Semester : 04

BMS College of Engineering Course: LSA

Department of Aerospace Engineering
Credits: 03
“Low Speed Aerodynamics”

FINITE WING THEORY

“The one who has most carefully watched the soaring birds of
prey sees man with wings and the faculty of using them”.

James Means, Editor of

the Aeronautical Annual, 1895
 Unit-3: FINITE WING THEORY
• Induced drag;
• Biot-Savart’s law, applications, Rankine’s vortex;
• Kelvin and Helmholtz theorem;
• Flow past finite wings, vortex model of the wing and bound vortices;
• Prandtl’s lifting line theory;
• Elliptic wing
• Influence of taper and twist applied to wings, effect of sweep back wings;
• Delta wings, primary and secondary vortex;
• Elements of lifting surface theory.
• Source Panel Vortex panel and Vortex lattice methods
Wing

Wing Span, b – the length of the wing in the z-direction Wing

Chord, c – equivalent to the airfoil chord length Wing Area

Wing Tip - the end of the wing in the span-wise direction

Wing Root – the center of the wing in the span-wise direction Aspect Ratio
CL CD CM , , - three dimensional lift drag and moment coefficients
Washout: If the tip is at a lower 𝛼 than the root, the
wing is said to have washout condition

Washin: If the tip is at a higher 𝛼 than the root, the

wing is said to have washin condition

In addition, the wings on a number of modern airplanes have different airfoil sections along the span, with
different values of 𝛼L=0; this is called aerodynamic twist.
 Reference: chapter5, section 5.1
From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics
Downwash and Induced Drag
In previous unit we discussed the properties of airfoils, which are the same as the properties of a wing of
infinite span; indeed, airfoil data are frequently denoted as “infinite wing” data

Question: Why are the aerodynamic characteristics of a finite wing any different from the properties of its airfoil sections?

Airfoil is two-dimensional while finite wing is a three-dimensional body

streamlines over the top surface to bend toward the root

The flow near the wing tips tends to curl around the tips
 Reference: chapter5, section 5.1
Downwash and Induced Drag From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics
The tendency for the flow to “leak” around the wing tips has another important effect on the aerodynamics of
the wing. This flow establishes a circulatory motion that trails downstream of the wing
A trailing vortex is created at each wing tip.

Flow past a finite span wing at low speed. From

An Album of Fluid Motion by M. Van Dyke.
These wing-tip vortices downstream of the wing induce a small downward component of air velocity in the
neighborhood of the wing itself.
The two vortices tend to drag the surrounding air around with them,
and this secondary movement induces a small velocity component in
the downward direction at the wing
This downward component is called
downwash, denoted by the symbol w
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KoJ-vuzu19A
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FFgbUx1GdxM
Geometric angle of attack, 𝛼 - the angle between the airfoil chord line and the
freestream velocity vector.

Induced angle of attack, 𝛼i– the angle formed between the local
relative wind and the undisturbed freestream velocity vector

The presence of downwash, and its effect on inclining the local

relative wind in the downward direction, has two important
effects on the local airfoil section

1. The angle of attack actually seen by the local airfoil section is the angle between the chord line and the local
relative wind. This angle is given by 𝛼eff and is defined as the effective angle of attack.

2. The local lift vector is aligned perpendicular to the local relative wind, and hence is inclined behind the vertical by the
angle 𝛼i . Component of the local lift vector in the directionof V∞ . There is a drag created by the presence of downwash.
This drag is defined as induced drag, denoted by Di

Presence of downwash over a finite wing reduces the angle of attack that each section effectively sees, and
moreover, it creates a component of drag—the induced drag Di.
Drag
Induced drag, Di – drag due to lift force redirection
caused by the induced flow or downwash.

Skin friction drag, Df – drag caused by skin friction.

Pressure drag, Dp – drag due to flow separation, which causes

pressure differences between front and back of the wing.

Reference: chapter5, section 5.1

From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics
Profile drag coefficient, Cd – sum of the skin friction and pressure drag. Can be found from airfoil tests. Note
the notation.

Induced drag coefficient, CDi -

 Reference: chapter5, section 5.2
From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics
Recall VORTEX FILAMENT

Velocity induced at point P

In the following slides we shall understand how we derived this formulation

for induced velocity
 Reference: chapter5, section 5.2
From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics
Biot-Savart Law
Consider a directed segment of the filament dl. The radius vector from
dl to an arbitrary point P in space is r. The segment dl induces a
velocity at P equal to

This equation is called the

Biot-Savart law

dl – infinitesimal length along the vortex filament

r – radius vector from dl to some point in space, P.

dV – infinitesimal induced velocity

Biot-Savart law is a general result of potential theory

Biot-Savart Law application to infinite straight vortex filament

velocity induced at P by the entire vortex filament

The magnitude of the velocity, V = |V|, given as

Biot-Savart Law application to Semi infinite vortex filament

Point A can be considered a boundary of the flow

Hermann von Helmholtz (1821–1894) was the first to make use of the vortex filament concept in the analysis of
inviscid, incompressible flow.
 Reference: chapter5, section 5.2
From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics
Helmholtz Theorem
1. Vortex lines are material lines and they move with the fluid

2. Strength of a vortex filament remains the same along the filament.

• i.e. circulation around a vortex filament is constant meaning that the fluid
flow around the vortex filament is always the same regardless of fluid velocity
or pressure

3. A vortex filament cannot end in a fluid, i.e., it must either extend to

the boundaries (solid or free surface) or form a closed path or go
infinity.
It can be said that, vorticity
(Vector identity) plays the same role and velocity
i.e. the vorticity is divergence-free in incompressible flow
Lift distribution along the span of a finite wing

Therefore, there is a distribution of lift per unit span along the wing, that is, L′ = L′(y)

Circulation is also a function of y, Γ(y) = L′(y)∕𝜌∞V∞

The lift distribution goes to zero at the tips; that is because there is a pressure equalization from the bottom to the
top of the wing precisely at y = −b∕2 and b∕2, and hence no lift is created at these points

Reference: chapter5, section 5.2

From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics
 Reference: chapter5, section 5.3
From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics
PRANDTL’S CLASSICAL LIFTING-LINE THEORY
Bound Vortex: A vortex filament of strength Γ that is bound to a fixed location in a flow.
Let us replace a finite wing of span b with a bound vortex, extending from y = −b∕2 to y = b∕2
However, due to Helmholtz’s theorem, a vortex filament cannot end in the fluid

Horseshoe Vortex: This vortex (the bound plus the two free) is in the shape of a horseshoe, and therefore is called a
horseshoe vortex.

The utility of Prandtl’s theory is so great that it is still in use today for preliminary calculations of finite-wing characteristics
 Consider the downwash w induced along the bound
vortex from −b∕2 to b∕2 by the horseshoe vortex

1) Bound vortex induces Zero velocity along itself

2) Two trailing vortices both contribute to the induced velocity

along the bound vortex

If the origin is taken at the center of the bound vortex, then the
velocity at any point y along the bound vortex induced

Draw backs of using single horse shoe vortex:

1) Circulation is constant for the entire bound

Right trailing vortex vortex, which is not true when we assume it
Left trailing vortex
be the representation of wing

2) The downwash approaching

an infinite value at the tips is especially
disconcerting
 Reference: chapter5, section 5.3
Lifting Line From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics

Superimpose a large number of horseshoe vortices, each

with a different length of the bound vortex, but with all
the bound vortices coincident along a single line, called
the lifting line.

Sake of simplicity 3 horse-shoe vortices are shown,

AF, BE, CD

As a result, the circulation varies along the line of

bound vortices

Thus, we now have a series of trailing vortices distributed over the span, rather than just two vortices trailing
downstream of the tips.

Strength of each trailing vortex is equal to the change in circulation along the lifting line
Let us extrapolate to the case where an infinite number of horseshoe
vortices are superimposed along the lifting line, each with a
vanishingly small strength dΓ

The value of the circulation at the origin is Γ0.

Finite number of trailing vortices have become a continuous

vortex sheet trailing downstream of the lifting line

The total strength of the sheet integrated across the span of

the wing is zero as it consists of pairs of trailing vortices of
equal strength but in opposite directions

Let us take a single infinitesimally small segment of lifting line dy located at the location y.

The circulation at y is Γ(y) and the change in circulation over the segment dy is dΓ = (dΓ∕dy) dy

Strength of trailing vortex at y must equal the change in circulation dΓ along the lifting line
Consider the arbitrary location y0 along the lifting line and any segment of the trailing vortex dx will induce a velocity at y0 with a
magnitude and direction given by the Biot-Savart law
The total velocity w induced at y0 by the entire trailing vortex sheet

(Total downwash)

Our objective is to calculate lift and induced drag

Let us place an aerofoil at location y0

From Kutta-Joukowski theorem Also Lift per unit span is given in terms of cl as

From the above two equations, we can write

 From thin aerofoil theory for a cambered aerofoil, cl is given in terms of angle of attack as

In case of wing, α will be αeff,

thus the cl for any cross section of aerofoil located at y0 on wing is given as

Geometric angle of attack Induced angle of attack

Induced angle of attack:

≈ For small angle of incidence

 From the above two equations, we can write

The geometric angle of attack will just be sum of effective angle of attack and induced angle of attack

α = αeff + αi

This is the fundamental equation of Prandtl’s lifting-line theory

This equation is an integro-differential equation, in which the only unknown is Γ

The solution Γ = Γ(y0) gives us the three main aerodynamic characteristics of a finite wing

1. The lift distribution is obtained from the Kutta-Joukowski theorem:

2. The total lift is obtained by integrating the above Equation over the span:

3. The induced drag per unit span is ≈ For small angle of incidence
The total induced drag is obtained by integrating Equation over the span:
Two approaches can be taken from this point

1. Direct – A wing planform is given with a distribution of aerodynamic twist,

and Prandtl equations solved to extract lift and drag information extracted.

2. Inverse – A lift distribution is proposed and the corresponding planform

distribution developed
 Reference: chapter5, section 5.3.1
Elliptical Lift Distribution From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics

The most famous example in the inverse approach is the elliptic lift
distribution which is found directly from an elliptic circulation distribution

Consider a circulation distribution given by

1. Γ0 is the circulation at the origin

2. The circulation varies elliptically with distance y along the span; hence, it is designated as an
elliptical circulation distribution

Aerodynamic properties that we can calculate for the given elliptical distribution of circulation
1) Down wash velocity
2) Induced angle of attack
3) Lift and Lift coefficient on wing
4) Induced drag and drag coefficient on wing

Downwash is given as
Therefore, the total downwash is given as,

Change the axis to polar coordinates to ease the integration, similar to conformal mapping

or

We know that,

downwash is constant over the span

for an elliptical lift distribution
 Induced angle of attack
induced angle of attack is also
constant along the span

Total lift is given as

using the transformation

However,

Therefore,

Now, induced angle of attack in terms of coefficient of lift is

Since, Aspect ratio is given as

 Thus, we can calculate Induced drag

Substituting the induced angle of attack and central vortex strength, we obtain

is an important result.
Thus, Induced drag is frequently called the drag due to lift

1) The induced drag coefficient increases rapidly as CL increases, i.e. CD,i ∝ CL2

2) CD,i is inversely proportional to aspect ratio

Hence, to reduce the induced drag, we want a finite wing with the highest
possible aspect ratio
Its interesting to note that, Aspect ratio of the 1903 Wright Flyer was 6 and that today the aspect ratios of conventional
subsonic aircraft range typically from 6 to 8
 Reference: chapter5, section 5.3.1
Elliptical wing From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics

Consider a wing with

1) no geometric twist (i.e., 𝛼 is constant along the span)
2) no aerodynamic twist (i.e., 𝛼L=0 is constant along the span)
Earlier we saw that induced angle of incidence is constant along the span,
Hence we can say that 𝛼eff = 𝛼 −𝛼i is also constant along the span

Where, a0 is 2π from thin airfoil theory

and

Solving for the chord,

q∞ and cl are constant along the span and L′(y) varies elliptically along the span
Thus, the above Equation dictates that for such an elliptic lift distribution, the chord must vary elliptically along the
span; that is, the wing planform is elliptical
 Reference: chapter5, section 5.3.2
From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics
Finite wing with a general lift distribution
Let us use the transformation

Let general lift distribution given in terms of Fourier series as

Thus,

Lets looks at the formula, for CL and CDi without going into derivations

CL depends only on the leading coefficient of the Fourier series

expansion and also we see that it is directly proportional to AR
 where

Let us define a span efficiency factor, e, as e = (1 + 𝛿)-1.

where e ≤ 1

for the elliptical lift distribution, e = 1

Hence, the lift distribution which yields minimum induced drag is the elliptical lift distribution.
This is why we have a practical interest in the elliptical lift distribution.
 As compared to the rectangular wing, elliptical
wings produce minimum drag.

However, one major problem with elliptical

wings is that, they are expensive to
manufacture.

A compromise is the tapered wing. The tapered

wing can be designed with a taper ratio, that is,

𝐶𝑡
Taper ratio = tip chord/root chord ≡
𝐶𝑟

such that the lift distribution closely approximates

the elliptic case
Influence of taper and twist applied to wings and effect of sweep back wings
Delta Wings
Supersonic airplanes usually have highly swept wings

A special case of swept wings is those aircraft with a triangular

planform—called delta wings.
In reality, the planform of the space shuttle is more correctly
denoted as a double-delta shape.

Delta wings are used on many different types of high-speed

airplanes around the world.

Early work on delta wings was carried out by Alexander

Lippisch in Germany during the 1930s.

Reference: chapter5, section 5.6

The Convair F-102A. (NASA.)
From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics
Four versions of a delta-wing planform
 Reference: chapter5, section 5.6
From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics

Subsonic flow field over the top of a delta wing at angle of attack

The dominant aspect of this flow are the two

vortex patterns that occur in the vicinity of the
highly swept leading edges.

Due to pressure difference between bottom and top

surface, flow on the bottom surface in the vicinity of
the leading edge tries to curl around the leading edge
from the bottom to the top.

If the leading edge is sharp, the flow will separate along

its entire length
 The dominant feature of this flow is the two vortex
patterns (Primary Vortex and secondary
vortex) that are shed from the vicinity of the highly
swept leading edge.

Flow tries to curl around or rolls up from the vicinity of

the leading edge of the bottom surface to the top surface
resulting in the formation of a primary and
secondary vortex

This primary vortex stably creates huge suction peaks

close to the upper surface leading edge and by this
mechanism, they are able to sustain high lift
up to a high angle of attack.
 Schematic of the spanwise pressure coefficient distribution across a delta wing

1) The spanwise variation of pressure over the bottom surface is essentially constant and higher than the freestream
pressure (a positive Cp).

2) the spanwise variation in the midsection of the wing is essentially constant and lower than the freestream
pressure over the top surface (a negative Cp).

3) near the leading edges the static pressure drops considerably, thus the leading edge vortices are creating strong
suction on top surface near the leading edge.
 The suction effect of the leading-edge vortices enhances the lift and due to this reason, the lift coefficient curve for a
delta wing exhibits an increase in CL for values of 𝛼 at which conventional wing planforms would be stalled.

Note the following characteristics:

1) The lift curve slope is smaller as compared to the airfoil.

2) Lift continues to increase to the large value of AOA.

3) A reasonable value of maximum lift coefficient ~ 1.5 is achieved at

a near stall angle.

4) In delta wings stall is delayed whereas in the airfoil section

maximum lift coefficient is obtained at a much smaller AOA but
stall occurs much earlier in the airfoil section.
 Vortex breakdown over a delta wing

We note something drastic that occurs in the flow over the top surface of a delta wing when it is at a high enough angle of attack.
The primary vortices begin to fall apart somewhere along the length of the vortex; this is called vortex breakdown.
When vortex breakdown occurs, the lift and pitching moment of the delta wing decrease, the flow becomes unsteady, and
buffeting of the wing occurs.
Hierarchy of computational development
 Reference: chapter3, section 3.17
Source Panel method From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics

Indirect method of starting with a given combination of elementary flows and seeing what body shape comes out
of it can hardly be used in a practical sense for bodies of arbitrary shape
The direct method, where we specify the shape of an arbitrary body and solve for the distribution of
singularities which, in combination with a uniform stream, produce the flow over the given body. Such a method
is called the source panel method

𝜆 = 𝜆(s) to be the source strength per unit length along s

Complete velocity potential at point P,
induced by the entire source sheet from a to b
Our problem now becomes one of finding the appropriate 𝜆(s)

Source panel distribution over the surface of a body of arbitrary shape

1) Approximate the source sheet by a series of straight panels where the source strength 𝜆 per
unit length be constant over a given panel.

2) The source panel strengths per unit length for n panels will be 𝜆1, 𝜆2,…, 𝜆j…, 𝜆n

3) The central focus of the panel technique is to solve for 𝜆j, j = 1 to n, such that the body surface
becomes a streamline of the flow.
Boundary condition: Normal component of the flow velocity is zero at each control point.
The velocity potential induced at P due to the jth panel Δ𝜙j is

Velocity potential at P due to all the panels is

summed over all the panels Where,
 Now, let us put P at the control point of the ith panel

Where,

The above equation represents contribution of all the panels

to the potential at the control point of the ith panel
Boundary condition is applied at the control points; that is, the
normal component of the flow velocity is zero at the control points
The boundary condition states that this sum must be zero: V∞,n + Vn = 0
Let ni be the unit vector normal to the ith panel and slope of the ith panel is (dy∕dx)i

Component of V∞ normal to the ith panel is The normal component of velocity induced at (xi, yi) by the
source panels is

when j = i, the contribution to the derivative is simply 𝜆i∕2.

is the crux of the source panel method

 Reference: chapter5, section 5.5
From JD Anderson-Fundamentals of aerodynamics

Elements of lifting surface theory

Limitations of Prandtl’s classical lifting-line theory
1) The represented lifting device must have a sufficiently high aspect ratio (AR≥ 7...8).

2) It is constrained to straight geometries, where the aerodynamic center of every airfoil lies on
a straight line (i.e. no sweep or dihedral).

3) Small angles of attack and steady conditions are also assumed in development.

Thus, Prandtl’s classical lifting-line theory for low-aspect-ratio straight wings, swept wings, and delta wings,
classical lifting-line theory is inappropriate.
In the limit of an infinite number of lines of infinitesimal strength,
we obtain a vortex sheet, where the vortex lines run parallel to
the y axis.

The strength of this sheet (per unit length in the x direction) is

denoted by 𝛾, where 𝛾 varies in both x and y directions
𝛾 = 𝛾(x, y)

In the limit of an infinite number of infinitesimally weak

vortices, these trailing vortices form another vortex sheet of
strength 𝛿
𝛿 = 𝛿(x, y)

Thus, at any given point on the surface, the strength of the lifting surface is given by both 𝛾 and 𝛿, which are
functions of x and y. We denote 𝛾 = 𝛾(x, y) as the spanwise vortex strength distribution and 𝛿 = 𝛿(x, y) as the
chordwise vortex strength distribution. This is called lifting surface

Note that, downstream of the trailing edge we have no spanwise vortex lines only trailing vortices. Hence,
the wake consists of only chordwise vortices. The vortex strength of wake vortex sheet is give as 𝛿w
Consider point P located at coordinates (𝜉, 𝜂). on the wing
The lifting surface and the wake vortex sheet both induce a
normal component of velocity (w(x, y)) at point P.
The spanwise vortex strength is 𝛾(𝜉, 𝜂)

From the Biot-Savart law, the incremental velocity induced at P by a segment d𝜂

of this vortex filament of strength 𝛾 d𝜉 is

sin 𝜃 = (x − 𝜉)∕r

The contribution of the elemental chordwise vortex of strength 𝛿 d𝜂 to the

induced velocity at P, which is same as that we obtained earlier

velocity induced at P by the entire lifting surface is

 The central problem of lifting-surface theory is to solve downwash equation for 𝛾(𝜉, 𝜂) and 𝛿(𝜉, 𝜂) such that the sum
of w(x, y) and the normal component of the freestream is zero

Vortex lattice system on a finite wing

Control points on the panels can be chosen, where the net
normal flow velocity is zero.

• The entire wing is covered by this lattice of horseshoe

Schematic of a single horseshoe vortex
vortices, each of different unknown strength Γn.
• At any control point P, the normal velocity induced by all the
horseshoe vortices can be obtained from the Biot-Savart law.
• Boundary condition is applied at all the control points, a
system of simultaneous algebraic equations results which can
be solved for the unknown Γn’s

This numerical approach is called the vortex lattice method

Important sections are:

1) Induced drag and down wash

2) Biot-Savarat law for finite and infinite vortex filaments

3) Prandtl’s classical lifting-line theory

4) Lifting line theory and lift calculation by using elliptical lift distribution

5) Elliptical planform of wing derivation

6) Primary and secondary vortices of delta wing

7) Philosophy source panel method, vortex panel and vortex lattice method
Reference videos
SQUARE Vortex Ring
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=N7d_RWyOv20