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 Co
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ts
Reactive

of
Microsystems
The Evolution of Microservices at Scale

Jonas Bonér
 Reactive Microsystems
The Evolution of Microservices at Scale

Jonas Bonér

Beijing Boston Farnham Sebastopol Tokyo

Reactive Microsystems
by Jonas Bonér
Copyright © 2017 Lightbend, Inc. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North, Sebastopol, CA
95472.
O’Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales promotional use.
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Editor: Brian Foster Interior Designer: David Futato

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Proofreader: Matthew Burgoyne

August 2017: First Edition

Revision History for the First Edition

2017-08-07: First Release

The O’Reilly logo is a registered trademark of O’Reilly Media, Inc. Reactive Microsys‐
tems, the cover image, and related trade dress are trademarks of O’Reilly Media, Inc.
While the publisher and the author have used good faith efforts to ensure that the
information and instructions contained in this work are accurate, the publisher and
the author disclaim all responsibility for errors or omissions, including without limi‐
tation responsibility for damages resulting from the use of or reliance on this work.
Use of the information and instructions contained in this work is at your own risk. If
any code samples or other technology this work contains or describes is subject to
open source licenses or the intellectual property rights of others, it is your responsi‐
bility to ensure that your use thereof complies with such licenses and/or rights.

978-1-491-99433-7
[LSI]
 Table of Contents

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . v

1. Essential Traits of an Individual Microservice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Isolate All the Things 1
Single Responsibility 2
Own Your State, Exclusively 3
Stay Mobile, but Addressable 6

2. Slaying the Monolith. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

Don’t Build Microliths 9

3. Microservices Come in Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

Embrace Uncertainty 11
We Are Always Looking into the Past 12
The Cost of Maintaining the Illusion of a Single Now 13
Learn to Enjoy the Silence 13
Avoid Needless Consistency 14

4. Events-First Domain-Driven Design. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17

Focus on What Happens: The Events 17
Think in Terms of Consistency Boundaries 21
Manage Protocol Evolution 25

5. Toward Reactive Microsystems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27

Embrace Reactive Programming 28
Embrace Reactive Systems 35
Microservices Come as Systems 44

iii
6. Toward Scalable Persistence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Moving Beyond CRUD 49
Event Logging—The Scalable Seamstress 50
Transactions—The Anti-Availability Protocol 59

7. The World Is Going Streaming. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67

Three Waves Toward Fast Data 68
Leverage Fast Data in Microservices 68

8. Next Steps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Further Reading 71
Start Hacking 72

iv | Table of Contents
 Introduction

The Evolution of Scalable Microservices

In this report, I will discuss strategies and techniques for building
scalable and resilient microservices, working our way through the
evolution of a microservices-based system.
Beginning with a monolithic application, we will refactor it, briefly
land at the antipattern of single instance—not scalable or resilient—
microliths (micro monoliths), before quickly moving on, and step
by step work our way toward scalable and resilient microservices
(microsystems).
Along the way, we will look at techniques from reactive systems,
reactive programming, event-driven programming, events-first
domain-driven design, event sourcing, command query responsibil‐
ity segregation, and more.

v
We Can’t Make the Horse Faster
If I had asked people what they wanted, they would have said faster
horses.
—Henry Ford1

Today’s applications are deployed to everything from mobile devices

to cloud-based clusters running thousands of multicore processors.
Users have come to expect millisecond response times (latency) and
close to 100 percent uptime. And, by “user,” I mean both humans
and machines. Traditional architectures, tools, and products as such
simply won’t cut it anymore. We need new solutions that are as dif‐
ferent from monolithic systems as cars are from horses.
Figure P-1 sums up some of the changes that we have been through
over the past 10 to 15 years.

Figure P-1. Some fundamental changes over the past 10 to 15 years

To paraphrase Henry Ford’s classic quote: we can’t make the horse

faster anymore; we need cars for where we are going.
So, it’s time to wake up, time to retire the monolith, and to decom‐
pose the system into manageable, discrete services that can be scaled
individually, that can fail, be rolled out, and upgraded in isolation.

1 It’s been debated whether Henry Ford actually said this. He probably didn’t. Regardless,
it’s a great quote.

vi | Introduction
They have had many names over the years (DCOM, CORBA, EJBs,
WebServices, etc.). Today, we call them microservices. We, as an
industry, have gone full circle again. Fortunately, it is more of an
upward spiral as we are getting a little bit better at it every time
around.

We Need to Learn to Exploit Reality

Imagination is the only weapon in the war against reality.
—Lewis Carroll, Alice in Wonderland

We have been spoiled by the once-believed-almighty monolith—

with its single SQL database, in-process address space, and thread-
per-request model—for far too long. It’s a fairytale world in which
we could assume strong consistency, one single globally consistent
“now” where we could comfortably forget our university classes on
distributed systems.
Knock. Knock. Who’s There? Reality! We have been living in this
illusion, far from reality.
We will look at microservices, not as tools to scale the organization
and the development and release process (even though it’s one of the
main reasons for adopting microservices), but from an architecture
and design perspective, and put it in its true architectural context:
distributed systems.
One of the major benefits of microservices-based architecture is that
it gives us a set of tools to exploit reality, to create systems that
closely mimic how the world works.

Don’t Just Drink the Kool-Aid

Everyone is talking about microservices in hype-cycle speak; they
are reaching the peak of inflated expectations. It is very important to
not just drink the Kool-Aid blindly. In computer science, it’s all
about trade-offs, and microservices come with a cost. Microservices
can do wonders for the development speed, time-to-market, and
Continuous Delivery for a large organization, and it can provide a
great foundation for building elastic and resilient systems that can

Introduction | vii
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
The Project Gutenberg eBook of Illustrated
Index of British Shells
 This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this ebook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: Illustrated Index of British Shells

Author: G. B. Sowerby

Release date: July 26, 2013 [eBook #43305]

Most recently updated: October 23, 2024

Language: English

Credits: Produced by Chris Curnow, Keith Edkins and the Online

Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net
(This
file was produced from images generously made
available
by The Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ILLUSTRATED

INDEX OF BRITISH SHELLS ***
 ILLUSTRATED INDEX
OF

BRITISH SHELLS.
CONTAINING

FIGURES OF ALL THE RECENT SPECIES,

With Names and other Information.

BY

G. B. SOWERBY, F.L.S.
LONDON:
SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, AND CO., PATERNOSTER ROW
AND
THE AUTHOR, 9, PEMBROKE SQUARE, KENSINGTON.
1859.

PREFACE.
The first idea of this Work arose from the occasional use of Mr.
Damon's 'Catalogue of the Shells of Great Britain and Ireland,'
named after the 'History of British Mollusca,' etc. Here was, on one
side, a very useful list of names, without figures or references to
guide an inquirer to the species; and on the other, a very large and
splendid Work, placed by its heavy price beyond the reach of
Naturalists in general. There was nothing between the two; nothing
within reach that would assist collectors of British Shells to name
their acquisitions from ocean, beach, river, pond, or hedgerow. A
public want seemed here to be discovered. It was thought that a list
like the above, with a coloured drawing of every species, if produced
at an available price, would supply that want. At first no more than
this was thought of, but afterwards, as the preparations advanced,
various suggestions were made tending to some extension of the
plan. The results are here presented.

About 700 Figures in the Plates represent all the recognized species.
They amount to 600, being 60 more than are admitted in the latest
monograph. The greater part of these are either new or newly
introduced as British. The rest are raised from varieties to species.

As the nomenclature used by Messrs. Forbes and Hanley in their

great Work will be most generally adopted in this country, it is
followed here with very few alterations; and the synonyms given (in
italics) are selected from those which are most familiar and likely to
be met with.

Some information is added respecting habits and localities, range of

depth of marine species, and comparative abundance. The letters C.,
Cc., Mc., R., Rr., and Mr., signifying 'common,' 'extremely common,'
'moderately common,' 'rare,' etc., must be taken with great caution,
especially the latter, as subject to continual change.

A list is given of British Fossil Shells identical with now living species.

A familiar description of British Mollusca and some peculiarities in

their families and genera will, it is hoped, form a useful and suitable
introduction to the names and figures. The Author's best thanks are
due to his friends, Madame De Burgh, who has collected many
beautiful shells; R. M‘Andrew, Esq., F.L.S., whose dredging
experiences are so extensive; J. G. Jeffreys, Esq., F.R.S., etc., whose
researches have resulted in so many additions to our Fauna; Mr.
Brice Wright, the Naturalist, of Great Russell Street, and others, who
have in the most liberal manner supplied him with specimens from
which his drawings are taken. The loan of delicate and minute shells
to authors and artists has so often proved disastrous, that nothing
but a generous friendship, and a zealous love of Natural History,
could have induced proprietors so freely to incur the risk.

INTRODUCTION
TO

SHELL-BEARING BRITISH MOLLUSCA.

A common garden Snail, observed crawling and feeding, is easily
seen to possess a distinct head, upon which are four feelers or
horns, with eyes at the end, and underneath which is a mouth; a
broad disc, extending the whole length of the body, is the organ of
locomotion; a spiral or coiled shell surmounts the whole.

If, on the other hand, an Oyster be opened, no distinct head, or

place for eyes or mouth, can be seen, but only a seeming mass of
pulp, with a round gristle in the centre (the muscle of attachment),
the former enclosed in a soft skin with a double fringe round the
edge (mantle), placed within a shell composed of two pieces.

All Mollusca are more or less completely represented by these two.

The Snail and its class are named Gasteropoda (abdomen-creeping),
and their shells Univalves; the Oyster and its class, Acephala
(headless), and their shells Bivalves. We begin with the latter class
at—

Plate I.

Pholadidæ, or "Borers," 1-13, have the power of piercing and

inhabiting holes in submarine wood, rocks, and stones. The hinder
part of the body is lengthened out in the form of a double tube, with
openings for the ingress and egress of fluids. Teredo, 1-6, has short
valves, two pallets fixed at the sides of the siphons, and lines its hole
with a shelly tube. Pholas and Pholadidea, 8-13, have long valves
and sometimes accessory plates. The shell of Xylophaga, 7, is like
that of Teredo, but the animal has neither pallets nor tube.

Gastrochæna, 14, has a gaping shell, and encloses itself in a bottle-

shaped covering of cemented stones and sand. Saxicava, 15, 16,
Venerupis, 18, and Petricola, 17, burrow in sand, or live in holes of
rocks.

Myadæ, or "Gapers," Mya, 19, 20, and Panopæa, 21, 21*, burrow
downwards in sand and mud, their siphons protected by a
coriaceous covering. Their shells are not closed all round, and those
of Mya have a spoon-shaped process in the hinge of one valve.

Corbulidæ, 22-28, have short siphons with fringed edges, and the
foot protrudes through a hole in the otherwise closed mantle.

Plate II.

Poromya, 1, 1*, and the beautiful pearly Pandora, 2, 3, might be

included in the family of Corbulidæ. Lyonsia, 4, and Thracia, 5-10,
represent the Anatinidæ. 11-18 are Solenidæ, or "Razor-shells."
Solens burrow in deep holes in the sand, where they remain in a
perpendicular position at a great depth below the surface, where yet
their presence may be traced by the opening left. Their large
muscular foot enables them to take great leaps when out of the
holes.

Plate III.

Psammobia, 1-4, and Tellina, 5-16, include some of our most

beautiful shells. The animals have a large, fleshy, curved foot, and
the mantle open and fringed. Their shells are provided with an
external ligament, and teeth on the hinge. Donax, or "Wedge," 19,
20, has long, separated, fringed siphons. Besides the small external
ligament, properly so called, the Mactridæ have a triangular pit in
the hinge of their shell, containing an elastic substance or spring,
designed to resist the action of the adductor muscles. Mactra, 21-26,
ends the Plate.

Plate IV.

Lutraria, 1-3, is another genus of Mactridæ. The Veneridæ, 4-16 and

23, or "Venus" tribe, differ from it in not having the spring-holding
pit. Artemis, 10, 11, is known by a large angular bend in the pallial
impression; and Cytherea, 23, is distinguished from Venus by one
tooth on the hinge standing out a little way from the central ones.
Astarte, 17-22, belongs to the Cyprinidæ.

Plate V.

Fig. 1-3 also represent genera of Cyprinidæ. They have no bend in

the palleal impression. Cardium, or "Cockle," 4-13, presents a
peculiarity in the foot, which is large and bent, and enables the
animal to leap in a very lively manner. The family of Lucinidæ occupy
the remaining figures. Lucina has a curious tongue-shaped doubling
of the pallial impression.

Plate VI.
The Kelliadæ, 1-15, are marine, while the Cycladidæ, completing the
Plate, are fresh-water bivalves, and may be found in many ponds
and rivers.

Plate VII.

Of the Unionidæ, or "Fresh-water Mussels," Unio, 1-3, has teeth on

the hinge, and Anodon, 4, has not: it is a thin shell. The foot of
these molluscs is very large, and is used in cutting the animal's way
through the mud in which it burrows. Of the marine, or true Mussels,
Modiola, 6-9, and Crenella, 12-17, have a portion of the shell
reaching beyond the point or apex, which in Mytilus is terminal, 18-
21. Dreissina, 5, is shaped like Mytilus, but lives in fresh-water
docks. The Mytilidæ attach themselves by means of horny threads
spun from the foot, and called a "byssus."

Plate VIII.

Shells of Arcadæ, 1-14, have the hinge characterized by a series of

teeth on each side of the apex. Nucula, Arca, and Pectunculus are
easily distinguished. Limopsis, 14, has a spring pit between the two
rows. Our figure of Pinna, 16, is from a young specimen: it grows to
great size, and spins a very silky byssus. The shell of Anomia, 18, is
fixed to rocks, etc., by means of a bony button passing through a
hole or sinus in the lower valve. Lima, 22-24, has a light, thin shell,
and its mantle is adorned with beautiful fringes. It swims rapidly
through the water by the opening and shutting of its valves, and
also has the habit, in seasons of rest, of protecting itself by a
network or vest of marine fragments strung together by its byssal
threads.

Plate IX.

Contains the shells of our Pectens, or Scallops, 1-16. The animals

swim like Lima, as above, and also spin a byssus.
The class Brachiopoda, 17-24, so named because what seem to be
organs of locomotion consist of a pair of coiled, ciliated arms, ends
the list of Headless Molluscs and their bivalve shells.

Plate X.

Class Pteropoda, 1-4, contains minute Mollusca, with glassy shells

variously formed, and wing-like expansions for swimming.

Chiton, 5-17, or "Coat of Mail," which may often be seen incrusting

rocks, commences the Gasteropoda; although seemingly fixed, they
are capable of locomotion, using the whole of the oval disc, which
may be seen on turning them over, for the purpose. The same may
be said of the "Limpet" tribe, Patella, 1-22.

Plate XI.

This Plate commences with other forms of the Limpet tribe,

Fissurella, 1, 2, with a hole at the top; Puncturella, 3, with a fissure
near the top; and Emarginula, 4-6, with a slit at the margin. Haliotis,
7, or pearly "Ear-shell," leads to the Trochidæ, or "Tops," 8-27.

Plate XII.

Ianthina, 1-4, is genus of oceanic molluscs, which are provided with

a beautiful floating apparatus, on which the female carries her egg-
bags.

Neritina, 5, and the Paludinidæ, 8-11, live in fresh-water. The animal

of Paludina is sprinkled all over with bright, golden specks. The
Littorinæ, or "Winkles," 12-24, are marine, and frequent the shore
among seaweeds. Lacuna, 25-32, belongs to the same family.

Plate XIII., XIV.

Are small genera, various in their characters and habits, but
reasonably included in the last family, Littorinidæ.

Plate XV.

The animals of Turritella, 1-3, and Cæcum, 6, 7, are not unlike,

although the shells are so different; eyes at the base of the
tentacles, a short foot, and horny operculum. The somewhat similar
animal of Aporrhais, 4, 5, is brilliantly coloured with gold and red.
Cerithium, 8-10, differs from Cerithiopsis, 11-15, more in regard to
the animal than the shell; the latter animal has a retractile proboscis,
and its operculum is not spiral.

Plate XVI.

Chemnitzia, 1-11, and Truncatella, 12, together with Stylifer, Eulima,

and Odostomia, form the family of Pyramidellidæ. Notwithstanding
the difference in the shells, the animals are very similar, having a
retractile proboscis, and eyes immersed at the base of their
tentacles.

The animal of Natica, 13-19, has a lobe on the upper part of the
foot, reflected over the shell in front, and another lobe behind. The
shells of Laminaria, 23, 24, are completely enveloped in similar
lobes.

Plate XVII.

The shells of Odostomia are known by a fold in the inner lip of the
aperture.

Plate XVIII.

Two Tritons, 1, 2, are admitted for the first time as British, on what
we consider fair evidence, although only two or three specimens
have been taken off Guernsey. One of T. nodiferus was incrusted by
a truly British Lepralia. Murex, 3, is now familiar as an aquarian, as
well as Purpura, 5. A milky secretion found in the head turns purple
when exposed, and gives the celebrated purple dye. Buccinum, 7-13,
includes the common "Whelk," 8. Fusus Berniciensis, 14, is among
the rarest and most beautiful of our British shells.

Plate XIX.

Nassa reticulata, 3, is a favourite inhabitant of the tank; it burrows in

search of food among the pebbles, elevating its siphon above the
surface. Mangelia, 4-26, has a similar long siphon. The shell of
Erato, 27, is wrapped in the lobes of the animal's mantle, as is also
that of Cyprea, 28, the latter presenting a beautiful object.

Plate XX.

After Tornatella, 1, and Ovula, 2, 3, come Bullidæ, 4-27, including

several genera differing remarkably in the shape and disposition of
the lobes of their mantles, which in some instances, as in Philine,
20-25, cover the shell. The stomach of Scapander, 26, 27, is a
remarkable kind of mill, composed of two bones, between which the
food is ground. The shells of Aplysia, 28, and Pleurotranchus, 29, 30,
are quite internal. Spirula, 31, belonging to the Cephalopodous or
Cuttlefish tribe, is only introduced doubtfully, as there is no proof of
the species living in our seas.

Plate XXI., XXII., XXIII., XXIV.

These are occupied by shells of Gasteropoda pulmonifera, so named

because they breathe air by a pulmonary cavity, instead of water by
gills. The Limnæadæ, or fresh-water Snails, contained in Plate I., live
in water, but breathe by exposing the pulmonary cavity to air at the
surface. Succinea, Plate XXII., 1-3, lives by the sides of streams,
sometimes immersed. Conovulus, 4-7, affects brackish marshes. Our
common Slugs yield, on dissection, thin shells, which are concealed
beneath the mantle, Limax, 9-12. The shells of Testacellus, 13, 14,
are fixed near the end of the foot, outside. The glassy shells of
Vitrina, 15, 16, do not enclose the whole Slug-like animal. The other
genera of Land Snails have shells large enough to receive the animal
when retracted and withdrawn for repose.

BRITISH FOSSIL SHELLS.

The following living species are also found in a fossil state in drift
and strata of the British Isles. They are all enumerated in Mr. Searles
Wood's monograph of the Crag Mollusca.

The numbers refer to the species as figured in our Plates, Mr. Wood's
nomenclature being inserted in italics when differing from ours.

Pl. I. Teredo 2. Pholas 11. Pholadidea 12. Gastrochæna 14, as dubia.

Saxicava 15, 16. Venerupis 18. Mya 19, 20. Panopea 21, 21*, as
Faujasii. Corbula 22, 23? Sphænia 25. Neæra 27.

Pl. II. Poromya 1. Pandora 2, as inæquivalvis, 3, as pinna. Thracia 7,

8. Solen, 13, 15. Solecurtus 18, as Mactra strigilata. Syndosmya, as
Abra, 19, 22.

Pl. III. Psammobia 1, 3, 4. Tellina 5, 6, 7, 9, as ovata, 15, as

Balthica, 16. Scrobicularia 18, as Trigonella plana. Donax 19, as
vittatus. Mactra 20, 21, 22, as ovalis, 23, 25, 26.

Pl. IV. Lutraria 2. Tapes 7, 8. Artemis 11. Venus 12, 14, 15, 17.
Astarte 18, 19, 20, 22, as borealis.

Pl. V. Cyprina 1. Circe 2. Isocardia 3. Cardium 6, 8, 9, 12, 13. Lucina

14, as Loripes, 15, as Cryptodon flexuosum, 16. Diplodonta 19.
Clausina 20, as Cryptodon f.
Pl. VI. Montacuta 1, 2, 3. Kellia 5, 6. Poronia 7, as Kellia r. Cyclas 16,
18. Pisidium 23, 24, 25, 26.

Pl. VII. Unio 2, 3. Anodon 4. Modiola 6, 9, 10. Crenella 13, 14, 15,
16. Mytilus 18, 19, 20.

Pl. VIII. Nucula 1, 5. Leda 6, 7. Area 9, 10, 11, as pectunculoides.

Pectunculus 13. Avicula 15. Pinna 16. Ostrea 17. Anomia 18, 19, 20,
21. Lima 22, 23, 24.

Pl. IX. Pecten 1, 2, 5, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14.

Pl. X. Chiton 7, as fascicularis. Patella 18. Acme 23. Propilidium, as

Tectura, 24. Dentalium 26, 27. Capulus 28. Calyptræa 29.

Pl. XI. Fissurella 1, as græca. Puncturella 3. Emarginula 5, 6.

Trochus 8, 10, 11, 12, as papillosus, 15, 16, 17, 19. Margarita 21.
Adeorbis 25. Scissurella 26.

Pl. XII. Paludina 9. Valvata 10. Littorina 14. Lacuna 27.

Pl. XIII. Rissoa 3*, as Paludestrina subumbilicata, 7, 11?, 13?, 15,

23, 27.

Pl. XIV. Rissoa 2, 9, as Chemnitzia. Aclis 24, as Alvania ascaris, 25,

as Chemnitzia n.

Pl. XV. Turritella 2. Aporrhais 4. Cæcum 6, 7. Cerithium 9, 10.

Cerithiopsis, as Cerithium, 11. Scalaria 17, 19, 20. Eulima 22, 25.

Pl. XVI. Chemnitzia 1, 2, as similis, 4, 8. Natica 13, 17, as Catena,

19, as Grœnlandica. Velutina 21. Trichotropis 26.

Pl. XVII. Odostomia 1, 8, as plicata, 9, as plicata, 10?, 12.

Pl. XVIII. Purpura 5. Buccinum 10? Fusus 15, as Trophon, 16, as Tr.,
17, as Tr. gracile, 18, as Tr. T., 19, as Tr. p. Trophon 22, 24.
Pl. XIX. Nassa 1, 2. Mangelia, as Clavatula, 4, 5, 8, as Philberti, 9,
11, as Boothii, 12, 14, 15, 17?, 21, 22. Erato 27. Cypræa 28.

Pl. XX. Tornatella 1, as Actæon tornatilis. Ovula 3, as Bulla. Cylichna,

as Bulla, 4, 5, as regulbiensis, 7, 9, 12. Bulla 19. Philine as Bullæa,
21, 22. Scaphander, as Bulla, 26.

Pl. XXI. Limnæa 1, 4, 7, 11. Planorbis 18, 24, as complanatus, and in

the upper fresh-water formation, all except 9, 11.

Pl. XXII. Succinea 1, 3. Conovulus 5, and in the more recent fresh-

water deposits, all except 7 and 13 to 16.

Pl. XXIII. Helix 19, 22, and upper fresh-water, all except 1, 12, 14,
15, 24, 25, 26.

Pl. XXIV. Upper fresh-water deposits, all except 16, 24.

INDEX TO THE GENERA.

Referring to Plates and Figures.

Achatina, XXIV. 24.

Aclis, XIV. 23, 25.
Acmæa, X. 22, 23.
Acme, XXIV. 26.
Adeorbis, XI. 25.
Akera, XX. 16.
Amphispira, XX. 14, 15.
Ancylus, XXI. 14-17.
Anodonta, VII. 4.
Anomia, VIII. 18-21.
Aplysia, XX. 28.
Aporrhais, XV. 4, 5.
Arca, VIII. 18-12.
Argiope, IX. 20, 23.
Artemis, IV. 10, 11.
Assiminea, XIII. 1, 2.
Astarte, IV. 17, 22.
Avicula, VIII. 15.
Azeca, XXIV. 23.

Balea, XXIV. 17.

Barleeia, XIV. 12.
Bithinea, XII. 6, 7.
Buccinum, XVIII. 8-13.
Bulla, XX. 17-19.
Bulimus, XXIV. 1-4.

Calyptræa, X. 29.
Capulus, Pileopsis.
Cardium, V. 4-13.
Carychium, XXII. 8.
Cæcum, XV. 6-7.
Cemoria, Puncturella.
Ceratisolen, II. 11.
Cerithiopsis, XV. 11-15.
Cerithium, XV. 8-10.
Chemnitzia, XVI. 1-11.
Chiton, X. 5-17.
Circe, V. 2.
Clavatula, Mangelia.
Clausilia, XXIV. 18-21.
Clausina, V. 20-22.
Cochlodesma, II. 10.
Conovulus, XXII. 4-7.
Corbula, I. 22-24.
Crania, IX. 24.
Crenella, VII. 12-17.
Cyclostoma, XXIV. 25.
Cyclas, VI. 16-20.
Cylichna, XX. 4-13.
Cypræa, XIX. 28.
Cyprina, V. 1.
Cytherea, IV. 23.

Dentalium, X. 26, 27.

Diodonta, II. 16, 16*.
Diplodonta, V. 19.
Donax, III. 19, 20.
Dreissina, VII. 5.

Emarginula, XI. 4-6.

Euomphalus, XIV. 17, 18.
Ervillia, III. 17.
Eulima, XV. 22-26.
Eulimella, XIV. 26-30.

Fissurella, XI. 1, 2.
Fusus, XVIII. 14-19.

Galeomma, VI. 14, 15.

Gastrochæna, I. 14.

Haliotis, XI. 7.
Helix (Zonites), XXII. 17-29.
Helix, XXIII. 1-29.
Hinnites, Pecten, IX. 1.
Hippothyris, IX. 17.
Hyalæa, X. 1.

Ianthina, XII. 1-4.

Isocardia, V. 3.

Jeffreysia, XIV. 13-16.

Kellia, VI. 5-8.

Lachesis, XVIII. 6.
Lacuna, XII. 25-32.
Lamellaria, XVI. 23, 24.
Leda, VIII. 6, 7.
Lepton, VI. 9-13.
Lima, VIII. 22-24.
Limax, XXII. 9-12.
Limnæa, XXI. 1-11.
Limopsis, VIII. 14.
Littorina, XII. 12-24.
Lucina, V. 14-18.
Lucinopsis, IV. 9.
Lutraria, IV. 1-3.
Lyonsia, II. 4.

Mactra, III. 21-26.

Mangelia, XIX. 4-26.
Margarita, XI. 21-24.
Marginella, Erato.
Megathyris, Argiope.
Modiola, VII. 6-11.
Montacuta, VI. 1-3.
Murex, XVIII. 3, 4.
Mya, I. 19-20.
Mytilus, VII. 18-21.

Nassa, XIX. 1-3.

Natica, XVI. 13-19.
Neæra, I. 26-28.
Neritina, XII. 5.
Nucula, VIII. 1-5.

Odostomia, XVII. 1-31.

Ostrea, VIII. 17.
Otina, XVI. 25.
Ovula, XX. 2, 3.
Paludina, XII. 8, 9.
Pandora, II. 2, 3.
Panopæa, I. 21, 21*.
Patella, X. 18-21.
Pecten, IX. 1-16.
Pectunculus, VIII. 13.
Petricola, I. 17.
Phasianella, XI. 27.
Philine, XX. 20-25.
Pholas, I. 8-11, 13.
Pholadidea, I. 12.
Physa, XXI. 12, 13.
Pileopsis, X. 28.
Pilidium, X. 24.
Pinna, VIII. 16.
Pisidium, VI. 21-28.
Planorbis, XXI. 18-28.
Pleurobranchus, XX. 29.
Pleurotoma, Mangelia.
Poromya, II. 1, 1*, IX.
Propilidium, X. 25.
Psammobia, III. 1-4.
Puncturella, XI. 3.
Pupa, XXIV. 5-16.
Purpura, XVIII. 5.

Recluzia, XVI. 20.

Rissoa, XIII. 3-28; XIV.

Saxicava, I. 15, 16.

Scalaria, XV. 16-20.
Scaphander, XX. 26, 27.
Scrobicularia, III. 18.
Scissurella, XI. 26.
Segmentina, Planorbis, XXI. 27, 28.
Skenea, XIV. 19-22.
Solen, II. 12-15.
Solecurtus, II. 17, 18.
Spirialis, X. 2-4.
Spirula, XX. 31.
Stylifer, XV. 21.
Succinea, XXII. 1-3.
Syndosmya, II. 19-22.
Sphænia, I. 25.

Tapes, IV. 4-8.

Tellina, III. 5-16.
Terebratula, IX. 18-20.
Teredo, I. 1-6.
Testacellus, XXII. 13, 14.
Thracia, II. 5-9.
Tornatella, XX. 1.
Trichotropis, XVI. 26.
Triton, XVIII. 1, 2.
Trochus, XI. 8-20.
Trophon, XVIII. 20-24.
Truncatella, XVI. 12.
Turritella, XV. 1-3.
Turtonia, VI. 4.

Unio, VII. 1-3.

Valvata, XII. 10, 11.

Velutina, XVI. 21, 22.
Venerupis, I. 18.
Venus, IV. 12-16.
Vertigo, Pupa.
Vitrina, XXII. 15-16.

Xylophaga, I. 7.

Zonites, XXII. 17-29.

Zua, XXIV. 22.

PLATE I.

Teredo. Pierces and inhabits wood.

Fig.

1. T. navalis, Linn.—T. Batavæ.—Herne Bay, R. Pallets shelly,

crescented; valves with auricles extended sidewise; tube long.

2. T. norvegica, Spengl.—T. Bruguieri.—Port Patrick, Teignmouth,

etc., Mc. Pallets shelly, not crescented; auricles not extended.
 3. T. megotara, Hanl.—T. nana (young).—Herne Bay, Devon,
Swansea, etc., R. Pallets shelly, spade-shaped; auricles raised
and expanded.

4. T. bipennata, Turt.—Ireland, Scarborough, etc., R. Pallets horny,

long; auricles lobed.

5. T. malleolus, Turt.—Torquay, Rr. Pallets shelly, mallet-shaped;

valves narrow.

6. T. palmulata, Lamk.—T. bipalmulata.—Floating wood, Ire., S. Eng.

Pallets horny, short; valves small, shaped like T. navalis.

Xylophaga. In fixed and floating timber.

7. X. dorsalis, Turt.—Ayrs., Dubl., Exm., Scarb., etc., C. Two dorsal

plates, no tube, no pallets.

Pholas. Pierces and inhabits stone.

8. P. Dactylus, Linn.—P. hians, P. callosa.—Eng., Scot., Ire., C. Dorsal

plates four; hinge pitted.

9. P. candida, Linn.—Eng., Scot., Ire., C. One dorsal plate; valves not

beaked.

10. P. parva, Penn.—P. callosa, P. tuberculata.—Salcombe, Belfast,

Cornwall, etc., M. C. One dorsal plate; valves beaked.

11. P. crispata, Linn.—P. bifrons.—Hastings, Liverp., Scarb., Dubl.,

Forth, etc., C. No dorsal plate; valves broad, beaked, with
oblique division.

13. P. striata. Rare and doubtful as British. Valves closed.

Pholadidea. Pierces and inhabits stone.

12. P. papyracea, P. Loscombiana, P. Goodalli.—S. Devon, N. Ire., R.
Valves closed, with a cup. P. lamellata, Turt., when young, not
closed; no cup.

Gastrochæna. Bores and inhabits stone, thick shells, etc.

14. G. modiolina, Lamk.—G. Pholadia, G. hians, Mya dubia, Mytilus

ambiguus, Pholas faba.—Torbay, Birterbuy, Galway, Weymouth,
etc. Valves thin, gaping, enclosed in bottle-shaped tube.

Saxicava. Bores and inhabits stone.

15. S. rugosa, Linn.—Mytilus r., Hiatella r., S. gallicana, S. pholadis,

Byssomya pholadis, Mya byssifera.—Eng., Scot., Ire., C. Valves
oval.

16. S. arctica, Linn.—(Mya) Hiatella a., Anatina a., Hiatella minuta,

Solen minutus, S. rhomboides, Agina purpurea, Solen p.—Eng.,
Scot., Ire., C. Valves rhomboidal; angle serrated.

Omitted.—S. fragilis, Nyst. Not the young of S. rugosa. Vigo Bay.

Petricola. Inhabits stone.

17. P. lithophaga, Retz.—P. striata, costellata, rocellaria, ruperella,

Lamk., Mya and Sphænia decussata.—Cork, Bristol, R. as British.

Venerupis. Bores and inhabits stone.

18. V. Irus, Linn. (Donax).—Tellina cornubiensis, Cuneus foliaceus,

Petric., and Pullastra, I.—In limestone at Plymouth and other
southern coasts. Wedge-shaped.

Mya. Burrows in mud and sand.

19. M. truncata, Linn.—M. ovalis and Sphænia Swainsoni (young).—
Various localities and depths, C. Truncated at end.

20. M. arenaria, Linn.—Herne Bay, Portsmouth, etc., C. Tapering at

end.

Panopæa. Burrows in mud.

21. P. norvegica, Spengl.—P. glycimeris, P. arctica.—Scarborough,

Zetland (90 fath.), Rr. Quadrate.

21*. P. Aldrovandi, Lamk.—Cornwall, one specimen, Jeffreys.

Oblique.

Corbula. Dredged in mud and sand.

22. C. nucleus, Lamk.—C. striata, Mya, and C. inæquivalvis.—Dublin,

Torquay, Forth, 4 to 80 fath., C. Valves unequal, beaked.

23. C. rosea, Brown.—Weymouth, Rr. as Brit. Valves not beaked.

24. C. ovata, Forbes.—Isle of Man, Rr. Oval, truncated at end.

Sphænia. Burrows in foliaceous shells.

25. S. Binghami, Turt.—Corbula B.—Torquay, Guernsey, Swansea,

Forth, etc., R.

Neæra. Lives incrusted in sand.

26. N. costellata, Desh.—Corbula c., N. sulcata.—Loch Fyne, Rr.

Radiately 3-ribbed.

27. N. cuspidata, Olivi.—Forth, Northumberland, Cape Clear, etc., Mr.

Pear-shaped.
28. N. abbreviata, Forbes.—Loch Fyne, Mc. Radiately 1-ribbed.

PLATE II.

Poromya. On mud, in deep water.

Fig.

1. P. granulata, Nyst.—P. anatinoides, Forbes.—Skye, R.

1*. P. subtrigona, Jeffreys.—Shetland, Mr. Minute, posteriorly

expanded. See Pl. IX.

Pandora.
 2. P. rostrata, Lamk.—Tellina inæquivalvis, Linn.; P. margaritacea
and inæquivalvis.—S. Devon?, Guernsey, R. as Brit. Valves long.

3. P. obtusa, Leach.—Solen Pinna, Mont.—S. Devon, Dorset, Mc. Ire.,

R. Valves short and broad.

Lyonsia. With byssal attachment.

4. L. norvegica, Chemn.—Mya and Anatina n., Mya and Anatina

striata, M. nitida, Lyonsia elongata, Myatella, and Osteodesma.
—Tenby, Bantry, Oban, etc., 5 to 80 fath. With movable ossicle
on hinge.

Thracia. Laminarian and Coralline.

5. T. distorta, Mont.—(Mya) Anatina and Amphidesma d., Th.

truncata.—Distribution general, but not common. Short,
truncated, irregular.

6. T. convexa, Wood.—(Mya) Anatina and Amphidesma c., T. declivis.

—S. Devon, Bantry Bay, Arran, etc., Mc. Inflated.

7. T. phaseolina, Lamk.—Amphidesma p., T. declivis.—Various

localities and depths, C. Oval, obliquely truncated.

8. T. pubescens, Pult.—(Mya) Anatina and Amphidesma p., T. declivis.

—S. Devon, Cornwall, Belfast, etc., C. Oblong, straightly
truncated.

9. T. villiosulca, Macgillivray.—T. ovata, Brown.—Exmouth, Swansea,

Bantry Bay, etc. Various depths, Mc.

Cochlodesma. Laminarian and Coralline.

10. C. prætenue, Pult.—(Mya) Anatina, Ligula, and Amphidesma pr.—

Dorset, Devon, Man, Bantry B., Oban, etc., (25 to 60 fath.), R.
 Spoon-shaped process on hinge.

Ceratisolen. Burrows in sand.

11. C. legumen, Linn.—(Solen) Psammoiia and Solenicurtus l.—

Exmouth, Swansea, Bantry, etc., C. Hinge nearly central.

Solen. Burrows perpendicularly in sand.

12. S. pellucidus, Penn.—Various British localities, 6 to 100 fath.

Curved; hinge not terminal.

13. S. ensis, Linn.—Eng., Scot., Ire., generally 5 to 15 fath., C. Arched

and slender.

14. S. marginatus, Pult.—S. vagina, Penn., not Linn.—Exmouth, Clyde,

Cork, etc., littoral to 10 fath., Mc. Straight, with terminal
constriction.

15. S. siliqua, Linn.—S. novacula, S. ligula.—Eng., Scot., Ire., many

places; littoral and laminarian, C. Straight, end not constricted.

Diodonta.

16. D. fragilis, Linn.—(Tellina) Psammobia f., Tellina jugosa and

ochroleuca.—Dublin, Tenby, Weymouth, R. Oval or wedge-
shaped.

16*. D. Barleei, Jeffr.—Arran, Rr. Minute, subquadrate.

Solecurtus.

17. S. coarctatus, Gmel.—S. cultellus, S. emarginatus, S. antiquatus,

etc.—Torbay, Anglesea, Man, Skye, etc., R. Oblong, smooth.
18. S. candidus, Renieri.—(Solen) S. strigilatus, Turt., not Linn.,
Psammobia scopula.—S. Devon, Dublin, etc., R. Striated.

Syndosmya.

19. S. prismatica, Mont.—(Ligula) Mya and Amphidesma p.—

Weymouth, Forth, Dublin, Antrim, etc., littoral, Mc. More pointed
and narrow than S. intermedia.

20. S. tenuis, Mont.—(Mactra) Amphidesma t.—Dorset, Scarborough,

Antrim, etc., 5 to 100 fath., Mc. Short, subtrigonal.

21. S. intermedia, Thompson.—Mya and Syndosmya nitida, Abra

profundissima.—In mud, 6 to 100 fath., Zetland, Skye, Cape
Clear, etc., R. Broader and more pointed than S. prismatica.

22. S. alba, Wood.—(Mactra) M. and Amphidesma Boysii and A.

album.—Brit. co. generally, C. Short, rounded, oval.
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