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 The Project Gutenberg eBook of Modern
Cotton Spinning Machinery, Its Principles and
Construction
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
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Title: Modern Cotton Spinning Machinery, Its Principles and

Construction

Author: Joseph Nasmith

Release date: July 26, 2018 [eBook #57586]

Language: English

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK MODERN

COTTON SPINNING MACHINERY, ITS PRINCIPLES AND
CONSTRUCTION ***
MODERN COTTON SPINNING
MACHINERY,

ITS PRINCIPLES AND

CONSTRUCTION.

BY
 JOSEPH NASMITH,
ASSOCIATE INSTITUTION MECHANICAL ENGINEERS,
MEMBER MANCHESTER ASSOCIATION OF ENGINEERS, ETC.

WITH TWO HUNDRED AND THIRTY-TWO ILLUSTRATIONS.

MANCHESTER:
JOSEPH NASMITH, 4, Arcade Chambers, St. Mary’s Gate;
JOHN HEYWOOD, Ridgefield and Deansgate.
LONDON:
E. & F. N. SPON, 125, Strand; and 12, Cortlandt Street, New York.
1890.
[COPYRIGHT.—ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.]
 PREFACE.

submitting the following pages to the judgment of the public, the

I
n
Author does not pretend to have written an exhaustive treatise.
This would require a volume much larger than the present. It has
rather been his aim to treat a branch of the subject thoroughly,
which has hitherto had scant justice done to it. While the market is
flooded with books detailing the rules by which speeds are
calculated, and the necessary wheel changes made, those dealing
with the construction of the machinery employed are few in number.
This is the more singular, because England is, beyond doubt, the
true mother of this department of mechanics, and to-day her textile
machinists head the lists alike for excellence of production and
fertility of invention.
Since the issue of the late Mr. Evan Leigh’s “Science of Modern
Cotton Spinning”—comparatively a long time ago—no book has
appeared which treats the subject from the machinist’s point of view.
The well known book of Mr. Richard Marsden, “A Handbook of
Cotton Spinning,” as its name implies, deals more with the operation
than the machinery, although the latter is described in considerable
detail. In the present work, while it has been impossible to avoid
saying something of spinning, the enunciation of the principles on
which the machinery is constructed forms its raison d’être. On the
Continent, more than one ponderous treatise has been published,
which possess the peculiarity of foreign technical works in the
disproportionate way in which the small details are treated. While
this is valuable from the professorial point of view, it is apt to be
prejudicial in actual practice, because the operation of these details
varies considerably at different times. The avoidance of pedantry is
very essential in any book dealing with practical work, and with this
in view, the Author has endeavoured, while fully considering every
principle involved, to do so in a plain manner, which will be readily
understood. It has rather been the aim to suggest the inferences to
be drawn than to dogmatically state inflexible rules.
The whole of the machines have been considered fully, and the
most important modifications described. The preparation of the
drawings has been a long labour, but the Author believes they have
not hitherto been so fully given in any English work. In order to keep
the book within bounds, it has been almost rigidly confined to a
consideration of the art of textile mechanics as applied to the
spinning of cotton to-day. It is believed that the book will provide an
accurate account of the state of present knowledge, and will be
valuable for that reason.
It should be distinctly understood that the mention of any
machinist does not imply any approval or otherwise of his particular
appliance, but is simply given in order to identify the maker of it,
which it is only fair to do. The Author’s opinions can be easily
gathered, but it is no part of the scheme to enter into controversy
about different methods, or to make the book a treatise on
comparative textile mechanics.
The Author desires to thank all those firms who have aided him by
the loan of drawings, or in other ways. Without this aid the labour
involved would have been largely increased. Thanks are due to
Signor Alfredo Galassini and the Director of the Unione Tipografico-
Editrice of Turin for permission to reproduce some of the drawings
relating to Messrs. Platt Brothers and Co.’s mule, which will be found
in Chapter XI. These had appeared in the “Enciclopedia Delle Arti E
Industrie,” and were so much in accord with the treatment the
Author had resolved to give that machine, that the permission to use
them was of great service. The special thanks of the Author are also
due to Mr. B. A. Dobson for the permission to reproduce two
photographs of a lap, given in Chapter VI., and other drawings from
his pamphlet on “Carding.” In conclusion, before leaving the book to
the indulgent judgment of his readers, the Author wishes to say that
the proofs have been read by gentlemen conversant with the whole
of the details, and every care has been taken to make it at once
accurate and instructive.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I.
PAGE
Introductory 5

CHAPTER II.
The Structure of Cotton 12

CHAPTER III.
Ginning and Mixing Machines 15

CHAPTER IV.
The Opening Machine 23

CHAPTER V.
The Scutching Machine 35

CHAPTER VI.
The Carding Machine 53

CHAPTER VII.
Card Clothing, Grinding, and Stripping Machines 91

CHAPTER VIII.
The Combing Machine 120

CHAPTER IX.
The Drawing Machine 137

CHAPTER X.
Slubbing and Roving Machines 147

CHAPTER XI.
The Mule 176

CHAPTER XII.
The Ring Spinning Machine 234

CHAPTER XIII.
Reeling, Winding, Gassing, and Spooling Machines 262

CHAPTER XIV.
Miscellaneous Machines and Accessories 282

Appendix 297
List of Illustrations 301
Glossary 308
General Index 309
 ERRATA.
The reader is requested to make the alterations enumerated below
at once in order to prevent any misunderstanding.
On page 51, end of line 23, for “it” read “is.”
On page 66, line 15, for “Fig. 51” read “Fig. 52.”
On page 162, third line from bottom, for “n = b - 21” read “n = 21 - b.”
On page 163, line 7, for “n = 250 - 2 (250÷40)” read “n = - 250 - 2
(250÷40).”
On page 165, second line from bottom, for “G” read “E.”
On page 210, line 3, for “B” read “D.”
On page 212, end of last line, for “fallen” read “faller.”
On page 267, line 4, for “straps” read “shafts.”

The author is fully conscious of many shortcomings, which are

inevitable in a task of this magnitude, but he believes that
something has been done to formulate present knowledge and
practice. Any suggestions of improvements or enlargements will be
gratefully received, so as to enable future issues to be more valuable
and useful.
 CHAPTER I.

INTRODUCTORY.

(1) The rapid growth of the cotton trade is in no small degree due
to the exertions and ingenuity of the engineers and machinists who
have devoted themselves to the subject. It is remarkable how few of
the later inventions, at any rate, are those of persons actually
engaged in the operations of spinning or weaving. It is quite true
that James Smith, of Deauston, forms a conspicuous exception, and
that many others could be also named who were at once
manufacturers and mechanicians, but the general fact is as stated.
To-day, the spinner, who is in a difficulty requiring a mechanical
solution, turns the whole matter over to the machinist, who puzzles
it out without, in many cases, getting his due reward. It is, however,
a general practice for machinists to originate improvements, and the
competition in this respect is so keen, that a spinner is never at a
loss for a choice of appliances.
(2) In the early part of the century it was no uncommon thing to
find textile machines made in a workshop where engines, machine
tools, and other forms of machinery were also constructed. For
about the last forty years this practice has ceased, and it is now the
universal custom to make textile machines only, in any works where
they are produced. This practice has led to a subdivision, not only of
labour, but of procedure, which enables good results to be attained.
The machine of to-day, although not absolutely, is comparatively,
cheaper, and is constructed in a way that even thirty years ago
would have been deemed impossible. When the author was an
apprentice, about twenty years since, the fitting of cotton machinery
was a byeword to the engineer and tool maker. To-day, it would be
difficult to find more accurate workmanship or sounder construction
in any machine of whatever kind.
 (3) This is a matter of more importance than might be supposed.
The cotton spinning machine making trade in England is a very
extensive one, finding employment in Lancashire alone for not less
than 25,000 men and boys. This does not include the large number
of persons employed in the various businesses which are allied to it,
such as spindle and card clothing manufactories. The field for
spinning machines is ever enlarging, the possible extent of the
cotton industry being enormous. The number of spindles at work in
Great Britain exceeds 44,000,000; on the Continent the number is
about 23,800,000; in the United States 14,500,000; and in India and
Japan it exceeds 3,000,000. These figures, which are approximate
only, give a grand total of 85,300,000 spindles, which may all be said
to have sprung into being during the present century. Assuming the
value of a mill to be equal to 21 shillings per spindle in England, the
fixed capital embarked in this branch of the trade alone is
£44,220,000. If the very moderate amount of 20 per cent be added
to this for working capital, the sum invested in cotton spinning
concerns in this country is not less than £53,000,000. The cost per
spindle in other countries is much in excess of the amount stated
above, being in many cases doubled. In the United States the cost of
a fully equipped spinning-mill ranges from 40 to 42 shillings per
spindle, and the capital needed for working is also greater than in
this country. On the Continent, and in India, the cost per spindle will
be less than in America, but the working expenses are also higher
than in Great Britain. In thus stating the facts it is impossible to
accurately fix the capital employed, but it will probably approach in
the aggregate £150,000,000 for spinning mills alone.
(4) The foregoing figures, which are very briefly put, are sufficient
to show the magnitude of the industry for which spinning machinists
cater. But there is another aspect of the question which is
noteworthy, and illustrative of the effect of the work of machine
makers. This is the large increase in the productive capacity of the
machinery. The production of a self-acting mule in 1835 is given in
the following statement, issued by the eminent firm of Sharp,
Roberts and Co., and extracted from Dr. Ure’s work on “Cotton
Spinning.”
“Statement of the quantity of Yarn produced on Messrs. Sharp,
Roberts & Co.’s self-acting mules in twelve working hours, including
the usual stoppages connected with spinning, estimated on the
average of upwards of 20 mills:—
No. of hanks per spindle.
No. of yarn. Twist. Weft.
16’s 4 1⁄ 2 4 7⁄ 8
24’s 4 1⁄ 4 4 5⁄ 8
32’s 4 4 3⁄ 8
40’s 3 3⁄ 4 4 1⁄ 8”

This statement is dated December 23rd, 1834, so that it may fairly

serve as a basis of comparison, assuming the number of turns of
yarn to be in each case the same. Testing the advance by taking the
production of 32’s, as stated above, the amount spun per spindle in
a working week of 501⁄2 hours—its present duration—would be
182⁄3 hanks. Mules at that period were only made 400 to 500
spindles long. To-day they contain over 1,200 spindles, and produce
of 32’s 321⁄2 hanks per spindle. This is an increase of 60 per cent.
(5) The increase of production has not, however, required a larger
number of workpeople to obtain. On the other hand, fewer persons
are needed to attend to the long mules named than were formerly
required for less than half the number of spindles. The effect of this
is seen in the decreased margin between cotton and yarns, which is
very striking. The average price of 30’s twist yarn in 1832 is stated in
Dr. Ure to be 12·7d. per lb., and of cotton 7·1d., leaving a margin of
5·6d. At the time of writing the price of 32’s twist is 811⁄16d., and of
cotton 69⁄16d. per lb., leaving a margin of 21⁄8d. These figures are
based upon the assumption that American cotton of middling quality
is used in each case. Thus the price of yarn is much less, while that
of cotton is little reduced. It is true that a margin of 21⁄8d. is barely
sufficient to permit of a profit being made, but 1⁄8d. per lb. added
will do 80, and a margin of 21⁄2d. is considered a large one in these
days.
(6) This reduction in the cost of production has not been brought
about by any diminution in the wages of the operatives, as could
very clearly be shown if it were necessary. Nor is it the result of a
lessened cost of erection. A spinning mill of 40,000 spindles, which
in 1835 would be looked upon as a large one, cost, at that time,
from 24 to 26 shillings per spindle to erect, including the buildings
and accessories. At the present time mills are built to contain as
many as 110,000 spindles, and these are filled ready for work at a
cost not exceeding 21 shillings per spindle, the apportionment of
which is as follows: The machinery costs nine shillings, the buildings
eight shillings, and the engines, boilers, furnishings, and all
accessories four shillings per spindle. Considering the great increase
in the productive power of the machinery, the fact that it is so much
less expensive to work, and that each machine is of much greater
capacity, the figures given show that the tendency towards
diminished cost is owing very largely to the efforts of machine
makers.
(7) It is not necessary to pursue this matter further, as the present
work is not intended as a statistical abstract, but the few facts stated
show that in the general march of improvement the textile mechanic
has not been idle. A consideration of the methods of construction
adopted to-day, as compared with those in vogue even so recently
as twenty years ago, will further demonstrate this fact. Formerly the
work of construction was very largely if not mainly carried out by
fitters who were engaged in manually shaping the brackets and
fitting them to the frames. The brackets were formed with feet, on
which were cast nipples or projections. These were used to reduce
the labour in filing, and, as the bracket was always fitted on to the
face produced in the ordinary operation of casting, it will be seen
that anything tending to diminish the work of fitting was valuable.
But as the bedding of the brackets was dependent upon the proper
shaping of a few points, the tendency to slip was considerable.
Although, by being always engaged in fitting a few patterns of
brackets, the workmen became extraordinarily expert, the method
was at best an uncertain one, and did not lead to the rigidity
absolutely essential in high-speed machines.
(8) All this is now changed, and the machine tool enables the
work to be at once more expeditiously and economically carried out.
The labours of mechanics of precision, like the late Sir Joseph
Whitworth, are bearing fruit, and the effect is seen in the
comparative excellence of the product. The solidity of English
machinery has been sometimes scoffed at by Continental and
American rivals, but it would be difficult to find any which runs at
higher velocities with greater steadiness and less repairs. It cannot
be too often insisted on that the rigidity which arises from mere
weight is by no means an unimportant quality. Of course, there are
limits to this as to every other principle, but generally it is a true
one. Of quite as much importance is the rigidity which comes from
sound construction; and in this respect modern spinning machinery
is remarkable. Instead of a framing built up by hand with its various
pieces manually fitted, it is now made in a much more enduring way.
Raised faces are formed on the framing, which are planed or milled,
so as to be quite true. To these the cross-beams or bars, the ends of
which are similarly treated, are bolted. Thus, instead of the contact
of several narrow faces, two broad plane surfaces are bolted
together, and it will be easily seen how much more solid the framing
will be in consequence. Again, in lieu of each part being at once like
and unlike, as must necessarily happen when it is hand-fitted, it is
now shaped by special machinery to templates, thus being
interchangeable. The rails or beams to which bearings, brackets, or
spindles are to be attached are planed or milled accurately on their
surfaces, so that the long and unsatisfactory labour of fitting each
piece separately is substituted by a true mechanical process. The
advent of the milling machine and the discovery of the wonderful
economic power of the circular cutter has had a wide-reaching
influence. In brief, the present is an age of an increased
development of machine instead of manual treatment, which has
gone far to revolutionise the machinery used in spinning. Every
student who may hereafter be engaged in the construction of this
class of machinery should impress firmly upon his mind the fact that
the machine tool is the best instrument for his purpose, and should
develop it as far as possible. A special tool is invaluable, and the
opportunities for its use are always increasing.
(9) A comparison of the speeds of various machines will
demonstrate the value of improved construction. Mule spindles,
which in 1834 were run at a maximum velocity of 4,500 revolutions
per minute, are now revolved 11,000 times per minute with much
greater ease and freedom from vibration. The throstle spindles
running at a speed of 4,500 revolutions, are superseded by ring
spindles, which rotate from 9,000 to 11,000 times per minute. As
shown in Chapter XII, it would be impossible to attain such a
velocity unless the spindles were accurately constructed by special
tools. Although the mechanism of a ring spindle is much more
elaborate than that of a throstle spindle, the cost of the one but little
exceeds that of the other. Again, a carding engine cylinder, formerly
made of wood, and running 80 to 100 revolutions, is now
constructed entirely of iron, and revolved at from 160 to 180 times
per minute. In spite of this increase it is more free from vibration
than its slower running predecessor. A similar comparison can be
made of every machine with like results, but it is not necessary.
Enough has been said to show the important part played by the
machinist, to whom, as was pointed out in paragraph 1, most of the
credit is due. The economical improvement which is noticeable in the
condition of the workpeople is largely the result of the improvements
made in the machinery. In fewer hours more work can be turned
out, and this with a constantly decreasing strain upon the
operatives. The breakage of the fibres in the various stages of
manufacture is reduced to a very low point, with the twofold
advantage of diminished waste and decreased labour.
 (10) A modern mill differs from its immediate predecessor, not
only in the quality of the machinery but in its general construction.
The height and width of the whole building have materially
increased, and the result is that the rooms in which the operations of
spinning are conducted are both lighter and more airy. The building
is usually made as far as possible fire-proof, and is of very
substantial design and construction. The larger number of spindles in
a mill necessarily imply greater capacity, but there is no comparison
between the low-ceilinged, imperfectly lighted and ventilated rooms
of the last generation with the airy and light erections of to-day. The
sanitary arrangements are infinitely superior, and there is a
noticeable improvement in the health and physique of the
workpeople arising therefrom.
(11) Among the features which deserve mention is the improved
type of engines used. In lieu of the old-fashioned beam engine,
compounded or otherwise, working at a steam pressure of 50lb. or
less, the modern engine is of the horizontal type. The favourite class
for mill driving is the tandem compound, in which the high pressure
cylinder is behind the low-pressure, but on the same bed. Latterly
the vertical triple expansion engine has been adopted in a few cases,
and there is a continual tendency towards higher steam pressures
and more expansions. The introduction of steel boiler plates has
rendered the construction of steam boilers for high pressures much
more easy, and the author has seen a Lancashire boiler, intended for
habitual use at a pressure of 220lb., tested with highly satisfactory
results. Within limits, therefore, there is room for a further increase
from the normal working pressure of 80lb. The steam-engines used
are mostly of the Corliss type, with quick cut-off gear of high
efficiency, and they are constructed to develop in many cases from
1,000 to 2,000 horsepower. The water used for condensing purposes
is stored in reservoirs or “lodges,” from which it is drawn as required.
It is sometimes difficult to cool it sufficiently to get a good vacuum,
owing to the fact that the cooling and storage space is insufficient.
For this purpose a type of condenser known as Theisen’s, which has
been largely adopted in Germany and is now being introduced into
this country, will be of value. It is arranged as a surface condenser,
the steam passing through the tubes and being cooled by water
surrounding them. In lieu of giving the water a circulatory movement
it always remains in one position, any loss by evaporation being
replaced. Between each vertical row of pipes cast-iron discs revolve,
which are fixed on a shaft suitably driven. As each disc dips into the
water—which is usually about 160 deg. F.—it picks up a thin film and
carries it round in its revolution. At the upper part of the case, in
which the discs revolve, an air propeller is fixed, which sends a
current of air past and through the spaces between the discs. This
leads to a rapid cooling of the disc and its water film, the heat
absorbed by the water being in this way dissipated. The action is
one of evaporative cooling, of which many instances abound, and is
very effective. An equal weight of water will effectually condense any
given volume of steam, and this quantity is not difficult to find in
most places. The results obtained by the Union Engineering
Company in this country have been satisfactory, and there appears
to be no doubt as to the efficacy of the machine. Steadiness of
rotation is a sine qua non in mill engines, a very slight difference in
their velocity having a great effect upon the work of the mill. This is
now attained in most cases with certainty, and by means of the
Moscrop Recorder—an instrument denoting graphically the changes
of speed—a very salutary check is kept upon the engineer. In order
to prevent any variations occurring high-speed governors are largely
employed, and in some cases their action is aided by special means,
such as Knowles’s supplementary governor or Higginson’s patent
regulator. Either of these appliances give good results, and the last
named is very simple and effective.
(12) Up to within 15 or 20 years ago the most common mode of
transmitting the power developed by the steam engine was by
means of toothed gearing. About that period the American method
of driving by a series of broad belts was introduced and for a time
was largely adopted. When toothed gearing was used the power was
conveyed to the various flats or storeys of the mill by means of an
upright shaft, on which were bevel wheels gearing with others on
the line shafts. The introduction of belt driving led to a system of
transmitting the power to the main shaft in each room independently
of its fellows, and this system found further development when
driving by a series of ropes was adopted a short time afterwards. In
this case the power is taken off by a number of ropes working in the
grooves of a large pulley on the engine shaft and of smaller ones
fixed on the line shafts. This is now the favourite method of driving
and is more extensively adopted than any other. The reason for this
is principally the ease with which breakdowns can be guarded
against. If a rope breaks it falls into the race, and in rare instances
does it become entangled. It is only necessary to replace it, and any
delay thus caused is not great.
(13) As the question of driving is a somewhat important one a few
remarks may be made on it. There is no doubt that toothed gearing
properly constructed forms the most economical method, the loss of
power in transmission not exceeding 21⁄2 per cent. In constructing
wheels for this purpose care should be taken that the tooth is not
too long, 5⁄8ths of the pitch being a sufficient length. Next to
toothed wheels for economy belts may be placed. The loss in
transmission varies, if the belts are properly applied, from three to
five per cent. A good speed for leather belts is 3,000 feet per minute
if they are single, and 4,000 feet if double. Rope driving is the least
economical of the three methods, this arising from a variety of
causes. Chief among these is the difficulty of maintaining an equal
diameter in every rope of the series, which leads to a difference in
their driving power, owing to their unequal engagement with the V
grooves. Another cause of this loss of power is found in the fact that
they jam in the grooves and have to be forcibly extracted as the
pulleys revolve. The following rules laid down by Mr. Alexander Rea
in a discussion, at a meeting of the Manchester Association of
Engineers, on the subject of the comparative merits of the three
systems of driving, are worth reproducing.
“The ropes should not be too large in diameter; it is much safer to
use 25 13⁄4 inch ropes than 20 2 inch diameter ropes. The tension in
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