Integer Arithmetic In integer arithmetic, we use a set and a few operations by Z, contains all integral numbers (with no fraction) from negative infinity to positive infinity -2,-1,0,1,2,... binary operation takes two inputs and creates one output Three common binary operations defined for integers are addition, subtraction, and multiplicationsee eae Each of these operations takes two inputs (a and b) and creates one output (c) The two inputs come from the set of integers: the Output goes TORR em re ee division does not fit in this category because, it produces two outputs instead of onesee In integer arithmetic, if we divide a by n, we can get q ais called the CMGI Te CAR eme (eld Pm me A CLol eae LAL | r, the remainder. We can call itInteger Arithmetic e Incase ofa positive a, we need to move q x n units to the right EU Re MMM RUT em cre to) Eg: 255 = 23x 11+2 Case of I 1 positive aInteger Arithmetic e While using division we impose two restrictions e First, the divisor must be a positive integer (n > 0) e Second, the remainder must be a nonnegative integer (r > 0)Tee e Incase of a negative a, we need to move (q-l) x n units to the left and then move r units in the opposite direction e In both cases the value of r is positive =e -255=-23x11+-2 => -255=-24x11+9 Decrement q by 1 and add the value of n to r to make it positive Case of eo positive a eee q a Case of boy negative a (q-Wn a qnsees If a is not zero and we let r= 0 in the division relation, we get a=qxn- n divides a (or n is a divisor of a) or a is divisible by n a|1, then a= +1 or -1 2: if alb and bia, then a = +b or -b 3: if alb and bic, thenajc Eg: 3] 15. and 15] 45 => 3 | 45 4: if alb and ajc, then a|(m x b+ n x c), where m and n are arbitrary integers. Eg: 3| 15 and 3| 9 => 3| (15x 2 +9 x 4) => 3] 66TCU e A positive integer can have more than one divisor e Eg: 32 has six divisors: 1,2, 4, 8, 16, and 32 e Fact 1: The integer 1 has only one divisor, itself. Cig nese Um ie mre Ta (rem Cole mm mie BCLs e Eg: common divisors of 12 and 140 are 1, 2, and 4. However, the greatest common divisor is 4Euclidean Algorithm Euclidean Algorithm Ginding the greatest common divisor (ged) of two positive integers by listing all common divisors is not practical when the two integers are large. Fortunately, more than 2000 years ago a mathematician nanfed Euclid developed an algorithm that can find the greatest common divisor of two positive integers. The Euclidean algorithm is based on the following two facts Fact 1: ged (a, 0)=a Fact 2: ged (a, b) = ged (6, 7), where r is the remainder of dividing a by b The first fact tells us that if the second integer is 0, the greatest common divisor is the first one. The second fact allows us to change the value of a, b until b becomes 0. For example, to calculate the ged (36, 10), we can use the second fact several times and the first fact once, as shown below. ‘ged (36, 10) = ged (I zed (6,4) = ged (4,2) = ged (2 In other words, gcd (36, 10) = 2, ged (10, 6) = 2, and so on. This means that instead of calculating aed (36, 10), we can find ged (2, 0). Figure 2.7 shows how we use the above two facts to calculate god ‘a, b).HS ayy bf (mnitialization) while (x, > 0) 3 : qen/n rern-aX nm no ) ged. =n ged (a DO a. Process b. Algorithm 2.7. Euclidean algorithm We use two variables, r; and ry, to hold the changing values during the process of reduction. They are initialized to a and b. In each step, we calculate the remainder of r; divided by rand store the result ir the variable r. We then replace r; by ry and rz by r. The steps are continued until ry becomes 0. At this moment, we stop. The ged (a, 8) is 7. When ged (a, 6) = 1, we say that a and b are relatively prime.Euclidean Algorithm Example 2. ind the greatest common divisor of 2740 and 1760. Solution We apply the above procedure using a table. We initialize r; to 2740 and r2 to 1760. We have also shown the value of g in each step. We have ged (2740, 1760) = 20.Euclidean Algorithm Example 2.8 Find the greatest common divisor of 25 and 60. J Solution We chose this particular example to show that it does not matter if the first number is smaller than the second number, We immediately get our correct ordering. We have ged (25, 65) =5. qo * r 0. 625 6 25 2 0 2% ' 10 2 3 wo 5 2 10 5 0 Ls A oe |Extended Euclidean Algorithm The Extended Euclidean Algorithm Given two integers a and b, we often need to find other two integers, sand 7, such that sXat1x b= ged (a,b) The extended Euclidean algorithmy can calculate the ged (a, 6) and at the same time calculate the value of s and 1, extended Euclidean algorithm uses the same number of steps as the Euclidean algorithm. However, in each step, we use three sets of calculations and exchanges instead of one. The algorithm uses three sets of variables, r’s, s’s, and 1's. In each step, r,, 72, and r have the same values in the Euclidean algorithm. The variables r; and rz are initialized to the values of a and b, respectively. The variables s; and s2 are initialized to | and 0, respectively. The variables f, and f are initialized to 0 and 1, respectively. The calculations of r, s, and / are similar, with one warning. Although r is the remainder of dividing r; by rz, there is no such relationship between the Sther two sets. There is only one quotient, 4. which is calculated as r;/ r2 and used for the other two calculations. ged (a. b=r pagExtended Euclidean Algorithm me li 62. 03 t, — 0; t2 1; while (r, > 0) { qer sx: ees) Updating 3’ ae, (Updating 3’ s) ses, + (Updating s’s | es ee = al t et + qx tyr > 7 (Updating t's) |) tet tee } ged (a e Ee teEuclidean Algorithm Example 2.8 Find the greatest common divisor of 25 and 60. J Solution We chose this particular example to show that it does not matter if the first number is smaller than the second number, We immediately get our correct ordering. We have ged (25, 65) =5. qo * r 0. 625 6 25 2 0 2% ' 10 2 3 wo 5 2 10 5 0 Ls A oe |Extended Euclidean Algorithm me li 62. 03 t, — 0; t2 1; while (r, > 0) { qer sx: ees) Updating 3’ ae, (Updating 3’ s) ses, + (Updating s’s | es ee = al t et + qx tyr > 7 (Updating t's) |) tet tee } ged (a e Ee teExtended Euclidean Algorithm Example 2.9. Given a= 164 and b = 28, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s and t. ae Solution PEM —qXrq S=5)-GXsq 1=h-GXh We use a table to follow the algorithm, We get ged (161, 28) = 7, s =—I and ¢= 6. The answers can be tested because we have C1) x 161 +6x28=7Extended Euclidean Algorithm Example 2.9. Given a= 164 and b = 28, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s and t. ae Solution PEM —qXrq S=5)-GXsq 1=h-GXh We use a table to follow the algorithm, We get ged (161, 28) = 7, s =—I and ¢= 6. The answers can be tested because we have C1) x 161 +6x28=7Extended Euclidean Algorithm Example 2.10 _ Given a= 17 and b = 0, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s and ¢. Solution We use a table to follow the algorithm. Gon) ntt-a00a..| 17 [asi Ea ee 17 io oi. Note that we need no calculation for q, r, and s. The first value of r; meets our termination condition. We get ged (17, 0) = 17, s= 1, and ¢= 0. This indicates why we should initialize sy to 1 and f, to 0. The answers can be tested as shown below: (1x 17) + x0) =17 Example 2.11 _ Given a= 0 and b = 45, find gcd (a, b) and the values of s and t. Solution We use a table to follow the algorithm. [=[+[s]s[* [ale]? a} o|{1]o0)]1 [0110 oto" at 11 We get ged (0, 45) = 45, s = 0, and = 1. This indicates why we should initialize sto 0 and f 101 The answer can be tested as shown below: (x0) +(1 x 45) = 45Linear Diophantine Equations e A Diophantine equation is a polynomial equation, usually in two or more unknowns, such that only the integral solutions are required e An Integral solution is a solution such that all the unknown variables take only integer values e Extended Euclidean Algorithm can be used to find the solutions to the linear Diophantine equations of two variables, an equation of type ax + by =c C