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Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering

Volume 897

Series Editors

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Samarjit Chakraborty, Fakultät für Elektrotechnik und Informationstechnik, TU München, Munich, Germany
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Santanu Saha Ray · H. Jafari · T. Raja Sekhar ·
Suchandan Kayal
Editors

Applied Analysis,
Computation
and Mathematical Modelling
in Engineering
Select Proceedings of AACMME 2021
Editors
Santanu Saha Ray H. Jafari
Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematical Sciences
National Institute of Technology Rourkela University of South Africa
Rourkela, Odisha, India Florida, Gauteng, South Africa

T. Raja Sekhar Suchandan Kayal

Department of Mathematics Department of Mathematics
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur National Institute of Technology Rourkela
Kharagpur, West Bengal, India Rourkela, Odisha, India

ISSN 1876-1100 ISSN 1876-1119 (electronic)

Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering
ISBN 978-981-19-1823-0 ISBN 978-981-19-1824-7 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1824-7

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Preface

This edited book, “Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering”, is an outcome of the

International Conference on Applied Analysis, Computation and Mathemat-
ical Modelling in Engineering (AACMME-2021). The contents of this book are
intended to present an overall idea about the recent advances in latest developments
and researches in the field of Mathematical Science and its applications.
This book focuses on the comparative study of some wavelet based numerical
methods to solve initial value problems. It also investigates the enhancement of
natural convection heat transfer using hybrid nanofluids over a moving vehicle plate.
This book addresses the provoked flow pattern due to an impulsive motion of porous
wavy wall with no slip suction velocity under the influence of magnetic field.
In this book, a linear stability analysis is applied to study the onset of bio-
convection in a suspension of negatively geotactic swimmers saturated with a non-
Darcy porous fluid layer under the effect of high frequency and Small-amplitude
vertical vibrations. This book also studies the impact of two temperatures on a
generalized thermoelastic plate with thermal loading.
Baffle spacing has a decisive effect on heat transfer and pumping power. The
development of baffle spacing significantly dominates the turbulence created inside
the shell and tube heat exchanger and heat transfer. This book studies the impact of
baffle spacing in both global and local thermohydraulic characteristics.
In this book, Kudryashov and modified Kudryashov techniques have been imple-
mented to acquire new exact solutions of the time fractional (2+1)-dimensional CBS
equation. This book also explores the impact of double dispersion effects on the
nonlinear convective flow of power-law fluid along an inclined plate.
This book emphasizes the Soret and viscous dissipation effects on mixed convec-
tive flow of an incompressible micropolar fluid over a vertical frustum of a cone
embedded in a non-Darcy porous medium subject to convective boundary condition.
It proposes convergence and comparison theorems for three-step alternating itera-
tion method for rectangular linear system. This book also studied thermal hydraulic
performance of helical baffle shell and tube heat exchanger using RSM Method.
This book investigates a newly proposed dual-mode Kawahara equation. It finds
out the soliton and periodic solutions of the Kawahara equation. In this book, the

v
vi Preface

Lie transformation method has been used to find out the group invariant solutions of
(2+1)-dimensional modified Calogero-Bogoyavlenskii-Schiff (mCBS) equation.
This book addresses the estimation and classification of two logistic distribu-
tions with a common scale and different location parameters. Bayes estimates are
computed using Metropolis-Hastings method using gamma and normal prior distri-
butions. The Bayes estimates are compared with some of the existing estimates with
respect to the bias and mean squared error. Utilizing these estimates some classifi-
cation rules are proposed to classify a single observation into one of the two logistic
populations under the same model.
The book considers the problem of testing of hypothesis for the quantile when
independent random samples are drawn from two normal populations with a common
mean and order restricted variances. Several test procedures are proposed and are
evaluated through their sizes and powers using a simulation procedure.
In this book, various geometrical parameters of the planted roof are studied to opti-
mize the dimensional parameters by means of independent and dependent variables
using an exact mathematical model. Using experiment, the factors influencing the
performance of the planted roof activity are identified to optimize the performance
of the heat flow through planted roof.
This book deals with the modal analysis of a Jeffcott functionally graded (FG)
rotor system, consisting of an FG shaft mounted on linear bearings at the ends.
The material gradation is applied following the exponential gradation law, whereas
the thermal gradients across the radius of the FG shaft are achieved through the
exponential temperature distribution method 3D finite element modelling and the
modal analysis of the FG rotor system are carried out using ANSYS software. The
influence of the material gradation and temperature gradients on the rotor-bearing
system’s natural and whirl frequencies are studied.
This book presents five-point finite difference method to solve the two-
dimensional Laplace and Poisson equations on regular and irregular regions. Dirichlet
and Robin boundary conditions are considered for solving the system of equations in
each iteration. The obtained numerical results are compared with analytical solutions.
This book also focuses on the selection of the best ultra-sound machine using
ELECTRE method based on the user’s criteria. This study considers six criteria to
select best one from five alternatives.
This book examines the processes included for initiation along with expansion of
a crack on the web of the rail weldment in order to anticipate the direction of fracture
crack and secondary, the intervals of weld inspections. The finite element study for
the expected cracking is performed to measure the brief history of stress intensity
factors. Computational simulations and experimental findings made by RDSO on
three-dimensional growth of fatigue crack are compared.
This book deals with a higher-order wave equation with delay term and variable
exponents. Under suitable conditions, they prove the nonexistence of solutions in a
finite time. There is no research related to higher-order wave equations with delay
term and variable exponents.
Preface vii

In this book, the existence result of a solution to continuous nonlinear, initial

value problem is studied. A special type of problem representing the time evolu-
tion of particle number density due to the coagulation, multi-fragmentation events
among the particles present in a system has been considered. The proof of the main
theorem is based on the contraction mapping principle. Initially the local existence
of nonnegative solutions for these compactly supported kernels has been also proved
in this book. The study is completed by examining the mass conservation law of the
existing solution.
This book also introduces a new sequence of Szasz—Kantorovich type operators
based on Boas - Buck type polynomials which include Brenke type polynomials,
Sheffer polynomials and Appell polynomials. The error is estimated in the approxi-
mation by these operators in terms of the Lipschitz type maximal function, Peetre’s
K-functional and Ditzian–Totik modulus of smoothness. The order of convergence
is also studied of these operators for unbounded functions by using the weighted
modulus of continuity. This study also covers quantitative-Voronovoskaya-type
theorem and Gruss Voronovskaya-type theorem.
A study on the numerical modeling and simulation of heat distribution inside the
skin tissue for cancer treatment with external exponential heating is also presented
in this book. The two-dimensional Pennes bio-heat model for thermal therapy based
on Fourier’s law of heat conduction is considered in this study. The mathemat-
ical model’s numerical solution is obtained using Crank Nicolson finite difference
approximation and radial basis function approximation for time and space. The
effects of thermophysical properties of the skin on the temperature profile in the
tissue are also explained.
Overall, the chapters create new avenues and present intriguing information to
comprehend the difficulties and provide answers for various challenges, which would
assist readers grasp and implement for the new development and mathematically
analyse physical problems.
The editors would like to express their appreciation to Springer, the Springer
Editor, for publishing these chapters in “Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering.”
We are also grateful to the anonymous reviewers who provided worthwhile review
reports that resulted in significant modifications and enhancements to these chapters.

Rourkela, India Santanu Saha Ray

Pretoria, South Africa H. Jafari
Kharagpur, India T. Raja Sekhar
Rourkela, India Suchandan Kayal
Contents

Comparative Study of Some Wavelet-Based Numerical Methods

to Solve Initial Value Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Kshama Sagar Sahu and Mahendra Kumar Jena
Effects of MHD and Thermal Radiation on Unsteady Free
Convective Flow of a Hybrid Nanofluid Past a Vertical Plate . . . . . . . . . . . 21
V. Rajesh, M. Kavitha, and M. P. Mallesh
Rayleigh Streaming Past a Wavy Wall with No Slip Suction Under
a Transverse Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Fathimunnisa and Neetu Srivastava
Non-Darcian Gravitactic Bioconvection with a Porous Saturated
Vertical Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
K. Srikanth and Virendra Kumar
Impact of Two Temperatures on a Generalized Thermoelastic
Plate with Thermal Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Ankit Bajpai and P. K. Sharma
Numerical Investigation of Baffle Spacing in a Shell and Tube Heat
Exchanger with Segmental Baffle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Ravi Gugulothu, Narsimhulu Sanke, Farid Ahmed,
Naga Sarada Somanchi, and M. T. Naik
New Analytical Exact Solutions of Time Fractional
(2+1)-Dimensional Calogero–Bogoyavlenskii–Schiff (CBS)
Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
A. K. Sahoo and A. K. Gupta
Nonlinear Convective Flow of Power-law Fluid over an Inclined
Plate with Double Dispersion Effects and Convective Thermal
Boundary Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
P. Naveen, Ch. RamReddy, and D. Srinivasacharya

ix
x Contents

Micropolar Fluid Flow over a Frustum of Cone Subjected

to Convective Boundary Condition: Darcy–Forchheimer Model . . . . . . . . 129
T. Pradeepa and Ch. RamReddy
Convergence and Comparison Theorems for Three-Step
Alternating Iteration Method for Rectangular Linear System . . . . . . . . . . 147
Smrutilekha Das, Debadutta Mohanty, and Chinmay Kumar Giri
Thermal Hydraulic Performance of Helical Baffle Shell and Tube
Heat Exchanger Using RSM Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Ravi Gugulothu, Narsimhulu Sanke, Sahith Nagadesi,
and Ratna Kumari Jilugu
Soliton Solutions of Dual-mode Kawahara Equation via Lie
Symmetry Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Sandeep Malik and Sachin Kumar
Soliton Solutions of (2+1)-Dimensional Modified
Calogero-Bogoyavlenskii-Schiff (mCBS) Equation by Using Lie
Symmetry Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Shivam Kumar Mishra
Estimation and Classification Using Samples from Two Logistic
Populations with a Common Scale Parameter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Pushkal Kumar and Manas Ranjan Tripathy
Testing Quantiles of Two Normal Populations with a Common
Mean and Order Restricted Variances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Habiba Khatun and Manas Ranjan Tripathy
An Approach to Experimental Data-Based Mathematical
Modelling for a Green Roof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Pramod Belkhode, Pranita Belkhode, and Kanchan Borkar
Modal Analysis of a Thermally Loaded Functionally Graded
Rotor System Using ANSYS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Waseem Shameer, Abhishek Mishra, and Prabhakar Sathujoda
Numerical Solution of Laplace and Poisson Equations for Regular
and Irregular Domain Using Five-Point Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Malabika Adak
Selecting Ultrasound Machine Using ELECTRE Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Seema Gupta Bhol, Jnyana Ranjan Mohanty,
and Prasant Kumar Pattnaik
A Fatigue Crack Path Analysis in Rail Weldment Under Mixed
Mode Loading Condition: A Computational Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293
Prakash Kumar Sen, Mahesh Bhiwapurkar, and S. P. Harsha
Contents xi

Nonexistence of Solutions for a Higher-Order Wave Equation

with Delay and Variable-Exponents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Erhan Pişkin and Hazal Yüksekkaya
Existence and Uniqueness of Mass Conserving Solutions
to the Coagulation, Multi-fragmentation Equations
with Compactly Supported Kernels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
Arijit Das and Jitraj Saha
Approximation by Szász–Kantorovich-Type Operators Involving
Boas–Buck-Type Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
P. N. Agrawal and Sompal Singh
Temperature Distribution in Living Tissue with Two-Dimensional
Parabolic Bioheat Model Using Radial Basis Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
Rohit Verma and Sushil Kumar
About the Editors

Santanu Saha Ray is a Professor and Head in the Department of Mathematics,

National Institute of Technology Rourkela, India. He earned his Ph.D. from Jadavpur
University, India, in 2008. His research interests include fractional calculus, differ-
ential equations, wavelet transforms, stochastic differential equations, integral equa-
tions, nuclear reactor kinetics with simulation, numerical analysis, operations
research, mathematical modeling, mathematical physics, and computer applications.
He has published over 70 research papers in numerous fields and various international
journals of repute.

H. Jafari is a Professor in the Department of Mathematical Sciences, University of

South Africa. He got his B.Sc. degree from the University of Mazandaran, Babolsar,
Iran, and M.Sc. degree from Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran, in 1998 and
2001, respectively. He earned his Ph.D. from Pune University, Pune, India, in 2006.
He has got 3 books, 138 papers in journals, and 25 papers in conference proceedings
published to his credit. He was the supervisor of more than 50 M.Sc. students. His
current research interests include fractional differential equations and their applica-
tions, symmetries and conservation laws, new iterative methods, q-calculus, local
fractional differential equations.

T. Raja Sekhar is an Associate Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Indian

Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India. He earned his Ph.D. from the Indian Insti-
tute of Technology Bombay, India, in 2008. Presently, he is working on a quasi-
linear hyperbolic system of partial differential equations involving classical and non-
classical nonlinear waves such as shock waves, rarefaction waves, contact disconti-
nuities, delta shock waves, and nonlinear wave interactions. His research areas are
theoretical and computational differential equations, groups of symmetries, analysis,
and geometry. She has published several research papers in international journals and
conference proceedings.

xiii
xiv About the Editors

Suchandan Kayal is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics,

National Institute of Technology Rourkela, India. He earned his Ph.D. from the
Indian Institute of Technology Kharagpur, India, in 2011. His research interests
include applied probability, statistical inference, statistical information theory, statis-
tical decision theory, and order statistics. He has published several research papers
in international journals and conference proceedings.
Comparative Study of Some
Wavelet-Based Numerical Methods
to Solve Initial Value Problems

Kshama Sagar Sahu and Mahendra Kumar Jena

Abstract Ordinary differential equations, in particular initial value problems, play

a vital role in applied mathematics. There are many methods available to solve
these initial value problems. The operational matrix method based on wavelet is
a recent one. In this paper, we briefly review some operational matrix methods.
The operational matrix method from the Haar wavelet, the frame, and the Legendre
wavelet is considered. We give a comparison of the solution by providing several
numerical examples.

Keywords Frame · Haar wavelet · Legendre wavelet · Operational matrices

1 Introduction

Many mathematical models in real-life problems involve ordinary differential equa-

tions (ODEs). The solution of these ODE plays a vital role in solving real-life prob-
lems. Sometimes, it is not easy to find an analytical solution to the ODE. In such
cases, we depend upon the numerical solution. Several methods exist to solve ODE
numerically, but the operational matrix method based on wavelet is a recent trend.
Many researchers use the operational matrix in solving differential equations. The
method using an operational matrix to solve ODE is called as operational matrix
method. In this method, the given ODE is converted to an algebraic equation. Solv-
ing the algebraic equation, we get the solution of the given ODE.
Wavelet theory is a wide field in science and engineering. It constitutes a family
of functions constructed from dilation and translation of a single function called the
mother wavelet [14]. Wavelets are used in signal processing, image compression,
and many more. In 1997, Chen and Hsiao [2] introduce the operational matrix of

K. S. Sahu (B) · M. K. Jena

Department of Mathematics, Veer Surendra Sai University of Technology, Burla, Sambalpur, India
e-mail: [email protected]
M. K. Jena
e-mail: [email protected]

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 1
S. S. Ray et al. (eds.), Applied Analysis, Computation and Mathematical Modelling
in Engineering, Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 897,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1824-7_1
2 K. S. Sahu and M. K. Jena

integration from Haar wavelet. Many researchers used this operational matrix to find
the solution of differential equations numerically. This method got the popularity as it
is simple and easy. Later, so many operational matrices based on wavelets have been
introduced. Now, this operational matrix method is not limited to solve ODE only.
It is widely used to solve fractional differential equations [8, 16], partial differential
equations [18], integral equations [1], integro-differential equations [17].
Some well-known operational matrix methods are the Haar wavelet operational
matrix (HWOM) method, Legendre’s wavelet operational matrix (LWOM) method,
and the frame operational matrix (FOM) method. All these methods have been
derived using an operational matrix of integration.
Frames first appear in 1952 [3, 7]. These are considered some kinds of alternatives
to wavelets. They are more useful when compactly supported and obtained from a
single prototype function by dilation and translation. Like wavelets, a function in
L 2 (IR) can also be expressed as a linear combination of frame elements [3]. In this
paper, we consider the frame constructed from the linear cardinal B-spline. First,
we find out the operational matrices, and then with the help of these operational
matrices, we find the approximate solutions of initial value problems (IVPs).
The remaining part of the paper is organized as follows. In Sect. 2, we review the
Haar wavelet operational matrix method. In Sect. 3, we present the frame operational
matrix method. Legendre wavelet operational matrix method is outlined in Sect. 4.
Some numerical examples are given in Sect. 5. A conclusion is given in Sect. 6.

2 Haar Wavelet Operational Matrix Method

In this section, we first find out the operational matrices from the Haar wavelet for
the different resolutions. These operational matrices are then used to solve the IVPs.
The given IVP is transferred to an algebraic equation which involves the operational
matrices. The algebraic equation is then solved, and as a result, we get an approximate
solution of the IVP.

Definition 1 (Haar Wavelet) Let m = 2 j , j = 0, 1, . . . J , k = 0, 1, . . . m − 1, and

i = m + k + 1. Here, i and j denote wavelet number and the level of wavelet respec-
tively, whereas k is the translation parameter. The maximum level of resolution is
J . The minimum value of i = 2, and the maximum value is 2M. The Haar wavelet
family for t ∈ [A, B] is given as [10, 11]
⎧
⎨ 1 t ∈ [ξ1 (i) , ξ2 (i)]
h i (t) = −1 t ∈ [ξ2 (i) , ξ3 (i)] ,
⎩
0 otherwise
Comparative Study of Some Wavelet-Based … 3

where

ξ1 (i) = A + 2kμΔx,
ξ2 (i) = A + (2k + 1) μΔx,
ξ3 (i) = A + 2 (k + 1) μΔx,

M (B − A)
μ= , and Δx = .
m 2M
The scaling function is h 1 (t) = 1 for t ∈ [A, B] and 0 elsewhere. The Haar wavelet
are orthogonal to each other:

B 
−j 2− j , i = l = 2 j + k
h i (t) h l (t) = 2 δi j = (1)
0, i = l.
A

Haar wavelets form a good basis for this orthogonal property. Any function y (t)
which is square-integrable in the interval [A, B] can be expanded into a Haar wavelet
expansion


2M
y (t) = ai h i (t) ,
i=1

B
where ai = 2 j A y (t) h i (t) dt.

2.1 Operational Matrix of Integration

Let us define Haar wavelet matrix [2, 10, 11, 13] of order 2M × 2M by
⎡ ⎤
h 1 (t1 ) h 1 (t2 ) · · · h 1 (t2M )
⎢ h 2 (t1 ) h 2 (t2 ) · · · h 2 (t2M ) ⎥
⎢ ⎥
H2M×2M = (h i (tl ))i=1,l=1
2M×2M
=⎢ .. .. .. .. ⎥ .
⎣ . . . .⎦
h 2M (t1 ) h 2M (t2 ) · · · h 2M (t2M )

In general,   1   3   
H2M×2M = h 2M 4M h 2M 4M · · · h 2M 4M−1
4M
.
4 K. S. Sahu and M. K. Jena

The operational matrices are defined as follows:

tl
(P H )il = h i (t) dt, (2)
0

tl t
(Q H )il = dt h i (t) dt, (3)
0 0

where tl are collocation points and tl = l−0.5

2M
.
H , P, and Q are matrices of order 2M × 2M. Taking 2M = 2 and 2M = 4,
we have
     
1 1 1 1 3 1 2 −1
H2×2 = , (P H )2×2 = , P2×2 = .
1 −1 4 1 1 4 1 0
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 1 1 1 1 3 5 7
⎢1 1 −1 −1 ⎥ 1 ⎢1 3 3 1⎥
H4×4 =⎢
⎣ 1 −1
⎥ , (P H )4×4 = ⎢ ⎥,
0 0⎦ 8 ⎣1 1 0 0⎦
0 0 1 −1 0 0 1 1
⎡ ⎤
8 −4 −2 −2
1 ⎢
⎢4 0 −2 2⎥⎥.
P4×4 = ⎣
16 1 1 0 0⎦
1 −1 0 0

Similarly,
   
1 1 9 1 5 −4
(Q H )2×2 = , Q 2×2 = , and
32 1 15 32 8 −7
⎡ ⎤ ⎡ ⎤
1 9 25 49 21 −16 −4 −12
1 ⎢⎢1 9 23 31 ⎥
⎥, 1 ⎢ ⎥
⎢ 16 −11 −4 −4 ⎥ .
(Q H )4×4 = (Q)4×4 =
128 ⎣ 1 7 8 8⎦ 128 ⎣ 6 −2 −3 0⎦
0 0 1 7 2 −2 0 −3

Chen and Hsiao [2] have derived the following formula

 
1 4M PM×M −HM×M
P2M×2M = −1 .
4M HM×M O
Comparative Study of Some Wavelet-Based … 5

Notation: We have used the symbols:

 −1
(0) (1) (1) (1) (0)
H2M := H2M×2M , H2M := (P H )2M×2M , P2M := H2M H2M .

2.2 Method for First-Order Linear IVP

Consider the first-order linear ordinary differential equation


U = a (t) U + b (t) , t ∈ [0, T ] , U (0) = U0 . (4)

Let us divide the interval [0, T ] into n equal subinterval  such that ti+1 − ti = di . Let
introduce the local coordinate τ = t−t di
i
in the interval ti , ti+1 . Define the collocation
points in the interval [0, 1] by
 
j − 21
τj = , j = 1, 2, . . . , 2M.
2M
Now, define u (τ ) = U (t) and the given IVP becomes

du
= di [a (τ ) u (τ ) + b (τ )] , u (0) = Ui . (5)
dτ
Introducing the row vector of order 1 × 2M
 
u = u (τ1 ) u (τ2 ) · · · u (τ2M ) ,

the equation (2.5), can be written as

du
= di [uA (τ ) + B (τ )] (6)
dτ
where ⎡ ⎤
a (τ1 di + ti ) 0 0 ··· 0
⎢ 0 a (τ2 di + ti ) 0 · · · 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
A (τ ) = ⎢ .. .. .. .. ⎥,
⎣ . . . ··· . ⎦
0 0 0 · · · a (τ2M di + ti )

and
B (τ ) = (b (τ1 di + ti ) , b (τ2 di + ti ) , . . . , b (τ2M di + ti )) ,

Following [2, 11], we take

du (0)
= cH2M , (7)
dτ
6 K. S. Sahu and M. K. Jena

where c = [c (1) , c (2) , . . . c (2M)].

Integrating (2.7) we have
(1)
u = cH2M + Ui E, (8)

where E = [1, 1, 1, . . . , 1] and Ui = U (ti ) .

Comparing (2.6) & (2.7) and putting the value of u from (2.8) to get c.
Now,   −1
(0)
c = di Ui Y S −1 + di B A−1 H2M S −1 ,

where   −1 
(0) −1 (0) (1)
S= H2M A H2M − di P2M ,

and  −1
(0)
Y = E H2M .

Taking all τ j = 1, the approximation is

Ui+1 = c (1) + Ui .

2.3 Method for Second-Order Linear IVP

Let us consider the second-order linear differential equation

 
d2 U dU 
= F t, U, , t ∈ [0, T ] , U (t0 ) = U0 , U (t0 ) = V0 . (9)
dt 2 dt

We follow [10] to find the solution of the above equation. Let V = dU dt

. Then the
given differential equation becomes the first-order linear system as follows:

dV d2 U
= 2 = F (t, U, V ) .
dt dt
Here also, we divide the interval [0, T ] into n equal subinterval of length di . Let
us consider the interval ti , ti+1 and define the collocation points τ j as in previous
 define u (τ ) = U (t) and v (τ ) = V (t), where τ is the local
section. In this interval,
coordinate in ti , ti+1 . Let U (ti ) = Ui and V (ti ) = Vi are known approximations.
Now, the converted system of differential equations can be written as

du dv
= di v and = di F (ti + τ di , u, v) .
dτ dτ
Comparative Study of Some Wavelet-Based … 7

Let us introduce the row vectors u and v as given below:

   
u = u (τ1 ) u (τ2 ) · · · u (τ2M ) and v = v (τ1 ) v (τ2 ) · · · v (τ2M ) .

Following Chen & Hsiao [2] and Lepik [11],

du dv  
(0) (1)
= a H2M and = di bH2M + Vi E ,
dτ dτ
where a and b are row matrix of order 1 × 2M. The converted system of ODE
becomes  
(0) (1)
a H2M = di bH2M + Vi E , (10)

and  
(0) (1) (1)
bH2M = di F ti + τ di , a H2M + Ui E, bH2M + Vi E . (11)

Solving Eqs. (10) and (11) we get a and hence b. Taking all τ j = 1, the approxima-
tions are
Ui+1 = a (1) + Ui , Vi+1 = b (1) + Vi ,

where a (1) and b (1) are first elements of a and b.

3 Frame Operational Matrix Method

The frame of linear cardinal B-spline is considered to construct the operational

matrix. It is an operational matrix of integration.

3.1 A Short Literature Review

Recently, the frame operational matrix method has been used to solve the initial value
problems [15]. This operational matrix is obtained from a frame of linear cardinal
B-spline. Frames are considered as some kinds of alternatives to wavelets. They are
useful when they have compact supports and are obtained from a refinable function.
Definition 2 (Refinable Function) [5] A function φ ∈ L 2 (IR) is called a refinable
function if there exists scalars pk ∈ IR, k ∈ Z such that

1
φ (x) = pk φ (2x − k) .
2 k∈Z
8 K. S. Sahu and M. K. Jena

Definition 3 (Multiresolution
 Analysis)
 [5] Let φ ∈ L 2 (IR) is a refinable
 function
and V j = closur e φ j,k : k ∈ Z . The collection of subspaces V j j∈Z of L 2 (IR)
generates an multiresolution analysis (MRA) of L 2 (IR) if they have the following
properties:
1. · · · ⊂ V−1 ⊂ V0⊂ V1 ⊂ · · ·

j∈Z V j = L (IR)
2
2. span

3. j∈Z V j = {0}
4. V j+1 = V j + W j , j ∈ Z
5. f (x) ∈ V j ⇔ f (2x) ∈ V j+1 , j∈Z

Definition 4 (Tight Frame) [5] A family Ψ = {ψ1 , ψ2 , . . . , ψ N } ⊂ L 2 (IR) is called

tight frame of L 2 (IR) if it satisfies


N 
 
 f, ψi; j,k 2 =  f 2 , all f ∈ L 2 (IR) ,
i=1 j,k∈Z

 
where ψi; j,k = 2 j/2 ψi 2 j · −k .

Definition 5 (Linear Cardinal B-spline) [5] Let us define the linear cardinal B-spline
by 
x, x ∈ [0, 1]
φ (x) = .
2 − x, x ∈ [1, 2]

It is refinable with p0 = 21 , p1 = 1, p2 = 1
2
and pk = 0 for k = 0, 1, 2.

Definition 6 (MRA Tight(wavelet)Frame) [5] A family Ψ = {ψ1 , ψ2 , . . . , ψ N } ⊂

L 2 (IR) is called an MRA tight(wavelet) frame if it is a tight frame and is associated
with a refinable function that generates an MRA and Ψ ⊂ V1 .

We now consider linear cardinal B-spline φ to construct an operational matrix

method. Define

ψ0 (x) = φ (2x) ,
1
ψ1 (x) = √ (ψ0 (2x) − ψ0 (2x − 1)) ,
2
   
1 1
and ψ2 (x) = ψ0 (2x) − 2ψ0 2x − + ψ0 (2x − 1) .
2 2

Note that ψ0 generates an MRA. Moreover, Ψ ⊂ V1 and is a tight frame [5] and also
minimum energy(tight)frame [5]. All functions ψ0 , ψ1 and ψ2 have support in [0, 1].
Comparative Study of Some Wavelet-Based … 9

3.2 Frame Operational Matrices

The collection Δ = {ψ0 , ψl, j,k : l = 1, 2 and j, k ∈ Z }, where ψl, j,k = 2 j/2 ψl
(2 j x − k) forms a minimum energy (tight)frame for L 2 (IR) [5]. The parameter
j ≥ 0 in Δ is called the resolution level. Let J denotes the maximal resolution.
Let M = 1 + 2(1 + 2 + · · · + 2 J ). Suppose the grid points are ti = (i − 1)/M, i =
1, 2, . . . , M + 1 and the collocation points are

tn + tn+1
τn = , n = 1, 2, . . . , M.
2
Following Sahu and Jena [15], we have the frame matrix and the frame operational
matrix as given below:
For fixed J , the frame matrix F0 is a matrix of order M × M, defined by
⎛ ⎞
Ψ0
⎜ Ψ1,0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ Ψ1,1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ .. ⎟
⎜ . ⎟
⎜ ⎟
F0 := ⎜ ⎟
⎜ Ψ1,J ⎟
⎜ Ψ2,0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ Ψ2,1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ . ⎟
⎝ .. ⎠
Ψ2,J

where Ψ0 = (ψ0 (τ1 ), ψ0 (τ2 ), . . . , ψ0 (τ M )) and for l = 1, 2 and j = 0, 1, . . . , J ,

⎛ ⎞
ψl, j,0 (τ1 ) · · · ψl, j,0 (τ M )
⎜ .. .. ⎟
Ψl, j =⎝ . . ⎠.
ψl, j,2 j −1 (τ1 ) · · · ψl, j,2 j −1 (τ M )

Let us define α-th order integrations ψ0α and ψl;α j,k , α ≥ 1 by [11]
10 K. S. Sahu and M. K. Jena

x x x
ψ0α (x) = ··· ψ0 (t) dt α
0 0 0
x
1
= (x − t)α−1 ψ0 (t) dt,
(α − 1)!
0
x x x
ψl;α j,k (x) = ··· ψl; j,k (t) dt α
0 0 0
x
1
= (x − t)α−1 ψl; j,k (t) dt.
(α − 1)!
0

The higher-order frame matrices Fα , α ≥ 1 are matrices of order M × M, defined

by
⎛ ⎞
Ψ0α
α ⎟
⎜ Ψ1,0
⎜ α ⎟
⎜ Ψ1,1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ .. ⎟
⎜ . ⎟
⎜ α ⎟
Fα := ⎜
⎜ Ψ1,J
⎟
⎟
⎜Ψα ⎟
⎜ 2,0 ⎟
⎜Ψα ⎟
⎜ 2,1 ⎟
⎜ . ⎟
⎝ .. ⎠
α
Ψ2,J
 
where Ψ0α = ψ0α (τ1 ), ψ0α (τ2 ), . . . , ψ0α (τ M ) and for l = 1, 2 and j = 0, 1, . . . , J ,
⎛ ⎞
ψl;α j,0 (τ1 ) . . . ψl;α j,0 (τ M )
⎜ .. .. ⎟
Ψl,αj =⎝ . . ⎠.
ψl;α j,2 j−1 (τ1 ) · · · ψl;α j,2 j−1 (τ M )

The α-th-order frame operational matrix Pα is now defined by

Pα = Fα F0−1 .

In particular, frame matrices F0 , F1 and frame operational matrix P1 are given below.
Frame Matrix for J = 1 (M = 7)
Comparative Study of Some Wavelet-Based … 11
⎛ 2 6 10 10 6 2 ⎞
7 7 7
2 7 7 7
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 398 1194 796 ⎟
⎜− ⎟
⎜ 985 − 985 − 985
796 1194 398
0 985 985 598 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 796 398 1194 ⎟
⎜− 0 0 ⎟
⎜ 985 − 985 985 0 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
F0 = ⎜
⎜ 0 0 0 0 − 1194
985
398 796 ⎟
985 985 ⎟
.
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 2 ⎟
⎜ − − 67 − 27 ⎟
⎜ 7 −7
6 2 2
7
2 7 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ −4 8
− 47 0 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜ 7 7 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
0 0 0 0 − 47 8
7
−74

⎛ 1 9 25 1 73 89 97 ⎞
98 98 98 2 98 98 98
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 226 ⎟
⎜− − 1948
253
− 1511
447
− 1189 − 1511
447
− 1948
253
− 15661
226 ⎟
⎜ 15661 3363 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 253 ⎟
⎜− − 1094
371
− 1757
393
0 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜ 4383 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
F1 = ⎜
⎜ 0 0 0 0 − 1757
393
− 1094
371
− 4383
253 ⎟.
⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ −1 − 98
9
− 49
8
0 8 9 1 ⎟
⎜ 98 49 98 98 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ −2 − 11 15
0 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜ 49 98 98 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
0 0 0 0 − 15
98
11
98
2
49

Operational Matrix for J = 1 (M = 7)

⎛ ⎞
1
2
1121
2378
66
19601
65
152
− 41 2
105
− 105
44

⎜ ⎟
⎜ 580 ⎟
⎜− 0 − 17 17
− 165
− 33
− 33 ⎟
⎜ 3361 420 420 39202 19601 19601 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 336 43 ⎟
⎜− − 13
0 336
− 83
0 ⎟
⎜ 3713 336 420 3713 2293 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 336 ⎟
P1 = ⎜ − −
⎜ 3713 336
43
0 13
420
336
3713
0 − 83 ⎟
2293 ⎟
.
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 529
− 2413
130
− 2413
130
0 1 1 ⎟
− 60
⎜ 4834 60 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ 0 0 195
0 0 − 1409
0 ⎟
⎜ 2032 ⎟
⎝ ⎠
195 9
0 0 0 2032
0 0 40
12 K. S. Sahu and M. K. Jena

3.3 Method for First-Order Linear IVP

This method is very much similar to the HWOM method. Let us consider the ODE

U (t) = A(t)U (t) + B(t), U (t0 ) = U0 , t ∈ [t0 , T ]. (12)

We divide the whole interval of discretization into n equal segments  with h i =

ti+1 − ti , i = 0, 1, . . . , n − 1. Let us consider the interval ti , ti+1 . Assume that
Ui is a known approximation to U (ti ). The local coordinate τ = t−t hi
i
to the interval
[ti , ti+1 ]. This is now belongs to [0, 1]. The given Eq. (12) becomes a new IVP with
local coordinate,

du
u̇(τ ) := = h i (a(τ )u(τ ) + b(τ )), u(0) = Ui . (13)
dτ
Introduce

u = [u(τ1 ), u(τ2 ), . . . , u(τ M )] ,

From (13), we get

du
= h i [uA + b] , (14)
dτ
where ⎛ ⎞
a(t1∗ ) 0 · · · 0
⎜ 0 a(t2∗ ) · · · 0 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
A=⎜ .. ⎟,
⎝ . ⎠
∗
0 0 · · · a(t M )

t ∗j = ti + h i τ j
and
 
b = b(t1∗ ), b(t2∗ ), . . . , b(t M
∗
) .

Following Sahu and Jena [15], and simplifying,

 
c = h i dY + bA−1 F0−1 (F0 A−1 F0−1 − h i P1 )−1 , (15)

where Y = E F0−1 and P1 = F1 F0−1 .

The approximation is u(1) = c(1) + u(0) = c(1) + Ui , where c(1) is the first
entry of c.
Comparative Study of Some Wavelet-Based … 13

3.4 Method for Second Order Linear IVP

Let us consider the differential equation

U  + p ∗ U  + q ∗ U = f (t), U (t0 ) = U0 , U  (t0 ) = V0 , (16)

where p ∗ , q ∗ , and f (t) are function of t. The equation (16) is reduced to a system
of first-order ODE by taking

dU dV
= V, = − p ∗ V − q ∗ U + f (t). (17)
dt dt
 
Let us consider the interval ti , ti+1 . Assume that the known Ui and Vi are approxi-


mation to U (ti ) and V (ti )=U (ti ), respectively. The local coordinate in the interval
ti , ti+1 is τ = (t − ti )/ h i , where h i = ti+1 − ti . In terms of this local coordinate,
we have u(τ ) = U (t), v(τ ) = V (t). Introduce

u = [u(τ1 ), u(τ2 ), . . . , u(τ M )] ,

v = [v(τ1 ), v(τ2 ), . . . , v(τ M )] .

We have the following relation from (17)

u̇ = h i v, (18)
v̇ = −vp − uq + Φ, (19)

where ⎡ ⎤
p ∗ (t1∗ ) 0 0 ··· 0
⎢ 0 p ∗ (t2∗ ) 0 ··· 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
p = hi ⎢ . .. .. .. .. ⎥,
⎣ .. . . . . ⎦
∗
0 0 0 · · · p ∗ (t M )
⎡ ⎤
q ∗ (t1∗ ) 0 0 ··· 0
⎢ 0 q ∗ (t2∗ ) 0 ··· 0 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
q = hi ⎢ . .. .. .. .. ⎥,
⎣ .. . . . . ⎦
∗
0 0 0 · · · q ∗ (t M )

and  
Φ = hi f (t1∗ ) f (t2∗ ) f (t3∗ ) · · · f (t M
∗
) .

Here t ∗j = τ j h i + ti , j = 1, 2, . . . , M. Following Chen [2], Lepik [11], and sim-

plifying as [15] we have
a = h i b P1 + h i Vi Y (20)
14 K. S. Sahu and M. K. Jena

and

b = −Vi EpF0−1 S −1 − h i Vi Y F1 qF0−1 S −1 − Ui EqF0−1 S −1 + Φ F0−1 S −1 , (21)

where S = I + F1 pF0−1 + h i P1 F1 qF0−1 . Here Y = E F0−1 and P1 = F1 F0−1 . The

approximation becomes

Ui+1 = a (1) + Ui
Vi+1 = b (1) + Vi .

4 Legendre’s Wavelet Operational Matrix Method

The “Legendre wavelets” ψn,m (t) = ψ (k, n, m.t) is defined as follows: [9, 12, 14]
Definition 7 Legendre Polynomial
&'  
k
m + 21 2 2 Pm 2k t − 2n + 1 , t ∈ [ξ1 , ξ2 ]
ψn,m (t) = ,
0 otherwise

where ξ1 = 2n−2
2k
, ξ2 = 2n
2k
, m = 0, 1, . . . , M − 1, n = 1, 2, . . . , 2k−1 , and Pm (t) are
Legendre polynomial of degree m. In particular, P0 (t) = 1 and P1 (t) = t.
Any function f (t) can be represented in Legendre wavelet series in [0, 1) by Raz-
zaghi and Yousefi [14]
∞ 
 ∞
f (t) = cn,m ψn,m (t) ,
n=1 m=1

where cn,m = f (t) , ψn,m (t) , in which · · · is the inner product.

4.1 Function Approximation

Consider the Legendre wavelet as [9, 14]

 T
Ψ = ψ1,0 · · · ψ2k−1 ,0 ψ1,1 · · · ψ2k−1 ,1 · · · ψ1,M−1 · · · ψ2k−1 ,M−1

Let f be an arbitrary function in L 2 [0, 1] then there exist unique coefficients cn,m
such that
 
2k−1 M−1
f (t)  cn,m ψn,m (t) = C T Ψ (t) ,
n=1 m=0
Comparative Study of Some Wavelet-Based … 15
1
where cn,m = 0 f (t) ψn,m (t) dt, and
 T
C = c1,0 · · · c2k−1 ,0 c1,1 · · · c2k−1 ,1 · · · c1,M−1 · · · c2k−1 ,M−1 ,

Collocation points are given by [9]

2i − 1
ti = , i = 1, 2, . . . , 2k−1 M
2k M
Following [9, 14] we get the operational matrices as below:

t
Ψ (t) dt = PΨ (t) ,
0

where P is the operational matrix of order 2k−1 M × 2k−1 M.

In general, the operational matrix P is given by Razzaghi and Yousefi [14]
⎡ ⎤
L F F ··· F
⎢0 L F ··· F ⎥
1 ⎢
⎢ L ··· F ⎥
⎥
P = k ⎢0 0 ⎥,
2 ⎢ .. .... .. .. ⎥
⎣. . . . .⎦
0 0 ··· 0 L

where F and L are square matrix of order M as follows:

⎡ ⎤
2 0 ··· 0
⎢0 0 ··· 0⎥
⎢ ⎥
F =⎢. .. .. .. ⎥ ,
⎣ .. . . .⎦
0 0 ··· 0

and
⎡ ⎤
1 √1 0 0 ··· 0 0 0
⎢ √ 3 √ ⎥
⎢ − 33 0 0 ··· √3 0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ √ √ 3 5 ⎥
⎢ ⎥
⎢ 0 − 5√3 0 5√7 · · ·
5 5
0 0 0 ⎥
⎢ √ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 − 7√5 0 · · ·
7 ⎥
F =⎢ 0 0 0 ⎥.
⎢ . . . . .. .. .. ⎥
⎢ . .. .. .. · · · ⎥
⎢ . . . . ⎥
⎢ √ √ ⎥
⎢ 0 0 0 0 · · · − (2M−3)√2M−5
2M−3
0 2M−3
√ ⎥
⎣ √ (2M−3) 2M−1 ⎦
0 0 0 0 ··· 0 − (2M−1)
2M−1
√
2M−3
0
16 K. S. Sahu and M. K. Jena

In particular, the matrices Ψ and P for M = 3 and k = 2 are given in the following:
⎛√ √ √10 ⎞
−2
2 6 √6 0 0 0
⎜√ 3
⎟
⎜ 2 0 √210 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜√ √ ⎟
⎜ 2 2
6 610 0 0 √0 ⎟
Ψ6×6 =⎜
⎜ 0
3 √ √ ⎟
⎜ 0 0 2 −2
6 √610 ⎟
⎟
⎜ √ 3
⎟
⎝ 0 0 0 2 0 √210 ⎠
√ 2
√
0 0 0 2 3
6 610

⎛ √ ⎞
1 √2 0 2 0 0
⎜ √3 6 √ ⎟
⎜− 0 √3 0 0 0 ⎟
⎜ 3 √ 3 5 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
1⎜ 0 − 5√53 0 0 0 0 ⎟
P6×6 = ⎜ √ ⎟
4⎜
⎜ 0 0 0 1 √2 0 ⎟⎟
⎜ √ 6 √ ⎟
⎜ 0 0 0 − 3
0 √3 ⎟
⎝ 3 √ 3 5⎠
0 0 0 0 − 5√53 0

5 Results and Discussions

In this section, we consider some numerical examples to compare the solutions obtain
from different operational matrix methods described above.
Example 1 Consider the singular initial value problem [9]
 
4 
 2 
U + U + 2
+ t U = 20t + t 4 , U (0) = U (0) = 0.
t t

The exact solution of the given IVP is U (t) = t 3 . Numerical comparisons of solutions
obtain from LWOM, HWOM, and FOM are presented in Table 1. Comparison of the
solution from HWOM, FOM, and exact solution presented graphically in Fig. 1.

Example 2 Consider the singular initial value problem [9]

 2
 1  8 
U + U = , U (0) = 0, U (0) = 0.
t 8 − t2
 7 
The exact solution of the given IVP is U (t) = 2log 8−t 2 . Numerical comparison

of solution from LWOM, HWOM, and FOM is presented in the Table 2. Comparison
of the solution from HWOM, FOM, and exact solution is presented graphically in
Fig. 2.
Comparative Study of Some Wavelet-Based … 17

Table 1 L 2 −norm Comparison of solution of Example 1

t LWOM [9] HWOM FOM Exact
0.1 0.001000 0.0010 0.0010 0.001000
0.2 0.008003 0.0079 0.0080 0.008000
0.3 0.027008 0.0269 0.0269 0.027000
0.4 0.064045 0.0639 0.0639 0.064000
0.5 0.125131 0.1249 0.1249 0.125000
0.6 0.216534 0.2158 0.2158 0.216000
0.7 0.345017 0.3428 0.3428 0.343000
0.8 0.513002 0.5118 0.5118 0.512000
0.9 0.730000 0.7288 0.7288 0.729000

HWOM
0.8 FOM
Exact

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Fig. 1 Comparison of solution Example 1

Table 2 L 2 −norm comparison of solution of Example 2

t LWOM [9] HWOM FOM Exact
0.1 −0.26456123 −0.2646 −0.2646 −0.26456122
0.2 −0.25703772 −0.2570 −0.2571 −0.25703770
0.3 −0.24443526 −0.2444 −0.2446 −0.24443526
0.4 −0.22665738 −0.2267 −0.2268 −0.22665737
0.5 −0.20356540 −0.2036 −0.2037 −0.20356538
0.6 −0.17497491 −0.1750 −0.1751 −0.17497490
18 K. S. Sahu and M. K. Jena

0.05

0 HWOM
FOM
−0.05 Exact

−0.1

−0.15

−0.2

−0.25

−0.3
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Fig. 2 Comparison of solution Example 2

6 Conclusion

In this paper, numerical comparison of the solutions from different operational matrix
methods is computed. It is observed from the results that the HWOM and FOM are
the same rate of convergence. LWOM solutions are more close to the exact solution
than the other two methods presented with the same step size and in the same interval.

References

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72:341–366
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problems using legendre wavelet method. Ital J Pure Appl Math 40:311–328
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problems: a short survey. Int J Appl Comput Math 3(4):3961–3975
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Simul 68:127–143
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Syst Sci 32(4):495–502
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18. Zaky MA, Baleanu D, Alzaidy JF, Hashemizadeh E (2018) Operational matrix approach for
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Effects of MHD and Thermal Radiation
on Unsteady Free Convective Flow
of a Hybrid Nanofluid Past a Vertical
Plate

V. Rajesh , M. Kavitha , and M. P. Mallesh

Abstract This paper investigates the enhancement of natural convection heat

transfer using hybrid nanofluids over a moving vertical plate. Two different kinds
of fluids, namely Cu − Al2 O3 /water and Cu/water, are selected for investigation.
The principal equations modelling the flow are solved using a robust finite differ-
ence numerical method. Impacts of main parameters, such as magnetic parameter,
radiation parameter, Grashof number, and nanoparticle volume fraction, are anal-
ysed on skin friction coefficient, velocity profiles, Nusselt number, and temperature
profiles. The numerical results are validated by comparing them with analytical
correlations. The present work finds application to the cooling of nuclear reactors,
microelectronics, and solar energy conservation systems.

Keywords Unsteady flow · Free convection · Hybrid nanofluid · Vertical plate ·

Finite difference numerical method · Magnetohydrodynamics (MHD) · Thermal
radiation

1 Introduction

Magnetohydrodynamic nanofluid flow problems play a prominent role in industries

such as oil exploration, geothermal energy extractions, and boundary layer control
due to the interaction of electrically conducting fluid and magnetic field in aerody-
namics, MHD power generators, pumps, bearings, and electromagnetic accelerators.
Sparrow and Cess [1] studied the magnetic field’s effect on the natural convection

V. Rajesh (B) · M. Kavitha (B)

Department of Mathematics, GITAM (Deemed to be University), Hyderabad Campus, Rudraram
Village, Medak, Patancheru (M), Telangana, India
e-mail: [email protected]
M. Kavitha
e-mail: [email protected]
M. P. Mallesh
Department of Mathematics, Koneru Lakshmaiah Education Foundation, Hyderabad Campus,
Aziz Nagar Village, R R Dist, Moinabad (M), Telangana, India

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. 2022 21
S. S. Ray et al. (eds.), Applied Analysis, Computation and Mathematical Modelling
in Engineering, Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering 897,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-19-1824-7_2
22 V. Rajesh et al.

heat transfer. Vajravelu [2] analysed the hydromagnetic convective flow in detail for
a continuous moving surface. Other pertinent studies subject to MHD were inspected
by Rajesh et al. [3, 4]. MHD effects on the flow with several cases were presented by
Sarma [5] and Sambath [6]. Other admissible investigations to nanofluid were scru-
tinized by Rajesh et al. [7–10]. The next-generation nanofluids are hybrid nanofluids
obtained by dispersing a homogenous (or non-homogenous) mixture of composite
nanopowder of several nanoparticles in one or more base fluids. Hybridization of
nanoparticles yields new chemical and physical bonds, making hybrid nanofluids
offer better heat transfer performance and thermophysical properties than conven-
tional heat transfer fluids and nanofluids with single nanoparticles. Hybrid nanofluids
have many applications in almost all heat transfer fields, such as nuclear cooling,
microelectronics, microfluidics, transportation, manufacturing, medical, defence,
acoustics, naval structures propulsion, solar energy conservation system, pasteuriza-
tion, medical, and drug decrease. Numerical evaluation of hybrid nanofluids based
on Al2 O3 , TiO2 , and SiO2 nanoparticles with different approaches was presented
by Minea [11]. Numerically, Sahoo et al. [12] reported that the hybrid nanofluids
were used as radiator coolant and Al2 O3 + Ag/water-based hybrid nanofluid had high
efficiency. Anjali Devi and Surya Uma Devi [13] numerically investigated hydro-
magnetic hybrid Cu-Al2 O3 /water nanofluid flow over a permeable stretching sheet
with suction. Moldoveanu et al. [14] prepared the Al2 O3 − SiO2 nanofluids and
their hybrid. They measured the hybrid nanofluid viscosity variation with temper-
ature. They found that increasing the temperature reduced the viscosity of hybrid
nanofluid. Moldoveanu et al. [15] presented an experimental study on the viscosity
of stabilized Al2 O3 , TiO2 nanofluids, and their hybrid. Ghadikolaeia and Gholiniab
[16] investigated 3D mixed convection MHD flow of GO–MoS2 hybrid nanoparti-
cles in H2 O–(CH2 OH)2 hybrid base fluid under the effect of H2 bond. Few other
imperative scrutinies on nano and hybrid nanofluid flow problems are prospected
[17–23].
This paper highlights unsteady natural convection 2D hydromagnetic flow and
heat transfer of hybrid nanofluid past a moving vertical plate. Hybrid nanofluid is
considered by suspending two different nanoparticles Cu and Al2 O3 in water. This
study may be viewed as an extension of Rajesh et al. [8]. The novelties compared
to Rajesh et al. [8] are (i) advanced type of nanofluid called hybrid nanofluid (Cu-
Al2O3) is considered and (ii) effects of thermal radiation is introduced. The control-
ling equations with boundary conditions are solved by the implicit finite difference
method. Numerical study of Cu−Al2 O3 /water hybrid nanofluid flow comparing with
single nanoparticle Cu-water nanofluid is provided in terms of magnetic parameter
(M), radiation parameter (N ), Grashof number (Gr), and nanoparticle volume frac-
tion (δ2 ), on the coefficient of skin friction, velocity, Nusselt number, and temperature
profiles.
Effects of MHD and Thermal Radiation … 23

2 Formulation of the Problem

In this article, a Cartesian coordinate system (x ∗ , y ∗ ) is taken such that x ∗ —coor-

dinate is along with the plate, and y ∗ —coordinate is normal to the plate. In the
∗
beginning, both the plate and fluid are at rest at free stream temperature θ∞ for all
∗ ∗
t ≤ 0. Subsequently, at a time t > 0, the plate moves with invariable velocity
u ∗10 . Plate temperature is elevated to θ ∗ = θw∗ . A magnetic field of uniform strength
B0 is considered to act in the y ∗ −axis direction, and the consequence of an induced
magnetic field is negligible, which is reasonable when the magnetic Reynolds number
is small. The viscous dissipation, Ohmic heating, ionslip, and Hall effects are assumed
to be negligible. We have premeditated copper (Cu) and aluminium oxide (Al2 O3 )
nano-size particles with a base fluid as water in the present study. In this model, a
copper nanoparticle is initially scattered into the base fluid with 0.1 vol. solid volume
fraction (i.e. δ1 = 0.1, which is fixed throughout the problem) to make nanofluid
Cu − H2 O. To develop the targeted hybrid nanofluid Cu − Al2 O3 /water, aluminium
oxide nanoparticle with different volume fraction is dispersed in nanofluid Cu/water.
Under the above assumptions, we adopt Tiwari and Das [24] nanofluid model and
Boussinesq approximation (Schlichting and Gersten, [25]) in this flow. The consti-
tutive controlling boundary layer equations of the hybrid nanofluid flow and heat
transfer are as follows (Fig. 1):

∂u ∗1 ∂u ∗
∗
+ ∗2 = 0. (1)
∂x ∂y

Fig. 1 Physical model and coordinate system

24 V. Rajesh et al.

 ∗
∂u ∗1 ∗ ∂u 1
∗
∗ ∂u 1
ρhnf + u1 ∗ + u2 ∗
∂t ∗ ∂x ∂y
∂ u 2 ∗  
= μhnf ∗21 + (ρβ)hnf g θ ∗ − θ∞ ∗
− σhnf B02 u ∗1 . (2)
∂y
 ∗ ∗
  ∂θ ∗ ∂θ
∗
∗ ∂θ ∂ 2θ ∗ ∂q ∗
ρC p hnf ∗
+ u ∗
+ u ∗
= κhnf ∗2 − R∗ . (3)
∂t 1
∂x 2
∂y ∂y ∂y

where q R∗ is radiative heat flux and it is defined as

4σs ∂θ ∗
4

q R∗ =− . (4)
3ke ∂ y ∗

Here, σs and ke denote the coefficient of absorption and Stefan–Boltzmann

constant, respectively. By applying Rosseland approximation, we confined our anal-
ysis to optically thick nanofluids. If differences of temperature within the flow are
small, such that θ ∗ may be expressed as a linear function of the temperature, applying
4

Taylor’s series for θ ∗ about θ∞

∗
4
, after neglecting higher-order terms as:

θ∗ ∼ ∗3 ∗ ∗4
4
= 4θ∞ θ − 3θ∞ . (5)

Then, we obtain
 ∗ 3
∂q R∗ 16σs θ∞ ∂ 2θ ∗
∗
=− . (6)
∂y 3ke ∂ y ∗2

On considering Eqs. (4–6), Eq. (3) becomes

 ∗ ∗
  ∂θ ∗ ∂θ
∗
∗ ∂θ
ρC p hnf + u1 ∗ + u2 ∗
∂t ∗ ∂x ∂y
 ∗ 3
2 ∗ 16σs θ∞ ∂ θ ∗
∂ θ 2
= κhnf ∗2 + . (7)
∂y 3ke ∂ y ∗2

The relevant conditions are as follows:

t ∗ ≤ 0 : u ∗1 = 0, u ∗2 = 0, θ ∗ = θ∞
∗
for all x ∗ and y ∗ .
∗ ∗ ∗
t > 0 : u 1 = u 10 , u 2 = 0, θ = θw∗
∗ ∗
at y ∗ = 0.
(8)
u ∗1 = 0, θ ∗ = θ∞
∗
at x ∗ = 0.
∗ ∗ ∗
u 1 → 0, θ = θ∞ as y ∗ → ∞.

The fundamental thermal parameters of hybrid nanoliquid, namely density ρ hnf ,

dynamic viscosity μhnf , heat capacity (ρC p )hnf , heat expansion coefficient (ρβ)hnf ,
heat conductivity κ hnf , and electrical conductivity σ hnf are stated in Table 1. Thermal
Effects of MHD and Thermal Radiation … 25

Table 1 Thermophysical properties of Cu − Al2 O3 /water

Property Hybrid nanofluid (Cu − Al2 O3 /water)
Density ρhnf = [(1 − δ2 ){(1 − δ1 )ρ f + δ1 ρs1 }] + δ2 ρs2
μf
Dynamic viscosity μhnf =
(1−δ1 )2.5 (1−δ2 )2.5
Heat capacity (ρC P )hnf =
[(1 − δ2 ){(1 − δ1 )(ρC P ) f + δ1 (ρC P )s1 }] + δ2 (ρC P )s2
Thermal expansion coefficient (ρβ)hnf = [(1 − δ2 ){(1 − δ1 )(ρβ) f + δ1 (ρβ)s1 }] + δ2 (ρβ)s2
Thermal conductivity κhnf = κbf κs2 +(n 1 −1)κbf −(n 1 −1)δ2 (κbf −κs2 )
κs2 +(n 1 −1)κbf +δ2 (κbf −κs2 ) , where
κs1 +(n 1 −1)κ f −(n 1 −1)δ1 (κ f −κs1 )
κbf = κ f κs1 +(n 1 −1)κ f +δ1 (κ f −κs1 )
 
Electrical conductivity σhnf = σbf σσs2s2(1+2δ 2 )+2σbf (1−δ2 )
(1−δ2 )+σbf (2+δ2 ) , where
 
σ (1+2δ )+2σ f (1−δ1 )
σbf = σ f σs1s1 (1−δ11 )+σ f (2+δ 1)

Table 2 Thermophysical properties of water and nanoparticles

 
ρ kg/m3 C p (J/kgK) κ(W/mK) σ (s/m) β(1/K)
H2 O (f ) 997.1 4179 0.613 5.5 × 10−6 21 × 10−5
Cu (s1) 8933 385 401 59.6 × 106 1.67 × 10−5
Al2 O3 (s2) 3970 765 40 35 × 106 0.85 × 10−5

characteristics of water and nanoparticles are presented in Table 2.

The relevant dimensionless variables and parameters are as follows:

x ∗ u ∗10 y ∗ u ∗10 t ∗ u ∗10

2
x∗ y∗ u∗
x= = ,y= = ,t= , u 1 = ∗1 ,
νf L ref νf L ref νf u 10
∗
 ∗ ∗

∗ ∗ ν f gβ f θw − θ∞
u θ − θ∞ νf
u 2 = ∗2 , θ = ∗ ∗
, Gr = , Pr = ,
u 10 θw − θ∞ ∗
u 10
3
αf
k f ke σ f B02 ν f
N= ∗3
, M= . (9)
4σs θ∞ ρ f u 210

After non-dimensionlization, Eqs (1), (2), and (7) become

∂u 1 ∂u 2
+ = 0. (10)
∂x ∂y

∂u 1 ∂u 1 ∂u 1 A2 ∂ 2 u 1 A3 A4
+ u1 + u2 = + Grθ − Mu1 . (11)
∂t ∂x ∂y A1 ∂ y 2 A1 A1

∂θ ∂θ ∂θ 1 A6 ∂ 2 θ 4 ∂ 2θ
+ u1 + u2 = + . (12)
∂t ∂x ∂y Pr A5 ∂ y 2 3N Pr A5 ∂ y 2
26 V. Rajesh et al.

With initial and boundary conditions:

t ≤ 0 : u1 = 0, u 2 = 0, θ = 0 for all x and y.

t > 0 : u1 = 1, u 2 = 0, θ = 1 at y = 0.
(13)
u1 = 0, θ =0 at x = 0.
u1 → 0, θ →0 as y → ∞.

where
  
ρs ρs
A1 = (1 − δ2 ) (1 − δ1 ) + δ1 1 + δ2 2 .
ρf ρf
1
A2 = .
(1 − δ1 )2.5 (1 − δ2 )2.5

(ρβ)s1 (ρβ)s2
A3 = (1 − δ2 ) (1 − δ1 ) + δ1 + δ2.
(ρβ) f (ρβ) f
 
σb f σs2 (1 + 2δ2 ) + 2σb f (1 − δ2 )
A4 = .
σf σs2 (1 − δ2 ) + σb f (2 + δ2 )
   
ρC p s1 ρC p s2
A5 = (1 − δ2 ) (1 − δ1 ) + δ1   + δ2   .
ρC p f ρC p f
  
κb f κs2 + (n 1 − 1)κb f − (n 1 − 1)δ2 κb f − κs2
A6 =    .
κf κs2 + (n 1 − 1)κb f + δ2 κb f − κs2

The analytical solution of Eq. (12) in the absence of inertial terms and radiation
parameter, subject to the boundary conditions (13) by using the Laplace transform
method, is given by
⎡ √ ⎤
y Pr ⎦
θ = erfc⎣  . (14)
2 AA65 t

The most important physical quantities which are defined on the wall are C f and
Nu as mentioned below:
τw qw L ref
Cf = , Nu =  . (15)
ρ f u ∗10 κ f θw∗ − θ∞ ∗
2

Here, τw denotes skin friction (shear stress) and qw means heat flux (rate of heat
transfer) as:
Effects of MHD and Thermal Radiation … 27
   
∂u ∗1 ∂θ ∗
τw = μhnf , qw = −κhnf . (16)
∂ y∗ y ∗ =0 ∂ y∗ y ∗ =0

Applying dimensionless variables defined in (9), we get

the dimensionless form of
 
1 ∂u 1
Cf = . (17)
(1 − δ1 )2.5 (1 − δ2 )2.5 ∂ y y=0

and the dimensionless form of

 
κhnf ∂θ
Nu = − . (18)
κ f ∂ y y=0

3 Numerical Technique

The prevailing set of partial differential Eqs. (10)–(12), together with the boundary
conditions (13), are untangled by Crank–Nicolson type finite difference numerical
procedure. The analogous finite difference equations are as follows:
⎡ ⎤
n+1 n+1 n n n+1 n+1 n n
⎣
(u 1 )i, j − (u 1 )i−1, j + (u 1 )i, j − (u 1 )i−1, j + (u 1 )i, j−1 − (u 1 )i−1, j−1 + (u 1 )i, j−1 − (u 1 )i−1, j−1 ⎦
4 x
⎡ ⎤
n+1 − n+1 + n n
(u 2 )i, j (u 2 )i, j−1 (u 2 )i, j − (u 2 )i, j−1
+⎣ ⎦ = 0. (19)
2 y

j − (u 1 )i, j
(u 1 )i,n+1 j − (u 1 )i−1, j + (u 1 )i, j − (u 1 )i−1, j
(u 1 )i,n+1
n n+1 n n
+ (u 1 )i,n j
t 2 x
(u 1 )i,n+1
j+1 − (u 1 )i,n+1
j−1 + (u 1 )i,n j+1 − (u 1 )i,n j−1
+ (u 2 )i,n j
4 y

A3 Gr n+1 
= θ + θi,n j
A1 2 i, j
A2 (u 1 )i, j−1 − 2(u 1 )i, j + (u 1 )i, j+1 + (u 1 )i, j−1 − 2(u 1 )i, j + (u 1 )i, j+1
n+1 n+1 n+1 n n n
+
A1 2( y)2
A4 M  
− (u 1 )i,n+1
j + (u 1 ) n
i, j . (20)
A1 2
⎡ ⎤
θi,n+1 − θ n θi,n+1
j − θi−1,
n+1
j + θi,n j − θi−1,
n
j
+ (u 1 )i,n j ⎣ ⎦
j i, j
t 2 x
28 V. Rajesh et al.

θi,n+1
j+1 − θi, j−1 + θi, j+1 − θi, j−1
n+1 n n
+ (u 2 )i,n j
4 y
  n+1
1 A6 4 θi, j−1 − 2θi,n+1
j + θi, j+1 + θi, j−1 − 2θi, j + θi, j+1
n+1 n n n
= + .
Pr A5 3N Pr A5 2( y)2
(21)

The above equations are solved for the numerical solutions of temperature and
velocity portraits via the Thomas algorithm [26]. Details of the method of solving
difference equations, including stability and convergence, have been presented by
Soundalgekar and Ganesan [27], Muthukumaraswamy and Ganesan [28], Ganesan
and Rani [29], and Ramachandra Prasad et al. [30]. A grid-independent test has been
conducted to obtain an economical and reliable grid system for the computations,
which is presented in Fig. 2. The step sizes in x and y directions x = 0.05 and
y = 0.25 were noted to give accurate results. Also, the time step size dependency
has been carried out, from which t = 0.01 was found to give a reliable result.
To ensure the correctness of the computational data, the temperature patterns of this
research when δ2 = 0 and in the absence of radiation parameter are compared with the
analytical solution presented by Eq. (14) in Fig. 3a and established to be in excellent
agreement. Further, the velocity patterns of this research when Gr = 2, Pr = 6.2, δ1
= 0, δ2 = 0, and in the absence of magnetic and radiation parameters are compared
with Soundalgekar [31] in Fig. 3b and proved to be in excellent agreement. This
authenticates that the present computational technique is fit for this type of problem.

Fig. 2 The mesh independence analysis for velocity and temperature patterns
Effects of MHD and Thermal Radiation … 29

Fig. 3 a Validation of the code with analytical data for temperature b Validation of the code with
Soundalgekar [31]

4 Results and Discussion

To comprehend the physics of the current problem, the impact of various relevant
parameters on the velocity, temperature, Nusselt number, and skin friction are anal-
ysed through graphs 4–23. In this scrutiny, the default values of the parameters are
set as M = 2, Pr = 6.2, Gr = 5, δ1 = 0.1, δ2 = 0.04, X = 1, N = 3, t = 1 unless
otherwise defined.
30 V. Rajesh et al.

The corollary of M over the velocity and temperature distributions is enlight-

ened in Figs. 4 and 5 for both nanofluid and hybrid nanofluid. As the magnetic
field strength increases, the retarding force increases. Consequently, the velocity
decreases along with the momentum boundary layer thickness, but this is contrary
in the temperature profile case. The presence of a transverse magnetic field creates
Lorentz force, which arises from the magnetic field and electric field interaction

Fig. 4 The analogy of M on velocity field

Fig. 5 The analogy of M on temperature field

Effects of MHD and Thermal Radiation … 31

during the motion of an electrically conducting fluid, which tends to suppress the
velocity and enhance the temperature field. Figures 6 and 7 are drawn to witness
the consequence of M on the skin friction coefficient and Nusselt number. Figures
show that both skin friction coefficient and Nusselt number shrink with increasing
M for both nanofluid and hybrid nanofluid cases. The consequence of Gr on the

Fig. 6 The analogy of M on skin friction coefficient

Fig. 7 The analogy of M on Nusselt number

32 V. Rajesh et al.

velocity and temperature profiles is elucidated in Figs. 8 and 9. It is observed that

as the thermal Grashof number increases, the velocity profiles increase. However,
the reverse trend is observed in the temperature profile in Fig. 9 for both the fluids,
because Gr is the ratio of thermal buoyancy force to viscous hydrodynamic force
in the boundary layer. The skin friction coefficient and Nusselt number are raising
functions of Gr for both the nano and hybrid nanofluids, presented in Figs. 10 and

Fig. 8 The analogy of Gr on velocity field

Fig. 9 The analogy of Gr on temperature field

Effects of MHD and Thermal Radiation … 33

Fig. 10 The analogy of Gr on skin friction coefficient

11.
Figure 12 explicates that velocity is decreasing with increasing values of radiation
parameter N for both the fluids. The radiation parameter versus temperature profile
graph is given in Fig. 13. The nature of its curves shows that there is a decrease in
temperature profiles with an increase in radiation parameter. Figure 14 is depicted to

Fig. 11 The analogy of Gr on Nusselt number

34 V. Rajesh et al.

Fig. 12 The analogy of N on velocity field

Fig. 13 The analogy of N on temperature field

explore the effect of the radiation parameter N on the skin friction profile for both
the fluids; the skin friction coefficient is a declining radiation parameter function.
Figure 15 explicates that Nusselt number is an increasing function of the radia-
tion parameter for both the fluids. We can make out from Fig. 16 that velocity is
a decreasing function of nanoparticle volume fraction near the plate. This effect is
reversed away from the plate for both the nanofluids. The temperature distribution for
Effects of MHD and Thermal Radiation … 35

Fig. 14 The analogy of N on skin friction coefficient

Fig. 15 The analogy of N on Nusselt number

nanoparticle volume fraction for both the fluids is shown in Fig. 17. Physically, the
nanoparticles dissipate energy in the form of heat. Simultaneously adding up more
nanoparticles may decelerate the flow field and exert more energy, enhancing the
temperature and thickening the thermal boundary layer. An increase in solid volume
fraction decelerates the flow velocity near the plate, reducing the skin friction for
36 V. Rajesh et al.

Fig. 16 The analogy of δ2 on velocity field

Fig. 17 The analogy of δ2 on temperature field

both nanofluid and hybrid nanofluid, depicted in Fig. 18. It is explored in Fig. 19 that
Nusselt number is increasing with nanoparticle volume fraction for both the fluids.
The non-dimensional heat transfer rate through Cu−Al2 O3 −H2 O is higher than that
of Cu − H2 O. It is expounded in Figs. 20, 21, 22, and 23 that both the velocity and
temperature profiles and their boundary thicknesses increase with time t for both
Effects of MHD and Thermal Radiation … 37

Fig. 18 The analogy of δ2 on skin friction coefficient

Fig. 19 The analogy of δ2 on Nusselt number

the fluids. Further, the skin friction coefficient increases, and the Nusselt number
declines with time t for both the fluids.
38 V. Rajesh et al.

Fig. 20 The analogy of t on velocity field

Fig. 21 The analogy of t on temperature field

5 Conclusions

In this study, impacts of vital parameters, namely magnetic parameter, radiation

parameter, Grashof number, and nanoparticle volume fraction, are analysed on the
unsteady free convective flow of a hybrid nanofluid past a moving vertical plate.
Effects of MHD and Thermal Radiation … 39

Fig. 22 The analogy of t on skin friction coefficient

Fig. 23 The analogy of t on Nusselt number

The PDEs modelling the flow are solved using a robust finite difference numerical
method. The outcomes of the study are precised as underneath.
1. With an increase in M, velocity profiles, skin friction coefficient, and Nusselt
number decrease while the temperature rises with M for both nano and hybrid
nanofluids.
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 [Listen]

A boat approaches. In it Barnaba brings Laura to Enzo. There is a

rapturous greeting. They are to sail away as soon as the setting of
the moon will enable the ship to depart undetected. There is distant
singing. Enzo goes below. Laura kneels before the shrine and prays,
"Stella del marinar! Vergine santa!" (Star of the mariner! Virgin most
holy).
Gioconda steals on board and confronts her rival. The duet between
the two women, who love Enzo, and in which each defies the other,
"L'amo come il fulgor del creato" (I adore him as the light of
creation), is the most dramatic number in the score.

[Listen]
 Copyright photo by Dupont

Caruso as Enzo in “La Gioconda”

 Copyright photo by Dupont

Louise Homer as Laura in “La Gioconda”

Gioconda is about to stab Laura, but stops suddenly and, seizing her
with one hand, points with the other out over the lagoon, where a
boat bearing Alvise and his armed followers is seen approaching.
Laura implores the Virgin for aid. In doing so she lifts up the rosary
given to her by La Cieca. Through it Gioconda recognizes in Laura
the masked lady who saved her mother from the vengeance of the
mob. Swiftly the girl summons the boat of two friendly boatmen who
have brought her thither, and bids Laura make good her escape.
When Barnaba enters, his prey has evaded him. Gioconda has saved
her. Barnaba hurries back to Alvise's galley, and, pointing to the
fugitive boat in the distance, bids the galley start in pursuit.
Enzo comes on deck. Instead of Laura he finds Gioconda. There is a
dramatic scene between them. Venetian galleys are seen
approaching. Rather than that his vessel shall be captured by them,
Enzo sets fire to it.
Act III. "The House of Gold." A room in Alvise's house. Alvise sings
of the vengeance he will wreak upon Laura for her betrayal of his
honour. "Sì! morir ella de'" (Yes, to die is her doom).
He summons Laura. Nocturnal serenaders are heard singing without,
as they wend their way in gondolas along the canal. Alvise draws the
curtains from before a doorway and points to a funeral bier erected
in the chamber beyond. To Laura he hands a vial of swift poison.
She must drain it before the last note of the serenade they now hear
has died away. He will leave her. The chorus ended, he will return to
find her dead.
When he has gone, Gioconda, who, anticipating the fate that might
befall the woman who has saved her mother, has been in hiding in
the palace, hastens to Laura, and hands her a flask containing a
narcotic that will create the semblance of death. Laura drinks it, and
disappears through the curtains into the funeral chamber. Gioconda
pours the poison from the vial into her own flask, and leaves the
empty vial on the table.
The serenade ceases. Alvise re-entering, sees the empty vial on the
table. He enters the funeral apartment for a brief moment. Laura is
lying as one dead upon the bier. He believes that he has been
obeyed and that Laura has drained the vial of poison.
The scene changes to a great hall in Alvise's house, where he is
receiving his guests. Here occurs the "Dance of the Hours," a ballet
suite which, in costume changes, light effects and choreography
represents the hours of dawn, day, evening, and night. It is also
intended to symbolize, in its mimic action, the eternal struggle
between the powers of darkness and light.
Barnaba enters, dragging in with him La Cieca, whom he has found
concealed in the house. Enzo also has managed to gain admittance.
La Cieca, questioned as to her purpose in the House of Gold,
answers, "For her, just dead, I prayed." A hush falls upon the fête.
The passing bell for the dead is heard slowly tolling. "For whom?"
asks Enzo of Barnaba. "For Laura," is the reply. The guests shudder.
"D'un vampiro fatal l'ala fredda passò" (As if over our brows a
vampire's wing had passed), chants the chorus. "Già ti vedo immota
e smorta" (I behold thee motionless and pallid), sings Enzo.
Barnaba, Gioconda, La Cieca, and Alvise add their voices to an
ensemble of great power. Alvise draws back the curtains of the
funeral chamber, which also gives upon the festival hall. He points to
Laura extended upon the bier. Enzo, brandishing a poniard, rushes
upon Alvise, but is seized by guards.
Act IV. "The Orfano Canal." The vestibule of a ruined palace on the
island of Giudecca. In the right-hand corner an opened screen,
behind which is a bed. Large porch at back, through which are seen
the lagoon, and, in the distance, the square of Saint Mark, brilliantly
illuminated. A picture of the Virgin and a crucifix hang against the
wall. Table and couch; on the table a lamp and a lighted lantern; the
flask of poison and a dagger. On a couch are various articles of mock
jewelry belonging to Gioconda.
On the right of the scene a long, dimly lighted street. From the end
two men advance, carrying in their arms Laura, who is enveloped in
a black cloak. The two cantori (street singers) knock at the door. It is
opened by Gioconda, who motions them to place their burden upon
the couch behind the screen. As they go, she pleads with them to
search for her mother, whom she has not been able to find since the
scene in the House of Gold.
She is alone. Her love for Enzo, greater than her jealousy of Laura,
has prompted her to promise Barnaba that she will give herself to
him, if he will aid Enzo to escape from prison and guide him to the
Orfano Canal. Now, however, despair seizes her. In a dramatic
soliloquy—a "terrible song," it has been called—she invokes suicide.
"Suicidio! ... in questi fieri momenti tu sol mi resti" (Aye, suicide, the
sole resource now left me). For a moment she even thinks of
carrying out Alvise's vengeance by stabbing Laura and throwing her
body into the water—"for deep is yon lagoon."
Through the night a gondolier's voice calls in the distance over the
water: "Ho! gondolier! hast thou any fresh tidings?" Another voice,
also distant: "In the Orfano Canal there are corpses."
In despair Gioconda throws herself down weeping near the table.
Enzo enters. In a tense scene Gioconda excites his rage by telling
him that she has had Laura's body removed from the burial vault
and that he will not find it there. He seizes her. His poniard already is
poised for the thrust. Hers—so she hopes—is to be the ecstacy of
dying by his hand!
At that moment, however, the voice of Laura, who is coming out of
the narcotic, calls, "Enzo!" He rushes to her, and embraces her. In
the distance is heard a chorus singing a serenade. It is the same
song, before the end of which Alvise had bidden Laura drain the
poison. Both Laura and Enzo now pour out words of gratitude to
Gioconda. The girl has provided everything for flight. A boat,
propelled by two of her friends, is ready to convey them to a barque,
which awaits them. What a blessing, after all, the rosary, bestowed
upon the queenly Laura by an old blind woman has proved to be.
"Che vedo là! Il rosario!" (What see I there! 'Tis the rosary!) Thus
sings Gioconda, while Enzo and Laura voice their thanks: "Sulle tue
mani l'anima tutta stempriamo in pianto" (Upon thy hands thy
generous tears of sympathy are falling). The scene works up to a
powerful climax.
Once more Gioconda is alone. The thought of her compact with
Barnaba comes over her. She starts to flee the spot, when the spy
himself appears in the doorway. Pretending that she wishes to adorn
herself for him, she begins putting on the mock jewelry, and,
utilizing the opportunity that brings her near the table, seizes the
dagger that is lying on it.
"Gioconda is thine!" she cries, facing Barnaba, then stabs herself to
the heart.
Bending over the prostrate form, the spy furiously shouts into her
ear, "Last night thy mother did offend me. I have strangled her!" But
no one hears him. La Gioconda is dead. With a cry of rage, he
rushes down the street.
 French Opera

G LUCK, Wagner, and Verdi each closed an epoch. In Gluck there

culminated the pre-Mozartean school. In Mozart two streams of
opera found their source. "Don Giovanni" and "Le Nozze di Figaro"
were inspirations to Rossini, to whom, in due course of development,
varied by individual characteristics, there succeeded Bellini,
Donizetti, and Verdi.
The second stream of opera which found its source in Mozart was
German. The score of "Die Zauberflöte" showed how successfully the
rich vein of popular melody, or folk music, could be worked for the
lyric stage. The hint was taken by Weber, from whom, in the course
of gradual development, there derived Richard Wagner.
Meanwhile, however, there was another development which came
direct from Gluck. His "Iphigénie en Aulide," "Orphée et Eurydice,"
"Alceste," and "Armide" were produced at the Académie Royale de
Musique, founded by Lully in 1672, and now the Grand Opéra, Paris.
They contributed materially to the development of French grand
opera, which derives from Gluck, as well as from Lully (pp. 1, 4, and
6), and Rameau (p. 1). French opera also was sensibly influenced,
and its development in the serious manner furthered, by one of the
most learned of composers, Luigi Cherubini, for six years professor
of composition and for twenty years thereafter (1821-1841) director
of the Paris Conservatoire and at one time widely known as the
composer of the operas "Les Deux Journées" (Paris, 1800; London,
as "The Water-carrier," 1801); and "Faniska," Vienna, 1806.
To the brief statement regarding French grand opera on p. 2, I may
add, also briefly, that manner as well as matter is a characteristic of
all French art. The Frenchman is not satisfied with what he says,
unless he says it in the best possible manner or style. Thus, while
Italian composers long were contented with an instrumental
accompaniment that simply did not interfere with the voice, the
French always have sought to enrich and beautify what is sung, by
the instrumental accompaniment with which they have supported
and environed it. In its seriousness of purpose, and in the care with
which it strives to preserve the proper balance between the vocal
and orchestral portions of the score, French opera shows most
clearly its indebtedness to Gluck, and, after him, to Cherubini. It is a
beautiful form of operatic art.
In the restricted sense of the repertoire in this country, French grand
opera means Meyerbeer, Gounod, Bizet, and Massenet. In fact it is a
question if, popularly speaking, we draw the line at all between
French and Italian grand opera, since, both being Latin, they are
sister arts, and quite distinct from the German school.
Having traced opera in Germany from Gluck to Wagner, and in Italy
from Rossini to Verdi, I now turn to opera in France from Meyerbeer
and a few predecessors to Bizet.
 Méhul to Meyerbeer

C ERTAIN early French operas still are in the Continental repertoire,

although they may be said to have completely disappeared here.
They are of sufficient significance to be referred to in this book.
The pianoforte pupils abroad are few who, in the course of their first
years of instruction, fail to receive a potpourri of the three-act opera
"Joseph" (Joseph in Egypt), by Étienne Nicholas Méhul (1763-1817).
The score is chaste and restrained. The principal air for Joseph
(tenor), "À peine au sortir de l'enfance" (Whilst yet in tender
childhood), and the prayer for male voice, "Dieu d'Israel" (Oh, God
of Israel), are the best-known portions of the score. In constructing
the libretto Alexander Duval followed the Biblical story. When the
work opens, not only has the sale of Joseph by his brethren taken
place, but the young Jew has risen to high office. Rôles, besides
Joseph, are Jacob (bass), Siméon (baritone), Benjamin (soprano),
Utobal, Joseph's confidant (bass). "Joseph en Egypte" was produced
at the Théâtre Feydeau, Paris, February 17, 1808.
"Le Calife de Bagdad," "Jean de Paris," and "La Dame Blanche" (The
White Lady), by François Adrien Boieldieu (1775-1834), are still
known by their graceful overtures. In "La Dame Blanche" the
composer has used the song of "Robin Adair," the scene of the opera
being laid in Scotland, and drawn by Scribe from Scott's novels, "The
Monastery" and "Guy Mannering." George Brown was a favorite rôle
with Wachtel. He sang it in this country. The graceful invocation to
the white lady was especially well suited to his voice. "La Dame
Blanche" was produced at the Opéra Comique, Paris, December 10,
1825.
Boieldieu's music is light and graceful, in perfect French taste, and
full of charm. It has the spirit of comedy and no doubt helped
develop the comic vein in the lighter scores of Daniel François Esprit
Auber (1782-1871). But in his greatest work, "Masaniello," the
French title of which is "La Muette de Portici" (The Dumb Girl of
Portici), Auber is, musically, a descendant of Méhul. The libretto is by
Scribe and Delavigne. The work was produced in Paris, February 29,
1828. It is one of the foundation stones of French grand opera.
Eschewing vocal ornament merely as such, and introducing it only
when called for by the portrayal of character, the emotion to be
expressed, or the situation devised by the librettist, it is largely due
to its development from this work of Auber's that French opera has
occupied for so long a time the middle ground between Italian opera
with its frank supremacy of voice on the one hand, and German
opera with its solicitude for instrumental effects on the other.
The story of "Masaniello" is laid in 1647, in and near Naples. It deals
with an uprising of the populace led by Masaniello. He is inspired
thereto both by the wrongs the people have suffered and by his
sister Fenella's betrayal by Alfonso, Spanish viceroy of Naples. The
revolution fails, its leader loses his mind and is killed, and, during an
eruption of Vesuvius, Fenella casts herself into the sea. Fenella is
dumb. Her rôle is taken by a pantomimist, usually the prima
ballerina.
Greatly admired by musicians though the score be, "Masaniello's"
hold upon the repertory long has been precarious. I doubt if it has
been given in this country upon any scale of significance since the
earliest days of opera in German at the Metropolitan, when Dr.
Leopold Damrosch revived it with Anton Schott in the title rôle. Even
then it was difficult to imagine that, when "Masaniello" was played in
Brussels, in 1830, the scene of the uprising so excited the people
that they drove the Dutch out of Belgium, which had been joined to
Holland by the Congress of Vienna. The best-known musical number
in the opera is the "Air du Sommeil" (Slumber-song) sung by
Masaniello to Fenella in the fourth act.
Auber composed many successful operas in the vein of comedy. His
"Fra Diavolo" long was popular. Its libretto by Scribe is amusing, the
score sparkling. Fra Diavolo's death can be made a sensational piece
of acting, if the tenor knows how to take a fall down the wooden
runway among the canvas rocks, over which the dashing bandit—the
villain of the piece—is attempting to escape, when shot.
"Fra Diavolo" was given here with considerable frequency at one
time. But in a country where opéra comique (in the French sense of
the term) has ceased to exist, it has no place. We swing from one
extreme to the other—from grand opera, with brilliant accessories,
to musical comedy, with all its slap-dash. The sunlit middle road of
opéra comique we have ceased to tread.
Two other works, once of considerable popularity, also have
disappeared from our stage. The overture to "Zampa," by Louis J.F.
Hérold (1791-1833) still is played; the opera no more. It was
produced in Paris May 3, 1831. The libretto, by Mélésville, is based
on the old tale of "The Statue Bride."
The high tenor rôle of Chappelou in "Le Postillon de Longjumeau,"
by Adolphe Charles Adam (1802-1856), with its postillion song, "Ho!
ho!—Ho! ho!—Postillion of Longjumeau!" was made famous by
Theodore Wachtel, who himself was a postillion before his voice was
discovered by patrons of his father's stable, with whom he chanced
to join in singing quartet. It was he who introduced the rhythmic
cracking of the whip in the postillion's song. Wachtel sang the rôle in
this country in the season of 1871-72, at the Stadt Theatre, and in
1875-76 at the Academy of Music. Then, having accumulated a
fortune, chiefly out of the "Postillon," in which he sang more than
1200 times, he practically retired, accepting no fixed engagements.
During the Metropolitan Opera House season of 1884-85, Dr.
Leopold Damrosch revived, in German, "La Juive," a five-act opera
by Jacques François Fromental Élie Halévy (1799-1862), the libretto
by Scribe. Materna was the Jewess, Rachel (in German Recha). I
cannot recall any production of the work here since then, and a
considerable period had elapsed since its previous performance here.
It had its première in Paris, February 23, 1835. Meyerbeer's "Robert
le Diable" had been produced in 1831. Nevertheless "La Juive"
scored a triumph. But with the production of Meyerbeer's "Les
Huguenots," that composer became the operatic idol of the public,
and Halévy's star paled, although musicians continued for many
years to consider "La Juive" one of the finest opera scores composed
in France; and there are many who would be glad to see an
occasional revival of this work, as well as of Auber's "Masaniello."
The libretto of "La Juive," originally written for Rossini, was rejected
by that composer for "William Tell" (see p. 312).
 Giacomo Meyerbeer
(1791-1864)

A LTHOUGH he was born in Berlin (September 5, 1791), studied

pianoforte and theory in Germany, and attained in that country a
reputation as a brilliant pianist, besides producing several operas
there, Meyerbeer is regarded as the founder of what generally is
understood as modern French grand opera. It has been said of him
that "he joined to the flowing melody of the Italians the solid
harmony of the Germans, the poignant declamation and varied,
piquant rhythm of the French"; which is a good description of the
opera that flourishes on the stage of the Académie or Grand Opéra,
Paris. The models for elaborate spectacular scenes and finales
furnished by Meyerbeer's operas have been followed ever since by
French composers; nor have they been ignored by Italians. He
understood how to write effectively for the voice, and he was the
first composer of opera who made a point of striving for tone colour
in the instrumental accompaniment. Sometimes the effect may be
too calculated, too cunningly contrived, too obviously sought for. But
what he accomplished had decided influence on the enrichment of
the instrumental score in operatic composition.
Much criticism has been directed at Meyerbeer, and much of his
music has disappeared from the stage. But such also has been the
fate of much of the music of other composers earlier than,
contemporary with, and later than he. Meyerbeer had the pick of the
great artists of his day. His works were written for and produced
with brilliant casts, and had better not be sung at all than
indifferently. His greatest work, "Les Huguenots," is still capable of
leaving a deep impression, when adequately performed.
Meyerbeer, like many other composers for the lyric stage, has
suffered much from writers who have failed to approach opera as
opera, but have written about it from the standpoint of the
symphony, with which it has nothing in common, or have looked
down upon it from the lofty heights of the music-drama, from which,
save for the fact that both are intended to be sung and acted with
scenery on a stage, it differs greatly. Opera is a highly artificial
theatrical product, and those who have employed convincingly its
sophisticated processes are not lightly to be thrust aside.
Meyerbeer came of a Jewish family. His real name was Jacob
Liebmann Beer. He prefixed "Meyer" to his patronymic at the request
of a wealthy relative who made him his heir. He was a pupil in
pianoforte of Clementi; also studied under Abbé Vogler, being a
fellow pupil of C.M. von Weber. His first operas were German. In
1815 he went to Italy and composed a series of operas in the style
of Rossini. Going to Paris in 1826, he became "immersed in the
study of French opera, from Lully onward." The first result was
"Robert le Diable" (Robert the Devil), Grand Opéra, Paris, 1831. This
was followed by "Les Huguenots," 1836; "Le Prophète," 1849;
"L'Étoile du Nord," Opéra Comique, 1854; "Dinorah, ou le Pardon de
Ploërmel" (Dinorah, or the Pardon of Ploërmel), Opéra Comique,
1859. Much of the music of "L'Étoile du Nord" came from an earlier
score, "Das Feldlager in Schlesien" (The Camp in Silesia), Berlin,
1843. Meyerbeer died May 2, 1864, in Paris, where his "L'Africaine"
was produced at the Grand Opéra in 1865.

ROBERT LE DIABLE
ROBERT THE DEVIL

Opera in five acts, by Meyerbeer; words by Scribe and

Delavigne. Produced, Grand Opéra, Paris, November
22, 1831. Drury Lane, London, February 20, 1832, in
English, as "The Demon, or the Mystic Branch"; Covent
 Garden, February 21, 1832, in English, as "The Fiend
Father, or Robert of Normandy"; King's Theatre, June
11, 1832, in French; Her Majesty's Theatre, May 4,
1847, in Italian. Park Theatre, New York, April 7, 1834,
in English, with Mrs. Wood as Isabel and Wood as
Robert, the opera being followed by a pas seul by Miss
Wheatley, and a farce, "My Uncle John"; Astor Place
Opera House, November 3, 1851, with Bettini (Robert),
Marini (Bertram), Bosio (Isabella), Steffanone (Alice);
Academy of Music, November 30, 1857, with Formes
as Bertram.
Characters

Alice, foster-sister of Robert Soprano

Isabella, Princess of Sicily Soprano
The Abbess Dancer
Robert, Duke of Normandy Tenor
Bertram, the Unknown Bass
Raimbaut, a minstrel Tenor
Time—13th Century.
Place—Sicily.
The production of "Robert le Diable" in Paris was such a sensational
success that it made the fortune of the Grand Opéra. Nourrit was
Robert, Levasseur, Bertram (the prototype of Mephistopheles); the
women of the cast were Mlle. Dorus as Alice, Mme. Cinti-Damoreau
as Isabella, and Taglioni, the famous danseuse, as the Abbess. Jenny
Lind made her début in London as Alice, in the Italian production of
the work. In New York Carl Formes was heard as Bertram at the
Astor Place Theatre, November 30, 1857.
Whatever criticism may now be directed against "Robert le Diable," it
was a remarkable creation for its day. Meyerbeer's score not only
saved the libretto, in which the grotesque is carried to the point of
absurdity, but actually made a brilliant success of the production as a
whole.
The story is legendary. Robert is the son of the arch-fiend by a
human woman. Robert's father, known as Bertram, but really the
devil, ever follows him about, and seeks to lure him to destruction.
The strain of purity in the drama is supplied by Robert's foster-sister,
Alice, who, if Bertram is the prototype of Mephistopheles in "Faust,"
may be regarded as the original of Michaela in "Carmen."
Robert, because of his evil deeds (inspired by Bertram), has been
banished from Normandy, and has come to Sicily. He has fallen in
love with Isabella, she with him. He is to attend a tournament at
which she is to award the prizes. Tempted by Bertram, he gambles
and loses all his possessions, including even his armour. These facts
are disclosed in the first act. This contains a song by Raimbaut, the
minstrel, in which he tells of Robert's misdeeds, but is saved from
the latter's fury by Alice, who is betrothed to Raimbaut, and who, in
an expressive air, pleads vainly with Robert to mend his ways and
especially to avoid Bertram, from whom she instinctively shrinks. In
the second act Robert and Isabella meet in the palace. She bestows
upon him a suit of armour to wear in the tournament. But, misled by
Bertram, he seeks his rival elsewhere than in the lists, and, by his
failure to appear there, loses his honour as a knight. In the next act,
laid in the cavern of St. Irene, occurs an orgy of evil spirits, to whose
number Bertram promises to add Robert. Next comes a scene that
verges upon the grotesque, but which is converted by Meyerbeer's
genius into something highly fantastic. This is in the ruined convent
of St. Rosalie. Bertram summons from their graves the nuns who, in
life, were unfaithful to their vows. The fiend has promised Robert
that if he will but seize a mystic cypress branch from over the grave
of St. Rosalie, and bear it away, whatever he wishes for will become
his. The ghostly nuns, led by their Abbess, dance about him. They
seek to inveigle him with gambling, drink, and love, until, dazed by
their enticements, he seizes the branch. Besides the ballet of the
nuns, there are two duets for Robert and Bertram—"Du rendezvous"
(Our meeting place), and "Le bonheur est dans l'inconstance" (Our
pleasure lies in constant change).
The first use Robert makes of the branch is to effect entrance into
Isabella's chamber. He threatens to seize her and bear her away, but
yields to her entreaties, breaks the branch, and destroys the spell. In
this act—the fourth—occurs the famous air for Isabella, "Robert, toi
que j'aime" (Robert, whom I love).
Once more Bertram seeks to make with Robert a compact, the price
for which shall be paid with his soul. But Alice, by repeating to him
the last warning words of his mother, delays the signing of the
compact until the clock strikes twelve. The spell is broken. Bertram
disappears. The cathedral doors swing open disclosing Isabella, who,
in her bridal robes, awaits Robert. The finale contains a trio for Alice,
Robert, and Bertram, which is considered one of Meyerbeer's finest
inspirations.

LES HUGUENOTS
THE HUGUENOTS

Opera in five acts; music by Meyerbeer, words by

Scribe and Deschamps. Produced, Grand Opéra, Paris,
February 29, 1836. New York, Astor Place Opera
House, June 24, 1850, with Salvi (Raoul), Coletti (de
Nevers), Setti (St. Bris), Marini (Marcel), Signorina
Bosio (Marguerite), Steffanone (Valentine), Vietti
(Urbain); Academy of Music, March 8, 1858, with La
Grange and Formes; April 30, 1872, Parepa-Rosa,
Wachtel, and Santley (St. Bris): Academy of Music,
1873, with Nilsson, Cary, Del Puente, and Campanini;
Metropolitan Opera House, beginning 1901, with Melba
or Sembrich as Marguerite de Valois, Nordica
(Valentine), Jean de Reszke (Raoul), Édouard de
 Reszke (Marcel), Plançon (St. Bris), Maurel (de
Nevers), and Mantelli (Urbain) (performances known
as "the nights of the seven stars"); Metropolitan Opera
House, 1914, with Caruso, Destinn, Hempel,
Matzenauer, Braun, and Scotti. The first performance
in America occurred April 29, 1839, in New Orleans.
Characters

Valentine, daughter of St. Bris Soprano

Marguerite de Valois, betrothed to Henry
Soprano
IV., of Navarre
Mezzo-
Urbain, page to Marguerite
Soprano
Count de St. Bris } { Baritone
Catholic noblemen
Count de Nevers } { Baritone
Cosse Tenor
Méru } { Baritone
Thore } Catholic gentlemen { Baritone
Tavannes } { Tenor
de Retz Baritone
Raoul de Nangis, a Huguenot nobleman Tenor
Marcel, a Huguenot soldier, servant to
Bass
Raoul

Catholic and Huguenot ladies, and gentlemen of the

court; soldiers, pages, citizens, and populace; night
watch, monks, and students.
Place—Touraine and Paris.
Time—August, 1572.
It has been said that, because Meyerbeer was a Jew, he chose for
two of his operas, "Les Huguenots" and "Le Prophète," subjects
dealing with bloody uprisings due to religious differences among
Christians. "Les Huguenots" is written around the massacre of the
Huguenots by the Catholics, on the night of St. Bartholomew's, Paris,
August 24, 1572; "Le Prophète" around the seizure and occupation
of Münster, in 1555, by the Anabaptists, led by John of Leyden. Even
the ballet of the spectral nuns, in "Robert le Diable," has been
suggested as due to Meyerbeer's racial origin and a tendency
covertly to attack the Christian religion. Far-fetched, I think. Most
likely his famous librettist was chiefly responsible for choice of
subjects and Meyerbeer accepted them because of the effective
manner in which they were worked out. Even so, he was not wholly
satisfied with Scribe's libretto of "Les Huguenots." He had the scene
of the benediction of the swords enlarged, and it was upon his
insistence that Deschamps wrote in the love duet in Act IV. As it
stands, the story has been handled with keen appreciation of its
dramatic possibilities.
Act I. Touraine. Count de Nevers, one of the leaders of the Catholic
party, has invited friends to a banquet at his château. Among these
is Raoul de Nangis, a Huguenot. He is accompanied by an old
retainer, the Huguenot soldier, Marcel. In the course of the fête it is
proposed that everyone shall toast his love in a song. Raoul is the
first to be called upon. The name of the beauty whom he pledges in
his toast is unknown to him. He had come to her assistance while
she was being molested by a party of students. She thanked him
most graciously. He lives in the hope of meeting her again.
Marcel is a fanatic Huguenot. Having followed his master to the
banquet, he finds him surrounded by leaders of the party belonging
to the opposite faith. He fears for the consequences. In strange
contrast to the glamour and gaiety of the festive proceedings, he
intones Luther's hymn, "A Stronghold Sure." The noblemen of the
Catholic party instead of becoming angry are amused. Marcel repays
their levity by singing a fierce Huguenot battle song. That also
amuses them.
At this point the Count de Nevers is informed that a lady is in the
garden and wishes to speak with him. He leaves his guests who,
through an open window, watch the meeting. Raoul, to his surprise
and consternation, recognizes in the lady none other than the fair
creature whom he saved from the molestations of the students and
with whom he has fallen in love. Naturally, however, from the
circumstances of her meeting with de Nevers he cannot but
conclude that a liaison exists between them.
De Nevers returns, rejoins his guests. Urbain, the page of Queen
Marguerite de Valois, enters. He is in search of Raoul, having come
to conduct him to a meeting with a gracious and noble lady whose
name, however, is not disclosed. Raoul's eyes having been
bandaged, he is conducted to a carriage and departs with Urbain,
wondering what his next adventure will be.
Act II. In the Garden of Chenonçeaux, Queen Marguerite de Valois
receives Valentine, daughter of the Count de St. Bris. The Queen
knows of her rescue from the students by Raoul. Desiring to put an
end to the differences between Huguenots and Catholics, which
have already led to bloodshed, she has conceived the idea of uniting
Valentine, daughter of one of the great Catholic leaders, to Raoul.
Valentine, however, was already pledged to de Nevers. It was at the
Queen's suggestion that she visited de Nevers and had him
summoned from the banquet in order to ask him to release her from
her engagement to him—a request which, however reluctantly, he
granted.
Here, in the Gardens of Chenonçeaux, Valentine and Raoul are,
according to the Queen's plan, to meet again, but she intends first to
receive him alone. He is brought in, the bandage is removed from
his eyes, he does homage to the Queen, and when, in the presence
of the leaders of the Catholic party, Marguerite de Valois explains her
purpose and her plan through this union of two great houses to end
the religious differences which have disturbed her reign, all consent.
Valentine is led in. Raoul at once recognizes her as the woman of his
adventure but also, alas, as the woman whom de Nevers met in the
garden during the banquet. Believing her to be unchaste, he refuses
her hand. General consternation. St. Bris, his followers, all draw their
swords. Raoul's flashes from its sheath. Only the Queen's
intervention prevents bloodshed.
Act III. The scene is an open place in Paris before a chapel, where
de Nevers, who has renewed his engagement with Valentine, is to
take her in marriage. The nuptial cortège enters the building. The
populace is restless, excited. Religious differences still are the cause
of enmity. The presence of Royalist and Huguenot soldiers adds to
the restlessness of the people. De Nevers, St. Bris, and another
Catholic nobleman, Maurevert, come out from the chapel, where
Valentine has desired to linger in prayer. The men are still incensed
over what appears to them the shameful conduct of Raoul toward
Valentine. Marcel at that moment delivers to St. Bris a challenge
from Raoul to fight a duel. When the old Huguenot soldier has
retired, the noblemen conspire together to lead Raoul into an
ambush. During the duel, followers of St. Bris, who have been
placed in hiding, are suddenly to issue forth and murder the young
Huguenot nobleman.
From a position in the vestibule of the chapel, Valentine has
overheard the plot. She still loves Raoul and him alone. How shall
she warn him of the certain death in store for him? She sees Marcel
and counsels him that his master must not come here to fight the
duel unless he is accompanied by a strong guard. As a result, when
Raoul and his antagonist meet, and St. Bris's soldiers are about to
attack the Huguenot, Marcel summons the latter's followers from a
nearby inn. A street fight between the two bodies of soldiers is
imminent, when the Queen and her suite enter. A gaily bedecked
barge comes up the river and lays to at the bank. It bears de Nevers
and his friends. He has come to convey his bride from the chapel to
his home. And now Raoul learns, from the Queen, and to his great
grief, that he has refused the hand of the woman who loved him and
who had gone to de Nevers in order to ask him to release her from
her engagement with him.
Act IV. Raoul seeks Valentine, who has become the wife of de
Nevers, in her home. He wishes to be assured of the truth of what
he has heard from the Queen. During their meeting footsteps are
heard approaching and Valentine barely has time to hide Raoul in an
adjoining room when de Nevers, St. Bris, and other noblemen of the
Catholic party enter, and form a plan to be carried out that very
night—the night of St. Bartholomew—to massacre the Huguenots.
Only de Nevers refuses to take part in the conspiracy. Rather than
do so, he yields his sword to St. Bris and is led away a prisoner. The
priests bless the swords, St. Bris and his followers swear loyalty to
the bloody cause in which they are enlisted, and depart to await the
order to put it into effect, the tolling of the great bell from St.
Germain.
Raoul comes out from his place of concealment. His one thought is
to hurry away and notify his brethren of their peril. Valentine seeks
to detain him, entreats him not to go, since it will be to certain
death. As the greatest and final argument to him to remain, she
proclaims that she loves him. But already the deep-voiced bell tolls
the signal. Flames, blood-red, flare through the windows. Nothing
can restrain Raoul from doing his duty. Valentine stands before the
closed door to block his egress. Rushing to a casement, he throws
back the window and leaps to the street.
Act V. Covered with blood, Raoul rushes into the ballroom of the
Hôtel de Nesle, where the Huguenot leaders, ignorant of the
massacre that has begun, are assembled, and summons them to
battle. Already Coligny, their great commander, has fallen. Their
followers are being massacred.
 Copyright photo by A. Dupont

Plançon as Saint Bris in “The Huguenots”

 Copyright photo by Dupont

Jean de Reszke as Raoul in “The Huguenots”

The scene changes to a Huguenot churchyard, where Raoul and

Marcel have found temporary refuge. Valentine hurries in. She
wishes to save Raoul. She adjures him to adopt her faith. De Nevers
has met a noble death and she is free—free to marry Raoul. But he
refuses to marry her at the sacrifice of his religion. Now she decides
that she will die with him and that they will both die as Huguenots
and united. Marcel blesses them. The enemy has stormed the
churchyard and begins the massacre of those who have sought
safety there and in the edifice itself. Again the scene changes, this
time to a square in Paris. Raoul, who has been severely wounded, is
supported by Marcel and Valentine. St. Bris and his followers
approach. In answer to St. Bris's summons, "Who goes there?"
Raoul, calling to his aid all the strength he has left, cries out,
"Huguenots." There is a volley. Raoul, Valentine, Marcel lie dead on
the ground. Too late St. Bris discovers that he has been the
murderer of his own daughter.
Originally in five acts, the version of "Les Huguenots" usually
performed contains but three. The first two acts are drawn into one
by converting the second act into a scene and adding it to the first.
The fifth act (or in the usual version the fourth) is nearly always
omitted. This is due to the length of the opera. The audience takes it
for granted that, when Raoul leaves Valentine, he goes to his death.
I have seen a performance of "Les Huguenots" with the last act. So
far as an understanding of the work is concerned, it is unnecessary.
It also involves as much noise and smell of gunpowder as
Massenet's opera, "La Navarraise"—and that is saying a good deal.
The performances of "Les Huguenots," during the most brilliant
revivals of that work at the Metropolitan Opera House, New York,
under Maurice Grau, were known as "les nuits de sept étoiles" (the
nights of the seven stars). The cast to which the performances owed
this designation is given in the summary above. A manager, in order
to put "Les Huguenots" satisfactorily upon the stage, should be able
to give it with seven first-rate principals, trained as nearly as possible
in the same school of opera. The work should be sung preferably in
French and by singers who know something of the traditions of the
Grand Opéra, Paris. Mixed casts of Latin and Teutonic singers mar a
performance of this work. If "Les Huguenots" appears to have fallen
off in popularity since "the nights of the seven stars," I am inclined
to attribute this to inability or failure to give the opera with a cast
either as fine or as homogeneous as that which flourished at the
Metropolitan during the era of "les nuits de sept étoiles," when there
not only were seven stars on the stage, but also seven dollars in the
box office for every orchestra stall that was occupied—and they all
were.
Auber's "Masaniello," Rossini's "William Tell," Halévy's "La Juive," and
Meyerbeer's own "Robert le Diable" practically having dropped out of
the repertoire in this country, "Les Huguenots," composed in 1836, is
the earliest opera in the French grand manner that maintains itself
on the lyric stage of America—the first example of a school of music
which, through the "Faust" of Gounod, the "Carmen" of Bizet, and
the works of Massenet, has continued to claim our attention.
After a brief overture, in which Luther's hymn is prominent, the first
act opens with a sonorous chorus for the banqueters in the salon of
de Nevers's castle. Raoul, called upon to propose in song a toast to
a lady, pledges the unknown beauty, whom he rescued from the
insolence of a band of students. He does this in the romance, "Plus
blanche que la plus blanche hermine" (Whiter than the whitest
ermine). The accompaniment to the melodious measures, with
which the romance opens, is supplied by a viola solo, the effective
employment of which in this passage shows Meyerbeer's knowledge
of the instrument and its possibilities. This romance is a perfect
example of a certain phase of Meyerbeer's art—a suave and elegant
melody for voice, accompanied in a highly original manner, part of
the time, in this instance, by a single instrument in the orchestra,
which, however, in spite of its effectiveness, leaves an impression of
simplicity not wholly uncalculated.
Raoul's romance is followed by the entrance of Marcel, and the
scene for that bluff, sturdy old Huguenot campaigner and loyal
servant of Raoul, a splendidly drawn character, dramatically and
musically. Marcel tries to drown the festive sounds by intoning the
stern phrases of Luther's hymn. This he follows with the Huguenot
battle song, with its "Piff, piff, piff," which has been rendered famous
by the great bassos who have sung it, including, in this country,
Formes and Édouard de Reszke.
De Nevers then is called away to his interview with the lady, whom
Raoul recognizes as the unknown beauty rescued by him from the
students, and whom, from the circumstances of her visit to de
Nevers, he cannot but believe to be engaged in a liaison with the
latter. Almost immediately upon de Nevers's rejoining his guests
there enters Urbain, the page of Marguerite de Valois. He greets the
assembly with the brilliant recitative, "Nobles Seigneurs salut!" This
is followed by a charming cavatina, "Une dame noble et sage" (A
wise and noble lady). Originally this was a soprano number, Urbain
having been composed as a soprano rôle, which it remained for
twelve years. Then, in 1844, when "Les Huguenots" was produced in
London, with Alboni as Urbain, Meyerbeer transposed it, and a
contralto, or mezzo-soprano, part it has remained ever since, its
interpreters in this country having included Annie Louise Cary,
Trebelli, Scalchi, and Homer. The theme of "Une dame noble et
sage" is as follows:
The letter brought by Urbain is recognized by the Catholic noblemen
as being in the handwriting of Marguerite de Valois. As it is
addressed to Raoul, they show by their obsequious demeanour
toward him the importance they attach to the invitation. In
accordance with its terms Raoul allows himself to be blindfolded and
led away by Urbain.
Following the original score and regarding what is now the second
scene of Act I as the second act, this opens with Marguerite de
Valois's apostrophe to the fair land of Touraine (Ô beau pays de la
Touraine), which, with the air immediately following, "À ce mot tout
s'anime et renaît la nature" (At this word everything revives and
Nature renews itself),

[Listen]
constitutes an animated and brilliant scene for coloratura soprano.
There is a brief colloquy between Marguerite and Valentine, then the
graceful female chorus, sung on the bank of the Seine and known as
the "bathers' chorus," this being followed by the entrance of Urbain
and his engaging song—the rondeau composed for Alboni—"Non!—
non, non, non, non, non! Vous n'avez jamais, je gage" (No!—no, no,
no, no, no! You have never heard, I wager).
Raoul enters, the bandage is removed from his eyes, and there
follows a duet, "Beauté divine, enchanteresse" (Beauty brightly
divine, enchantress), between him and Marguerite, all graciousness
on her side and courtly admiration on his. The nobles and their
followers come upon the scene. Marguerite de Valois's plan to end
the religious strife that has distracted the realm meets with their
approbation. The finale of the act begins with the swelling chorus in
which they take oath to abide by it. There is the brief episode in
which Valentine is led in by St. Bris, presented to Raoul, and
indignantly spurned by him. The act closes with a turbulent
ensemble. Strife and bloodshed, then and there, are averted only by
the interposition of Marguerite.
Act III opens with the famous chorus of the Huguenot soldiers in
which, while they imitate with their hands the beating of drums,
they sing their spirited "Rataplan." By contrast, the Catholic maidens,
who accompany the bridal cortège of Valentine and de Nevers to the
chapel, intone a litany, while Catholic citizens, students, and women
protest against the song of the Huguenot soldiers. These several
choral elements are skilfully worked out in the score. Marcel, coming
upon the scene, manages to have St. Bris summoned from the
chapel, and presents Raoul's challenge to a duel. The Catholics form
their plot to assassinate Raoul, of which Valentine finds opportunity
to notify Marcel, in what is one of the striking scenes of the opera.
The duel scene is preceded by a stirring septette, a really great
passage, "En mon bon droit j'ai confiance" (On my good cause
relying). The music, when the ambuscade is uncovered and Marcel
summons the Huguenots to Raoul's aid, and a street combat is
threatened, reaches an effective climax in a double chorus. The
excitement subsides with the arrival of Marguerite de Valois, and of
the barge containing de Nevers and his retinue. A brilliant chorus,
supported by the orchestra and by a military band on the stage, with
ballet to add to the spectacle forms the finale, as de Nevers
conducts Valentine to the barge, and is followed on board by St. Bris
and the nuptial cortège.
The fourth act, in the home of de Nevers, opens with a romance for
Valentine, "Parmi les pleurs mon rêve se ranime" (Amid my tears, by
dreams once more o'ertaken), which is followed by a brief scene
between her and Raoul, whom the approach of the conspirators
quickly obliges her to hide in an adjoining apartment. The scene of
the consecration of the swords is one of the greatest in opera; but
that it shall have its full effect St. Bris must be an artist like Plançon,
who, besides being endowed with a powerful and beautifully
managed voice, was superb in appearance and as St. Bris had the
bearing of the dignified, commanding yet fanatic nobleman of old
France. Musically and dramatically the scene rests on St. Bris's
shoulders, and broad they must be, since his is the most
conspicuous part in song and action, from the intonation of his solo,
"Pour cette cause sainte, obéisses sans crainte" (With sacred zeal
and ardor let now your soul be burning),

[Listen]

to the end of the savage stretta, when, the conspirators, having

tiptoed almost to the door, in order to disperse for their mission,
suddenly turn, once more uplift sword hilts, poignards, and
crucifixes, and, after a frenzied adjuration of loyalty to a cause that
demands the massacre of an unsuspecting foe, steal forth into the
shades of fateful night.
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