Farha Jaffer/Biols 102/Ch 5

Chapter 5
Membrane: Structure and Function

Membrane models: refer to outline.

The recent model “ Fluid-Mosaic Model” = p.m. composed of fluid phospholipid bilayer with
wholly or partially embedded protein molecules.

Plasma membrane structure & function:

Function:

 Separates internal environment of a cell from external environment.

 Regulates the exit and entrance of molecules.
 Keep steady internal environment.

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Structure:

A bilayer of phospholipids with partially or wholly embedded proteins.

Phospholipids = hydrophilic heads (water- loving)

face outside and inside cell; and hydrophobic tails layers
(water-fearing) face each other in middle.

Phospholipid is an amphipathic molecule. It has both a

hydrophilic region and a hydrophobic region.

Cholesterol: another lipid found in animal p.m.

 Give more stiffening and strengths the
membrane.
 regulates the fluidity of p.m.?

In plant cell, the

p.m. has no
cholesterol; instead a
steroid related
molecule is found.

Proteins: Scattered through membrane, vary from membrane to membrane.

Freez -fracture technique???

Peripheral Proteins Integral Proteins

found on inside surface (cytoplasmic)of membrane

and held in place by protein fibers
of cytoskeleton.  some are wholly embedded in
membrane but can move back and forth.
 some protrude from only one surface of
bilayer.
 most span membrane. These have a
hydrophobic region within membrane &
2 hydrophilic regions that protrude from
both surfaces of membrane. These are
called “ transmembrane proteins”.

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The inside
The proteins
inside proteinsare held
held in place
in place by protein
by protein fibers of cytoskeleton, but the
outside proteins are held in place by fibers
of extracellular matrix (ECM) in animal
cells and made of proteins and large
complex carbohydrates.
ECM functions in support of p.m. and
in communication between cells.

Fluid – Mosaic Model

The current model to describe the plasma membrane.

Fluidity of membrane because of its lipid content (phospholipids and cholesterol or a steroid
related molecule ).
At room temp., phospholipids bilayer has the consistency of olive oil. The greater the
unsaturated fatty acid concentration the more fluidity.
In each monolayer of phospholipids, the hydrocarbon tails wiggle and the phospholipids
molecules can move sideways at a rate of 2 µm/second.
Phospholipid molecules are rarely flip-flop from one layer to the other.
Fluidity of phospholipids molecules able cells to pliable (not solid).
Fluidity also prevents membranes from solidifying as external temp. drop.
Presence of cholesterol in p.m. affects its fluidity. At high temp., cholesterol stiffens
membrane and makes it less fluid. At lower temp., cholesterol prevents membrane from
freezing by not allowing contact between certain phospholipids tails.

The mosaic nature of p.m. is due to its protein content.

No. and kinds of proteins vary in p.m and in the membranes of various organelles.
Some proteins freely move sideways with the fluid bilayer.
Other proteins are held in place by either cytoskeleton or ECM.


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Both phospholipids & proteins in membranes have attached chain of carbohydrate (sugar).

phospholipids Carbohydrate chain

glycolipids

proteins Carbohydrate chain glycoproteins

 The carbohydrate chains occur only on the outside surface of membrane.

So, the two sides of membrane are NOT IDANTICAL (asymmetrical)?
Because, peripheral proteins only found on inside surface of membrane and has no chains of
carbohydrates.

Carbohydrate chains:

In animal cells; carbohydrate chains of proteins give the cell “ sugar coat” called glycocalyx.
Glycocalyx protect cells and have various functions:

 facilitates adhesion between cells.

 reception of signal molecules.
 cell-to-cell recognition.

 Each cell has its unique “finger prints” because of carbohydrate chains?
Enormous carbohydrate chains: 1. chain vary by no. (15 is usual, but can be hundreds).
2. sequence of sugar.
3. whether chain branched or not.

In transplanted tissue, often rejected by recipient. Why?

Immune system is able to recognize foreign tissue that do not have appropriate carbohydrate
chains. So because they do not have same recognition proteins, same histocompatibility proteins,
and same carbohydrate chains, so the tissue is rejected.

In humans, carbohydrate chains are also the basis ABO blood groups.

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Functions of proteins (integral proteins):

 Channel proteins: allow the passage of particular ions or molecules though a channel.
e.g., H+ channels → allow H+ to cross inner membrane of mitochondria; without this
channel ATP never produced.

 Carrier proteins: allow passage of particular molecules or ions. They combine with
carrier proteins and transport to inside or outside.
e.g., Na+, K+ carrier proteins needed for nerve conduction.

 Cell recognition proteins: glycoproteins

Help body to recognize pathogens when invaded.

 Receptor proteins: has a shape; allows specific protein to bind to it. Binding cause the
protein change its shape → cellular response (a signal to perform a function).

e.g., liver stores glucose after it is

signaled by insulin.

 Enzymatic proteins: some p.m. proteins of cell or organelles are enzymes.

e.g., ATP synthase enzyme needed for ATP production.

 The peripheral proteins have a structural role; help stabilizing and shaping the p.m.
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Permeability of plasma membrane:

The plasma membrane is differentially (selectively) permeable; only certain molecules can
pass through freely = semipearmeable.

Some molecules pass freely (passively), others need carrier or channel proteins and/or
expenditure of energy (actively), and others can not pass.

a. Small non-charged lipid soluble molecules (alcohol, glycerol) pass through the
membrane freely.

b. Small polar molecules (water) easily pass along a concentration gradient, from high to
low concentration.

c. Gases (O2 and CO2).

d. Ions and charged molecules (sugars and a.a.) have difficulty crossing the hydrophobic
phase of the bilayer and usually combine with carrier proteins.

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Both passive and active mechanisms move molecules across membrane.

a. Passive transport moves molecules across membrane down their conc. gradient &
without expenditure of energy by cell; includes diffusion and facilitated transport.

b. Active transport requires a carrier protein and uses energy (ATP) to move
molecules across a plasma membrane against their conc. gradient; includes active
transport, exocytosis, endocytosis, and pinocytosis.

Diffusion and Osmosis

1. Diffusion moves molecules from higher to lower concentration down their concentration
gradient.

a. A solution contains a solute, usually a solid, and a solvent, usually a liquid.

b. In the case of a dye diffusing in water, dye is a solute and water is the solvent.
c. Once a solute is evenly distributed, random movement continues but with no net
change.

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d. Membrane chemical and physical properties allow only a few types of molecules to cross
by diffusion.
e. Gases readily diffuse through the lipid bilayer; movement of oxygen from air sacs
(alveoli) to the blood in lung capillaries depends on the concentration of oxygen in alveoli.

 Several factors influence rate of diffusion:

 Temperature (as increased, the rate of diffusion increased)

 Pressure
 Electrical current
 Molecular size

2. Osmosis is the diffusion of water across a differentially permeable membrane.

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a. Osmotic pressure is illustrated by the thistle tube example:

1) A differentially permeable membrane separates two solutions.

2) The beaker has more water (lower percentage of solute) and the thistle tube has less
water.
3) The membrane does not permit passage of the solute; water enters but the solute does
not exit.
4) The membrane permits passage of water with a net movement of water from the beaker
to the inside of the thistle tube.

b. Osmotic pressure is the pressure that develops in such a system due to osmosis.
c. Osmotic pressure results in water being absorbed by the kidneys and water being taken
up from tissue fluid.

3. Tonicity is strength of a solution in relationship to osmosis.

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a. Isotonic solutions occur where the relative solute concentrations of two solutions
are equal; a 0.9% salt solution is used in injections because it is isotonic to red blood
cells (RBCs).

 Many animals, like oyster, crabs and fish are able to cope changes in salinity
through their gills and kidneys.

b. A hypotonic solution has a solute concentration that is less than another solution;
when an animal cell is placed in a hypotonic solution, water enters the cells and they may
undergo cytolysis (burst). Hemolysis is a term used for RBCs. Plant cells swell but do
not burst; create turgor pressure. Welting of plant’s leaves is due to decreased
turgor pressure.

 under hypotonic conditions, paramecium have contractile vacuoles to get rid of

excess water. Freshwater fishes excrete a large volume of diluted urine.

c. A hypertonic solution has a higher percentage of solute than a cell; as a result,

water may leave the cells. This solution causes cells to shrink. If red blood cells placed in
salt solutions above 0.9% shrink and wrinkle, a condition called crenation.
Plasmolysis is shrinking of the cytoplasm due to osmosis in a hypertonic situation in a
plant cell.

 Salty fishes

Transport by Carrier Proteins

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1. The plasma membrane impedes passage of most substances but many molecules enter or leave
at rapid rates.

2. Carrier proteins are membrane proteins that combine with and transport only one type of
molecule or ion (specific); they are believed to undergo a change in shape to move the
molecule across by active and facilitated transport.

3. Facilitated transport is passive transport of specific solutes down their

concentration gradient, facilitated by a carrier protein; glucose and amino acids move
although not lipid-soluble.

4. Active transport is transport of specific solutes across plasma membranes against the
concentration gradient through use of cellular energy (ATP).
a. Iodine is concentrated in cells of thyroid gland, glucose is completely absorbed into
lining of digestive tract, and sodium is mostly reabsorbed by kidney tubule lining.

b. Active transport requires both carrier proteins and ATP; therefore cells must have
high number of mitochondria near membranes.

c. Active transport is opposite to diffusion.

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d. Carrier proteins involved in active transport are often called “pumps”; the
sodium-potassium pump is an important carrier system in nerve and muscle cells.
Na+ - K+ pumps transport Na+ to outside and K+ to inside cell alternatively. A change
in the shape of carrier protein after attachment of phosphate group allows it to
combine alternately with Na+ and K+.

Na+ - K+ pumps result in :

 Solute concentration gradient and/
 Electrical gradient for these ions across plasma membrane.

e. Salt (NaCl) crosses a plasma membrane because sodium ions are pumped across and
the chloride ion is attracted to the sodium ion and simply diffuses across channels.

Membrane-Assisted Transport
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Big molecules, like polypeptides, polysaccharides, polynucleotides are transported to cell by

formation of vesicles.

 Vesicle formation is a Membrane-Assisted Transport, and requires ATP.

Exocytosis Endocytosis

Transport of molecules Transport of molecules

from cell to outside. from outside cell to inside.
Vesicles fuse to p.m. Cells take in substances by
and excrete to outside. vesicle formation.

Phagocytosis Pinocytosis Receptor-mediated endocytosis

In exocytosis, a vesicle often formed by Golgi apparatus fuses with the plasma
membrane as secretion occurs; insulin leaves insulin-secreting cells, digestive enzymes leave
pancreas, hormones from pituitary gland leave by this method.

These vesicles accumulate near p.m., and only release their contents when cell are stimulated by a
signal (regulated excretion).

During endocytosis, cells take in substances by vesicle formation as plasma membrane pinches
off by either phagocytosis, pinocytosis, or receptor-mediated endocytosis.

 In phagocytosis, cells engulf large particles such as food particles or another cell.
Phagocytosis is commonly performed by ameboid-type cells (e.g., amoebas and
macrophages).

Then the endocytic vesicle fuses with a lysosome, digestion occurs.

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 Pinocytosis occurs when vesicles form around a liquid or very small particles;
this is only visible with electron microscopy (0.1-0.2μm).

 Loss of p.m. by pinocytosis is balanced by exocytosis.

 Receptor-mediated endocytosis occurs when specific macromolecules bind to

plasma membrane receptors.
1) The receptor proteins are shaped to fit with specific vitamin, hormone,
or lipoprotein molecules and are found at one location in the plasma membrane.

2) This location is a coated pit with a layer of fibrous protein on cytoplasmic

side; when the vesicle is uncoated, it may fuse with a lysosome.

3) Pits are associated with exchange of substances between cells (e.g., maternal and
fetal blood).

4) This system is selective and more efficient; it is important in moving

substances from maternal to fetal blood via placenta.

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Exocytosis

Phagocytosis

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

Pinocytosis

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