Experiment 1

Aim: To study the parts of a digital Camera.

01. Camera Body

The camera body is like the chassis of a car that holds everything together inside. Outside the
body, you will find controllers, buttons, viewfinders, screen, lens, etc parts. Inside the camera
body, you will find the processor, image sensor, wiring, circuits, etc.

02. Lens
The lens is one of the most crucial parts of all types of cameras. It focuses incoming light
onto the image sensor to create a clear and sharp image. Also, there are various types of
lenses available for their specific purposes.

Different types of lenses offer various focal lengths and apertures. Also, provides versatility
in capturing scenes from wide-angle landscapes to close-up portraits.

However, High-quality lenses ensure optimal image quality, minimizing distortions and
aberrations. That's why photographers often invest in lenses more than the main camera.

03. Image Sensor

The image sensor detects images from the source light provided by the lens. Then the sensor
encodes the light and decodes it into electronic signals. Then the image sensor sends these
electronic signals into the image processor to make these signals into a picture.

There are different types of camera sensors available are there for capturing various types of
photos. But, the primary job of all image sensors is the same.

04. Image Processor

There are a lot of names of an image sensor such as image processing engines, image
processing units (IPU), image signal processors (ISP), digital signal processors (DSP), etc.

The main job of this part of a camera is to process the digital signals and make a picture
according to the given data from the image sensor. It evaluates the brightness, colors, pixels,
contrast, more things. So, we can consider the image sensor as a bridge between raw
materials and the final results of an image.
05. Camera Viewfinder
This is an element that allows you to see what you are capturing so that you can capture a
100% accurate image. This camera part also has its variations, like the optimal viewfinder for
DSLR, and electronic viewfinders for mirrorless cameras.

Also, a few cameras use LCD screens as an alternative to viewfinders. But it depends on your
categories/types of photography.

06. LCD Screen on Camera

Like the viewfinder, the LCD screen also allows you to see what you are going to capture.
Most digital cameras have two preview options, you can pick one of them to see photos.
When you are capturing a moving subject, then go with the viewfinder.

Otherwise, if you are capturing landscape, architecture, or macro photography then the LCD
screen is best for you. Some cameras like Canon PowerShot A3400 and Nikon Z7II allow
touching options. So that it becomes easier to control and adjust settings.

07. Aperture
The camera aperture is the size of the opening of a lens to pass light into the image sensor.
Wait! The aperture is not only about the light passes, it also affects how much of the photo is
sharp or blurry. So the aperture is also one of the best parts of a camera to capture stunning
photos.

However, When you open it in a bigger size more light will pass, which is good for low-light
photography. The smaller size of the lens opening means less light will be passed, which is
good for high-light photos.

08. Shutter
The camera shutter is a camera part made with metal or plastic that decides how much light
gets to the camera's sensor. It opens and closes to let light reach inside (to the sensor) the
camera. When it opens for a long time, more light gets inside it, then the pictures become
brighter.

If it opens for a short time, the picture will be darkened. You can set the perfect Shutter for
your picture by changing the shutter speed setting on your camera.

09. Memory Card

Camera memory cards can be two internal or fixed memory cards or external or removable
memory cards. The internal memory cards don't have enough space for a professional
photographer.

That's why photographers need external memory cards to save pictures. Without having a
memory card, you can't save or collect your photos. In a nutshell, this part of the camera is
like the soul of a body.

10. Grip
The grip is a part of the camera used on the right to hold the camera comfortably. It helps
photographers to hold the camera for a long time without tiredness. A few grips are made
with rubber or foam with grooves that attach to the hand (4 fingers).

11. In-Built Flashlight

The in-built flashlight helps enhance the lighting condition to focus on the subject. It is one of
the most crucial parts of a camera to overcome the low light issue of photography. Even the
default flash might not be enough sometimes. That's why it requires external flashlights to get
better images.

12. Battery
The battery helps to operate the whole camera's electronics, like powering the display and
other components. Most of the camera's batteries are rechargeable and are very easy to
exchange.

Usually, photographers use multiple batteries for backup. Because without a charged battery,
the camera is dead. Now, you may realize how important the battery is.

13. Battery Compartment

The battery compartment is like a house of a battery with a connector, that connects the
battery to power the camera. The primary role of this part is to hold the battery in the right
position to supply the electronics to the camera. This place does not have any heavy role, but
it is still necessary.

14. Main Mirror (in DSLR Camera)

The camera mirror is another important part of a camera that reflects images into the camera
to capture them. Most beginners think that lenses and mirrors are the same thing, but this is
not true. A camera lens is a transparent surface, and a mirror is a reflective surface. The main
mirror is also called “Reflex Mirror” on a camera.
In the DSLR camera, the mirror and shutter are placed between the lens and the image sensor.
On the other hand, the mirrorless camera does not have a mirror. So these cameras directly hit
the light into the image sensor to capture the images.

Sub Mirror (Secondary Mirror)

The sub-mirror reflects the light from the main mirror into the reflex mirror. That means
when the light comes from the outside of the main mirror, it passes lights into the viewfinder.
As it is an internal component of the cameras, you can't see it.

Experiment 2
Aim: To study the principle and Functioning of DSLR Camera :

When we look through the viewfinder of an SLR, we are actually seeing a reflection of the
image created by the reflex mirror and the pentaprism housed in the viewfinder. The mirror
sends the light upwards and the pentaprism reflects it within to rotate the image and sends it
to the viewfinder to help compose the image. When the shutter release button is pressed, the
mirror swiftly moves upwards, allowing the light to fall onto the sensor to create the image.
After the image is captured, the mirror falls back into the place again. As the action of mirror
is based on the pressing of a button, it is called a reflex mirror.

Cross-section of SLR: 1. Lens assembly 2. Mirror in down position (image visible in

viewfinder) 3. Focal-plane shutter 4. Sensor/Film 5. Focusing screen 6. Condensing lens 7.
Pentaprism or Pentamirror 8. Eyepiece
Focus: Focussing ring on the camera, which is the first ring on any camera lens. It helps in
moving the camera assembly so that the image produced can be brought into sharp focus.
While working in manual focussing mode, one rotates the ring in order to focus in or out of
the subject as per the need. It also helps in highlighting one part of the image by focussing it
sharper than the rest. In autofocus mode, the ring gets locked and the camera detects the
object by using infrared wave mechanism and shoots accordingly. Half pressing the shutter
release button helps in measuring and locking the focussing distance.

Different Shooting Modes: We get different shooting modes in our camera. These modes
can be automatic, semi-automatic or complete manual. Here, we shall discuss few important
shooting modes.
Auto mode: In this mode, the camera sets everything automatically. We cannot change
aperture, shutter speed, or ISO. Most cameras provide some pre-programmed settings, for
example - portrait mode, landscape mode, close-up mode, sports mode, etc. In these modes
the camera automatically sets all the features.
Aperture-Priority Mode: We may consider this mode as semi-automatic where we have the
freedom to set a few things and some other things will be set automatically by the camera. In
aperture priority mode, we have the liberty to change the aperture and ISO and the camera
will automatically select the shutter speed to get the correct exposure. Different companies
use different icons for this mode, but 'A' and 'Av' are the most popular.
Shutter-Priority Mode: It is also a semi-automatic mode where we have freedom to choose
shutter speed and ISO and the camera will automatically select the aperture accordingly. 'S'
and 'Tv' are the most popular icons used for this mode by different camera companies.
ISO: In digital photography, ISO is related to the sensitivity of the image sensor to light. ISO
button can be found on the body of the camera, through which the ISO setting can be
changed. If we increase the ISO, the image sensor's sensitivity to light will increase.
Experiment 3
Aim: Working and handling of light microscopes (Dissection and Compound).

It is the most indispensable instrument in a biology laboratory, so much so that it comes to be

called 'The primary instrument of the biologists'. It helps to increase the resolving power
(property to distinguish objects lying very close as separate bodies) of human eye which fails
to recognise objects lying closer between 0.01 to 0.25 mm.
Some common types of microscopes are:
1. Dissecting microscope, 2. Compound microscope, 3. Binocular microscope, 4. Phase
contrast microscope and 5. Electron microscope. Of these, dissecting microscope and
compound microscopes are very commonly used by the students.
Dissecting microscope
It is used for dissection, specially during taxonomic studies, embryo separation, etc.
Construction: It consists of basal foot, a vertical limb, stage and a lens. The basal foot is a
stand. The limb has an attached stage made of glass plate. A folded arm which can be moved
vertically holds the lens. A mirror is attached at the base of the limb.
Mechanical operation 1. Move the lens and adjust it over the object.
2. Illuminate the object suitably by adjusting the mirror.
3. Focus the object by using adjustment screw

Fig. Dissecting Microscope

Compound microscope:
It is one of the most commonly used and by far the most suitable microscope in the Botany
Laboratory.
At one time, it employs one ocular (eye piece) and one objective, in working position. As
such, it is also known as monocular-mono-objective microscope.
Construction: The microscope is built around a strong basal foot and a vertical limb. The
foot supports the vertical limb.
A round, rectangular or square stage is fixed to the limb. It is provided with spring clips to
hold the slide in position. A movable or fixed sub-stage is situated directly below the stage. It
is provided with an iris diaphragm and condenser lens. Iris diaphragm is a wheel-shaped
metal disc to regulate the aperture, through which light rays reach the condenser and are
passed to an object.

Fig. Compound microscope

Condenser is a system of two or more lenses under the stage which receives parallel light rays
from mirror and converge them at the level of stage. A movable concave mirror is fixed at the
lowermost part of the limb to focus a converging cone of rays at the level of specimen.
Whether day or artificial light is used as a source, concave mirror converges the light if there
are no condensing lenses.
Body of the microscope is composed of a tube. At the upper end of the tube, is an ocular (eye
piece) which can be changed for lower or higher values of magnifications. At the lower end
of this tube is a revolving nose-piece with about three objectives viz. low power, high power
and oil immersion. These magnifications range from 4x to l00x. The conventional low power
objective is 10x. Tube of the microscope is vertically movable with the help of coarse and
fine adjustment screws on the limb, operated by a rack and pinion system. Coarse adjustment
moves the tube rapidly, while fine adjustment screw does it gradually.
Mechanical operation: 1. Microscope is placed in, maximum diffuse light. Direct sunlight is
harmful for the eyes. The northern light is most suitable. If light source is artificial, filter
(preferably blue coloured) is used.
2. Light is adjusted by turning the mirror towards the source of light and also by moving the
sub-stage up and down, as well as with the help of iris diaphragm.
3. A prepared slide is placed on the stage. Object is adjusted just over the stage aperture.
4. The object is located and focussed with a lowpower objective using coarse adjustment.
5. If higher magnification is desired, nose-piece is turned to next higher power. Fine
adjustment can be used freely at this stage, while the use of coarse adjustment be avoided.
6. High power objective and subsequent higher powers are used only when object is properly
mounted under coverslip.
7. The object should always be observed with both eyes open.
Experiment 4.
Aim: Study of plant forms through microscopic lens (Single-celled, colonial forms,
filamentous forms, multicellular and complex forms).

Requirements
● Compound microscope, Glass slides and coverslips, Dropper, Water
● fresh samples of: Chlorella (single-celled), Volvox (colonial),
Spirogyra (filamentous), Moss leaf (multicellular), Stem of Maize (complex form)

Procedure
A. Single-celled Forms (Chlorella)
1. Place a drop of water containing Chlorella on a slide.
2. Cover with a coverslip and observe under the microscope (start with low power, then
switch to high power).
3. Note the spherical or oval shape, chloroplasts, and absence of multicellular structures.
B. Colonial Forms (Volvox)
1. Take a sample of Volvox colony in water.
2. Place a drop on a slide and cover with a coverslip.
3. Observe under the microscope and note the spherical colony structure with
interconnected cells.
C. Filamentous Forms (Spirogyra)
1. Place a strand of Spirogyra on a slide with a drop of water.
2. Cover with a coverslip and observe under the microscope.
3. Identify the long, unbranched filamentous structure with spiral chloroplasts.
D. Multicellular Forms (Moss Leaf)
1. Take a thin section of a moss leaf.
2. Place it on a slide with water and cover with a coverslip.
3. Observe under the microscope and note the layered multicellular structure.
E. Complex Forms (Stem of Maize)
1. Take a transverse section of maize stem.
2. Place it on a slide, add a drop of water, add safranine stain & glycerine and cover with
a coverslip.
3. Observe under the microscope and identify vascular tissues (xylem and phloem), and
other ground tissues including trichomes at the epidermis
Observations

Plant Form Example Microscopic Features Observed

Single-celled Chlorella Round/oval cells, single chloroplast, no cell grouping

Spherical colony with many cells embedded in a gelatinous

Colonial Volvox
matrix

Filamentous Spirogyra Long, thread-like chains of cells with spiral chloroplasts

Multicellular Moss leaf Multiple cell layers, no vascular tissues

Stem of Well-differentiated scattered vascular bundles (xylem, phloem)

Complex
Maize trichomes at epidermis

Results and Discussion

● Single-celled forms like Chlorella are independent and perform all life functions in
one cell, they have a definite pattern which is uniform among all the specimens
observed.
● Colonial forms (Volvox) show connected structures (cells) and beautifully arranged
together which gives a structural look designed by the nature.
● Filamentous forms (Spirogyra) exhibit simple linear yet beautiful structure
(multicellularity).
● Moss leaves show basic multicellular structure without vascular tissues.
● Maize Stem section display complex organization with specialized tissues.

Precautions
● Handle the microscope carefully.
● Avoid air bubbles while placing coverslips.
● Use thin sections for better clarity.
● Adjust light intensity properly for clear viewing.

Conclusion
Through this experiment, we observed different plant forms under a microscope, ranging
from simple single-celled organisms to complex multicellular structures. Each form exhibits
unique adaptations for survival and function.