are: Artificial Selection: breeds organisms with valued
Leaves are highly divided to create a large surface characteristics together to produce offspring that share
area for absorption and photosynthesis those valuable characteristics.
Minimal cuticle formation
It can be used to produce organisms that are more
Lack of xylem tubes, no stomata underside of leaves
economically valued
Stomata are on the upper surface and have a thick
For example, cows that produce more milk, wheat that is
waxy layer to repel water and to keep the stomata
open and clear easier to separate from grain, dogs that have a better
Roots are often reduced, and root hairs are often appearance
absent Process of Selective Breeding:
Aerenchyma tissues (air filled tissues) are present to
help the plant stay afloat. Selecting by individuals with desirable features
Crossing these individuals to produce the next
18.3. Selection generation
Selection of offspring showing the desirable features
Natural Selection
In any environment, the individuals that have the best
19. Organisms and their
adaptive features are the ones most likely to survive and
reproduce.
Environment
The greater chance of the best-adapted organisms 19.1. Energy Flow
passing on genes.
The development of strains of antibiotic-resistant The sun is the principal source of energy input to
bacteria is an example of natural selection. biological systems.
The surviving organisms reproduce since they don’t get Energy flow is NOT a cycle; it starts from the sun, and
eaten up, so variation has caused the species to evolve. then that energy is harnessed by plants, which are eaten
Process of Natural Selection: by animals, which other animals eat.
At each step, energy is lost to the environment.

19.2. Food Chains and Food Webs

Food Chain: a chart showing the flow of energy (food) from
one organism to the next, beginning with a producer, for
example:

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CAIE IGCSE BIOLOGY
Food Web: showing a network of interconnected food
chains. Sun produces light, and less than 1% of the energy falls
onto leaves.
Producers ‘fix’ only about 5-8% of that energy because of
transmission, reflection and incorrect wavelength.
Primary consumers only get between 5-10% because
some parts are indigestible (e.g., cellulose) and do not
eat the whole plant.
The secondary consumer gets between 10-20% because
the animal matter is more digestible & has a higher
energy value.
At each level, heat is lost by respiration.
Humans eating plants is more efficient than humans
Energy is transferred between organisms in a food chain eating animals because:
by ingestion
Producer: an organism that makes its organic nutrients, We need only a couple of vegetables to have one meal
usually using energy from sunlight through but to have the meat, we must feed the animal a lot of
photosynthesis plant material to get far less meat.
Consumer: an organism that gets its energy by feeding When raising an animal, plants lose energy to the
on other organisms. environment. Then, the animal loses energy to the
Consumers may be classed as primary, secondary, environment and does not use up all the plant material,
tertiary and quaternary according to their position so it is inefficient.
in a food chain
Herbivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating Ecological Pyramids
plants Pyramid of Numbers Pyramid of Biomass
Carnivore: an animal that gets its energy by eating other
animals
Decomposer: an organism that gets its energy from
dead or waste organic matter (i.e. a saprotroph)
Trophic level: the position of an organism in a food
chain, food web or ecological pyramid.
Primary consumer: eat vegetables
Secondary consumer: eat meat/drink milk Shows the number of each organism in a food Pyramid, which shows the biomass
Tertiary consumer: eat a predatory fish, salmon chain
When moving up the pyramid, the number of (number of individuals × their individual mass)
individuals decreases
Food chains usually have fewer than five trophic levels
because energy transfer is inefficient: The pyramids of biomass are always pyramid-shaped or
upright.

19.3. Nutrient Cycles

Carbon Cycle

Nitrogen-fixing bacteria provide usable nitrogen for

plants; these may exist in the root nodules where they
live in symbiosis with the plants (nitrogen fixation), or
this can happen because of lightning or microorganisms
providing them through decomposition.
Nitrifying bacteria convert nitrogen-containing
substances into nitrates for the plants (nitrification).
Plants absorb these substances and convert them into
proteins
Death and decay happen at each trophic level, leading to
stage one
Denitrifying bacteria carry out denitrification: they
convert nitrogen-containing substances into atmospheric
Carbon is taken from the atmosphere by photosynthesis
nitrogen
(plants)
It is passed on to animals and decomposers by feeding.
It is returned by respiration in plants and animals and 19.4. Population
decomposed by microorganisms.
Population: a group of organisms of one species living in
Fossilisation is NOT needed anymore - from the same area at the same time.
2023 onwards Community: all of the populations of different species in
an ecosystem.
Nitrogen Cycle Ecosystem: a unit containing the community of
organisms and their environment interacting together.

Factors Affecting the Rate of Population Growth

Food Supply: quantity and quality; snails need calcium
to reproduce to make a shell.
Predation: if the predator population falls, the prey
population will rise.
Disease: causes organisms to die, so a high death rate
partly cancels out the birth rate, meaning less population
growth, especially if the organism dies before giving
birth, or even population decline.

19.5. Sigmoid Curve of Population

Growth

Positive Impacts of Large-scale Monoculture

Increasing yield due to single crop specialisation
Lower food prices
Reduce labour costs
Negative Impacts of Large-scale Monoculture
If a natural disaster occurs, the whole crop could be
wiped out.
If pests & diseases attack crops, they could harm
them easily
Using large fields and pesticides reduces the variety
of species. This hinders biodiversity.
When insecticides are used persistently, the pests
may eventually become resistant to them, reducing
Lag phase: The number of mature, reproducing
their effectiveness
individuals is low and they may be widely dispersed
Exponential (Log) phase: exponential growth occurs, Negative Impacts of Intensive Livestock Production
the conditions are ideal, and the maximum growth rate Welfare issues for the livestock
is reached. Limiting factors do not limit growth much. Diseases can spread easily among them
Stationary phase: limiting factors slow growth as the Waste can pollute land and waterways nearby
population has reached the “carrying capacity” of its
environment; when mortality rate = birth rate, the curve
levels off and fluctuates around this maximum
20.2. Habitat Destruction
population size.
Biodiversity: the number of different species that live in an
Death phase: death rate > birth rate due to lack of food,
area.
competition, etc.
Reason for habitat destruction
20. Human Influences on Increased area for food crop growth, livestock
production, and housing
Ecosystems Extraction of natural resources
Freshwater and Marine pollution
By altering food webs and food chains, humans can
20.1. Food Supply harm habitats.
Effects of deforestation
Humans have increased food production because: Reduced biodiversity/destroys habitats/extinction
Loss of CO2 fixation, thus increase in CO2, thus global
Agricultural Machinery to use larger areas of land and warming
improve efficiency Soil erosion: tree roots cannot retain soil and go into
Chemical Fertilisers help crops grow better rivers, making the water dirty & causing blockages,
Insecticides: a type of pesticide that kills insects and the soil becomes less fertile
Herbicides: a type of pesticide that kills weeds Flooding: 75% of water is usually absorbed by
Selective Breeding to improve production by crop foliage, root systems or evaporates. After
plants and livestock deforestation, water accumulates in valleys.
Large-scale Monoculture: the continuous production of
one type of genetically identical crop. 20.3. Pollution
Pollution due to pesticides:

Insecticides (kill insects): meant to kill insects which eat 1. Forests can be conserved using education, protected
crops, but can kill other useful insects such as bees, areas, quotas and replanting.
which are pollinators, or by bioaccumulation (the 2. Fish stocks can be conserved using education,
increase in the dose of toxin from one level of the food closed seasons, protected areas, controlled net types
chain to the next) and mesh size, quotas and monitoring.
Herbicides (kill weeds): can be harmful to animals
which eat the plants Natural Resources:

Non-biodegradable plastics: Water: used to grow food, keep it clean, provide power,
control fires, and drink. We get water constantly through
Choke birds, fish and other animals rainfall, but we use the planet’s freshwater faster than it
Fill up the animals’ stomachs so that they can’t eat food can be replenished.
Collect in rivers and get in the way of fish Fossil fuels must be conserved as they will soon run out;
therefore, they should be replaced with green energy.
Global Warming:
Recycling:
Increase in the average temperature of the Earth
Methane from the burping of cows Water: water from sewage can be returned to the
It started at the same time as humans began burning environment for human use by sanitation and sewage
fossil fuels treatment
Scientists have proven that fossil fuels are one of the Paper: sent to special centres where it is pulped to make
main factors causing this raw materials for industry
It increased carbon dioxide and methane concentrations Plastic: fossil fuels, bottles → fleece clothing
in the atmosphere, enhancing the greenhouse effect that Metal: mining takes a lot of energy, so recycling saves
leads to climate change. energy
Eutrophication: when water plants receive too many Species and habitats need to be conserved because:
nutrients.
Organisms have value in themselves (ethical value)
Fertilisers are put in soil by farmers. Maintaining biodiversity to reduce extinction
Fertilisers with nitrates/detergents with phosphates Value to medicine (new molecules from exotic plants =
leach into rivers and lakes after rain. new drugs)
Water plants grow more than usual Genetic resources are helpful to humans as well and are
They block sunlight and kill plants underneath lost when species disappear (DNA for genetic
They die and sink to the bottom engineering)
Bacteria/fungi decompose remains using the O2 and Each species has its role in its ecosystem; if it is removed,
decreasing the O2 concentration then the whole ecosystem could collapse
Fish and other creatures die from oxygen starvation
Endangered species:

20.4. Conservation
Sustainable Resource: one which is produced as rapidly as
it is removed from the environment so that it does not run
out

Some resources can be conserved and managed

sustainably but are limited to forests and fish stocks.

How they become endangered: climate change, habitat It involves fertilisation of an egg outside the mother's
destruction, hunting, pollution and invasive species body
If the population size drops, variation decreases Method
Endangered species can be conserved by monitoring and Eggs are extracted from the ovaries of the mother
protecting species and habitats, education, captive using a needle
breeding programmes, and seed banks Eggs are kept in a culture medium
Reasons for Conservation Programmes include: Male semen is mixed with the eggs so fertilisation
reducing extinction takes place
protecting vulnerable environments Zygotes form which develop into embryos
maintaining ecosystem functions by nutrient cycling These embryos are checked after being left in the
and resource provision, e.g. food, drugs, fuel and culture medium for several days
genes The embryos are then transferred into the mother or
increase biodiversity a surrogate.

20.5. Artificial Insemination in Captive 21. Biotechnology and

Breeding Programmes
Genetic Modification
21.1. Introduction
Bacteria are useful due to their rapid reproduction rate and
ability to make complex molecules.

The sperm/gamete is collected from the male.

Males can be chosen from different breeding
programmes to maximise genetic variation.
The sperm is screened for quality checks.
After checking, the sperm/semen is frozen, and the Why are bacteria useful in biotechnology and genetic
female is given drugs to induce ovulation. modification?
The sperm/semen is then placed in the 1. There are a few ethical concerns over their
vagina/uterus/oviduct, where the sperm/semen is manipulation and growth
inserted at the appropriate time for ovulation. 2. The presence of plasmids
3. Producing complex molecules
20.6. in vitro Fertilisation (IVF) in 4. Replicates rapidly
Captive Breeding Programmes
21.2. Biotechnology
Biofuel

Use plants to make sugars, which yeast then breaks The enzyme that breaks down lactose (the sugar found in
down to make ethanol. milk), people can stop making lactase naturally and,
This process also uses anaerobic respiration. therefore, can’t digest lactose.

Bread-Making
Flour, sugar, water and salt are mixed with yeast to make
the dough.
Amylase breaks down some starch to make maltose and
glucose. This is used by yeast in respiration.
The dough is kept warm and moist (28°C). Yeast
ferments sugar, making carbon dioxide, which creates
bubbles, so bread rises.
Cooking (at 180°C) – kills yeast, evaporates alcohol and
hardens the outer surface.

Use of Enzymes in Biotechnology Lactose-free milk production

Pectinase: Lactase is made from yeast
Fruit juices are extracted using pectinase (breaks down Lactase bound to the surface of alginate beads
Milk passed down beads
pectin)
Lactose is broken down into glucose and galactose
Pectin helps plant walls stick together
Immobilized enzymes are reused
If pectin is broken down, it’s easier to squeeze juice from
the fruit
Extraction of juice from fruit, making juice clear, not 21.3. Fermenters
cloudy

Biological Washing powders:

Penicillin: an antibiotic produced by a fungus called
Biological washing powders and liquids contain enzymes Penicillium.
that help remove the stain They require proper temperature, pH, oxygen, nutrient
The enzymes are coated with a special wax that melts in supply and waste products.
the wash, releasing the enzyme The stainless steel fermentation vessel contains a
Once the stains have been broken down, they are easier medium containing sugars and ammonium salts.
for detergents to remove Penicillium is added to produce penicillin. They use sugar
Proteases: break down proteins in stains, e.g., grass, for respiration and ammonium salts to make protein and
blood nucleic acids
Lipases: break down stains containing fats and oil The fermentation vessel consists of ‘PAWS’
Amylases: break down carbohydrate-based stains, such Probes monitor temperature and pH
as starch Air provides oxygen for aerobic respiration in fungus
Cellulases: break down cellulose fibres A water-cooled jacket removes heat to maintain a
temperature of 24°C.
Lactase: Stirrer keeps the microorganism suspended
(allowing access to nutrients and oxygen) while
maintaining an even temperature.
It is filtered to remove fungus and then can be
crystallized to make capsules.

Mycoprotein Isolation of the DNA making up a human gene using

restriction enzymes, forming sticky ends.
The fungus Fusarium is cultured (grown) on an industrial Cutting of bacterial plasmid DNA with the same
scale in fermenters. restriction enzymes, forming complementary sticky ends.
These fermenters are large vats that can be kept at the Insertion of human DNA into bacterial plasmid DNA
optimum pH and temperature to grow. using DNA ligase to form a recombinant plasmid –
The fungus is grown in aerobic conditions and provided insertion of the plasmid into bacteria.
with glucose syrup as a food source. Replication of bacteria containing recombinant plasmids,
The fungus grows and multiplies within the fermenter which make human protein as they express the gene
It is then harvested and purified to produce mycoprotein
Mycoprotein is a protein-rich food suitable for 21.5. Genetically Modified Crops
vegetarians, eg. It is used in QuornTM products (a brand
of meat substitute products). Advantages Disadvantages
Uniform in shape – easy to transport/appeal to Natural species may die
consumers

21.4. Genetic Modification Growing season shorter

Drought resistant – less water
Decrease biodiversity/genetic diversity
Led to the development of superweeds –
stronger than GM
Higher yields No one knows the long-term effects on
Genetic Modification: changing the genetic material of an humans
Solve global hunger Expensive seeds
organism by removing, altering, or inserting individual genes

Examples of genetic modification:

the insertion of human genes into bacteria to
produce human insulin
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer
resistance to herbicides
the insertion of genes into crop plants to confer
resistance to insect pests
the insertion of genes into crop plants to provide
additional vitamins

Human Insulin in Bacteria

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