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“African Crossroads: Conflicts between African Traditional Religion and

Christianity”

Article in International Journal of the Humanities · January 2008

DOI: 10.18848/1447-9508/CGP/v06i02/42362

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“African Crossroads: Conflicts between African Traditional Religion
and Christianity”
Uchenna Onuzulike, Ohio University, UNITED STATES

Abstract: This paper focuses on the conflicts between African Traditional Religion and Christianity. Although there are
other religions in Africa such as Islam and Judaism, this study concentrates on African Traditional Religion and Christianity.
Religion is the strongest element in traditional African culture and exerts great influence upon the conduct of the African
people. Religion is closely bound up with the traditional way of African life;; therefore, religion has shaped the lives of
Africans, at the same time life has shaped religion as well. Whenever two or three cultures meet, there is potential conflict.
Spiritual conflicts exist between African Traditional Religion and Christianity. It is difficult to separate African culture from
African Traditional Religion because religion is embedded in African culture. African Traditional religion is part of the
African’s ethos and an understanding of it should go hand in hand with Christian evangelization. Ignoring these traditional
beliefs, attitudes and practices may lead to a lack of understanding of African behavior and problems. This paper work uses
Nollywood, the Nigerian movie industry, to showcase the clash between African Traditional Religion and Christianity.

Keywords: African Traditional Religion, Christianity, Nigerian Movies, Nollywood, Juju

Introduction values and morals, and (5) religious officials and

leaders. He defines African Traditional Religion as:

T
HIS PAPER ANALYZES the conflicts
between African Traditional Religion and The product of the thinking and experiences of
Christianity. These conflicts come in various our forefathers and mothers that is men, women
forms such as spiritual, cultural, doctrinal, and children of former generations. They
and practical. African Traditional Religion was the formed religious ideas, they formulated reli-­
primary African religion before the advent of Chris-­ gious beliefs, they observed religious ceremon-­
tianity and other religions. Many Africans have been ies and rituals, they told proverbs and myths
converted from African Traditional Religion to other which safeguarded the life of the individual and
foreign religions. For example, in Nigeria, which is his community. (pp. 13-­14)
the most populous country in Africa, according to
Falola (1999), Muslims constitute about 50 percent Mbiti notes, “The Bible is the sacred book of Chris-­
of the population, and Christians make up about 40 tianity, and the Qur’an is the book of Islam. African
percent of the population. The rest practices one form Religion has no scriptures or holy books. It is written
of African Traditional Religion (religious beliefs and in the history, the hearts and experiences of the
practices of the Africans) or another. Although one people” (p.14). African Traditional Religion can be
can find a mosque or a church in almost every village found in rituals, ceremonies and festivals;; shrines,
and town today, African Traditional Religion contin-­ sacred places and religious objects;; art and symbols;;
ues to play a role in African society. music and dance;; proverbs, riddles and wise sayings;;
In his book African Traditional Religion, Mbiti names of people and places;; myths and legends;; be-­
(1991) notes, “African Religion is very pragmatic liefs and customs. In fact, African religion is found
and realistic” (p.2). He elaborates that African Tradi-­ in all aspects of life.
tional Religion is applied to a situation as the need
arises. He adds that in each African society, religion Misconception of African Traditional
is embedded in the local language, so that to under-­ Religion
stand the religious life of the people properly, one
needs to know their language. He asserts, “To be an African Traditional Religion is intertwined with
African in the traditional setting is to be truly reli-­ African culture. It may be difficult for some Christi-­
gious” (p.30). ans to maintain some African traditional culture be-­
He states that religion can be seen in five aspects cause of their Christian faith, which is contrary to
of culture, namely: (1) beliefs, (2) practices, ceremon-­ African Traditional Religion. This has created confu-­
ies and festivals, (3) religious objects and places, (4) sion among many African Christians who want to
maintain some of their traditions.

THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE HUMANITIES,

VOLUME 6, NUMBER 2, 2008
http://www.Humanities-­Journal.com, ISSN 1447-­9508
© Common Ground, Uchenna Onuzulike, All Rights Reserved, Permissions: cg-­[email protected]
164 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE HUMANITIES, VOLUME 6

Sarpong (2006) says that unfortunately, African Crossroads of the Africans

traditional religion, which should be employed for
its potentially salutary effect, has been misunderstood Wherever two or three cultures meet, there is poten-­
and is still misrepresented. He notes: tial conflict. Spiritual conflicts exist between African
Traditional Religion and Christianity. It is difficult
The misconception is amply evident from the to separate African culture from African Traditional
many wrong names by which traditional reli-­ Religion because religion is embedded in African
gion has been described. It is difficult to under-­ culture. Mulagu (1991) states, “Any meeting of two
stand the tenacity with which African traditional different realities incurs the risk of conflict. We do,
religion has been termed a primal religion. in fact, observe at times conflict between the cultural
Evidently the use of the term is to distinguish heritage of black Africans and Christianity” (p.128).
it from the so-­called great or world religions. Aya (2000) notes, “The modern African in search of
A primal religion is supposed to have no self-­determination and self-­assertion finds himself
founders. It is without a literary source. (p.1) in a situation where his or her culture is at crossroads
with alien cultures” (p.12). He also states, “A modern
African Traditional Religion is misrepresented more African has been brain-­washed into disowning his
than other religions. According to Quarcoopome own culture and embracing alien cultures and values,
(1987), possibly there is no religion that has been some of which he does not claim to understand”
misconceived, misrepresented and misunderstood (p.12). Africans have been enculturated to at least
more than African Traditional Religion. He says that two cultures, which are African and Western;; as a
educated Africans have been known to refer to the result, they lose the richness of their culture and
Traditional Religion as animism, paganism, and fet-­ casually pass it on to next generation.
ishism amongst others and also refer to the traditional This resonates in his paper, where Ogundele
priest as fetish priest. He concludes: (2002) states that Duro Ladipo, who was a church
choirmaster in the town’s Anglican Church and also
But it appears that in this regard such educated taught in its primary school, was very much appreci-­
Africans are merely echoing the ignorance and ated as a choirmaster until he composed a Christmas
prejudice of some West investigators and cantata in which introduced bata and dundun drums.
Christian missionaries, who is in abject ignor-­ The church was scandalized: how could their choir-­
ance and false sense of academic security cal-­ master bring “pagan” elements into the celebration
lously used derogatory terminologies to desig-­ of the birth of Christ? Indeed, bata is the beloved
nate the Traditional Religion. (pp.12-­13) music of Sango (the Nigerian tribe Yoruba god of
lightning and thunder) while the dundun ensemble
He says that all things considered, paganism is a term belongs to the masquerade cults. The profanity led
which had been derogatory and imposed on Africans to Duro Ladipo leaving the church and his teaching
from the outside and as such is “obnoxious”: position to become a full-­time actor, composer of
plays and songs, director, and producer. This is an
With particular reference to West African Tra-­
example of the conflict between the two cultures.
ditional Religion, any time the word pagan is
Knitter (1988) notes that presently many African
used it has the undertone of racial or social
Christian theologians -­ Catholic and Protestant, male
discrimination. Even though the discrimination
and female, indigenous and expatriate -­ have played
is loaded with religious overtones the basic
a significant role, not only in creative Christian
implication is sociological. (p.17)
theologizing but also in giving written expression to
This may have consequences because Christians may African Traditional Religions and in re-­affirming
reject some African traditions that go against their religious beliefs, values, symbols, and rites that have
Christian faith. Wisdom should be applied to separate been at the heart of African culture for centuries be-­
African traditions that go against Christian beliefs. fore the coming of other religions. He acknowledged
Otherwise, Africans may rapidly lose some of their that many theologians are passionate in their desire
cultural heritage. to recover the profound traditional integration of re-­
However, according Kwabena-­Essem, “African ligion and life, and the meaningful ancient beliefs,
religions had their biggest boost two years ago symbols, and rites of their peoples which they feel
[February, 1982] when Pope John Paul II, on a visit were needlessly, sometimes ruthlessly, suppressed
to Benin, apologized for centuries of ridiculing by the missionaries of the last century and a quarter.
African cultural beliefs by the Western world” (p.1). For example, the poem “Piano and Drums” by
Gabriel Okara (1966) explains the conflict people
face when they are confronted with two different
cultures. The poem shows that those Africans who
learn about the Western ways of life (school, church,
 UCHENNA ONUZULIKE 165

music, language, dress, etc.) behave in two different Christianity will remain alien and irrelevant and he
ways. Sometimes they act as true Africans, and notes:
sometimes like Westerners. For example, the Yoruba,
Hausa, Igbo, Tiv, Ijaw, Efik, Ibibio, etc. tribes in Christ must have an African soul, a soul that
Nigeria do not know which music to absorb. In order understands the realities of the African cosmos
to describe the crossroads some Africans face, I before he can respond to our lyrics, dances and
employed the poem “Piano and Drums” to show the customs, He must first be liberated from the
significance of cultural confusion: grip of Europeanism before he can be embraced
by Africans in their quest for self-­realization
When at break of day at a riverside and liberation. (p.33)
I hear jungle drums telegraphing
The mystic rhythm, urgent, raw The authors who express these sentiments come from
Like bleeding flesh, speaking of the mainline Christian churches, but they are being
Primal youth and the beginning… prodded constantly by the large, steadily increasing
Then I hear a wailing piano number of independent Christian churches all over
Solo speaking of complex ways the continent of Africa (p.33).
In tear-­furrowed concerto, These churches have never lost touch with the in-­
Of far away lands… tegration of religion with African traditional life.
And I lost in the morning mist Knitter states that according to the Holy Bible, the
Of and age at a riverside keep first commandment is not to have any other god be-­
Wandering in the mystic rhythm sides God. “Therefore, using other channels other
Of jungle drums and the concerto. (p.36, 37) than Christ is idolatry.” All idols and sacrifices
should be abolished because the big brother and our
An analysis of this poem reveals the piano as a rep-­ dearest ancestor, Christ, has paid the price on the
resentation of the European way of life and the drums cross.
as a representation of the African way of life. Oni Oha (2000) notes that many Christian narratives
(1997) in his analysis of this poem writes that the forefront the conflict between God’s forces and the
piano is a musical instrument that is made by devil’s in the affairs of human beings. He says that
Europeans and so supplies European music to the secular human experiences are seen as reflections as
Europeans. The jungle drums like bata or ekwe are well as aftermaths of spiritual warfare. He goes on
home-­made musical instruments to supply African to say that “the prominence of this logic in contem-­
melody to Africans. The African in this poem first porary Christian evangelism in Nigeria is very signi-­
hears the vibrant sounds of the jungle drums, which ficant, especially given that early Christian ministries
move him from head to toe. Then the sound of the in Nigeria tried to dismiss the idea of the intervention
piano comes faintly, narrowly and sadly from a very of evil spirits in human affairs as mere superstition”
distant place. Now, the speaker has to stand between (p.192). Contemporary Christianity in Nigeria, espe-­
these two different types of music. The piano enters cially its Pentecostal brands, appears to have a point
the right ear;; jungle music enters the left. The situ-­ of intersection with indigenous religious systems in
ation is not clear to him. He only looks on, unable the idea of the potency and operation of evil spiritual
to sing or dance to either of the two. The speaker forces, even though Christianity still regards the
finds himself in a cultural dilemma of a contact African Traditional Religion as the site and domain
between the African culture and the European or of demonic operations.
Western culture. The two cultures meet and clash Commenting on the blending of African Tradition-­
inside him. This poem highlights the clash of faith al Religion and Christianity, Meyer (1998) notes that
of African Traditional Religion and Christianity. determined Christian members positively incorporate
tradition boiled down to the invitation of Satan him-­
self into the church. In this conflict, Pentecostaliza-­
Integration of African Traditional
tion was opposed to Africanization (p.319).
Religion and Christianity
Kwabena-­Essem (2006) claims that people do not
In his book Pluralism and Oppression, Knitter (1988) understand and appreciate the complex interplay of
says that Zulu Sofola calls for more depth to the in-­ religion, medicine and psychology in African beliefs.
digenization process, saying that there has been a He says that the facts that Africans have largely re-­
misdirected desire of African churches to dress Christ duced religious thought and practice to everyday life
in African clothes, without giving thought to the and that African religions seek to link the supernat-­
European soul with which Christ came to Africa. ural with the natural and the mundane continue to
Sofola says that unless Christ is presented to Africans baffle the Western world.
in a manner acceptable to the African mentality, In this contemporary time, many Africans in the
Diaspora as well as in Africa are acquiring know-­
166 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE HUMANITIES, VOLUME 6

ledge and a college education, just as Parrinder The Great Mistake (2003). The two films analyzed
(1954) earlier noted that many Africans are reaching in this paper have religious connotations. Persecution
a high level of education, millions have become Parts 1 & 2 (2007) and Evil Doers Parts 1 & 2 (2002)
Christian or Muslim, and religious loyalties change depict conflicts between African Traditional Religion
with other customs. However, not only do the major-­ and Christianity. Persecution not only displays the
ity of Africans still hold to the traditional religion of conflicts between the two faiths, it also shows the
their fathers, but also behind the veneer of the new conflicts between African Traditional Religion and
beliefs of most educated people lie older ideas that African traditions. Evil Doers shows Africans who
will not disappear for a long time yet. He states, “To partake in both faiths, in this case for a reason.
Africans, the spiritual world is so real and near, its
forces intertwining and inspiring the visible world Summary of Persecution
that, whether pagan or Christian, man has to reckon Persecution (2007) is about a son of a fearful native
with things invisible to mortal sight” (p.4). Questions doctor, Ijiji, who terrorizes his community especially
about integration and separation of African Tradition-­ the Christians because of their faith. The Igwe (the
al Religion and Christianity always arise, even as village chief) decides to give his son, Okwudili, a
African Traditional Religion and Christianity values government official, the Oye title, which is given to
can and do co-­exist in Africa. These aspects of the bravest man in the community. Ijiji, the protag-­
African culture and the conflicts between African onist, together with the youth in the community are
Traditional Religion and Christianity are evident in against the idea since Okwudili doesn’t live in the
Nigerian movies. community and does not participate in the cultural
activities such as masquerade ceremonies. The Igwe’s
Analysis of Nigerian Movies reason for making his son the Oye is for the com-­
munity to gain favors from the government. Not only
Nollywood is the name given to the Nigerian film
does Ijiji fight the Igwe’s decision he but also fights
industry, which is the highest grossing movie making
the Christians in the community.
industry behind Hollywood of the United States and
In Persecution, faith conflicts are evident;; for ex-­
Bollywood of India. Nollywood is saturated with
ample, Ijiji and his friend are hired to clear the bush
supernatural and religious overtones that are embed-­
for installing electrical polls in his village. When he
ded in Africa cultures. Nigerian movies are deeply
finds out that the road will run through the Uke shrine
rooted in Nigerian cultural traditions and social texts
he objects. Ijiji suggests that they should divert the
that focus on Nigerian community life that other
road. The supervisor says that the God he serves is
Africans can relate to. Nigerian film stories are told
higher than the Uke shrine. When Ijiji asks him what
using African idioms, proverbs, costumes, artifacts,
God he serves, the supervisor says the Living God.
imagery and cultural display (Onuzulike, 2007a,
Ijiji asks the supervisor if he wants him to commit
2007b). The common Nigerian film genres include
abomination by destroying a deity. A conflict of faith
horror, comedy, urban legend, mythic, love and ro-­
has come into play. The supervisor, a Christian, be-­
mance, juju/witchcraft, melodrama, and historical
lieves in the Living God while Ijiji believes in pre-­
epic. Religious overtones are evident in most Nigeri-­
serving Uke shrine that is not a Living God.
an movies. In his work, Flesher (2000) summarizes:
In another family of the village, Emmanuel goes
What is interesting about Nigerian films is that to Ijiji’s father, Nkume, and reports that his brother,
one of the most popular plot lines features the Christopher, wants to demolish the Agwu deity in
clash of religions, old and new. The key charac-­ his father’s compound. Emmanuel claims that Agwu
ters are villains who use aspects of traditional deity has been the root of all his problems. Em-­
African religions, often characterized as witch-­ manuel tells Nkume that Christopher brought people
craft or voodoo, to work their wicked ways. In from warehouse churches and maps the shrine for
the end, however, Christianity triumphs by re-­ destruction. Ijiji says that the church is bringing
deeming the victims and vanquishing the evil-­ trouble to the community. Ijiji, Emmanuel, and a
doers, although they may be forgiven upon number of other men storm bible study session and
conversion to Christianity. Make no mistake, beat up Christopher because he burnt his father’s
this plotline may be camp and hackneyed, but Agwu deity. Christopher laments, “Father, I know
it usually is played down and dirty for all it is your children will suffer more persecution….” This
worth. (p.1) kind of tension is common among families who have
deities in their compounds and a family member
There are several Nigerian movies that deal with converts to Christianity, so they devise a plan to
conflicts of religions such as The Holocaust Part 1 destroy the deity.
& 2 (2008);; 40 Days in the Wilderness Part 1, 2 & In another development, Ijiji and his gang set a
3;; (2005);; Battle of Liberation Part 1 & 2 (2008);; road block and ambush the van that is carrying a
 UCHENNA ONUZULIKE 167

church group. The gang assaults the church group Eventually, the Bishop sends a new powerful Rev.
before vanishing into the woods. A church leader Fr. Joshua. On his way to the village to assume his
says that the best defense is to attack. He says that role, the native doctor invokes a fire before Rev. Fr.
stubborn faith is for stubborn situations and that they Joshua’s car in order to cause a car accident. With
will carry the battle to the enemy territory. During the power of the Lord, the Rev. Fr. Joshua sees the
evangelizing crusade by a group church member, fire and says, “Satan is about to start his battle, but
Ijiji and some youths along with a masquerade harass the Lord is my strength.” He overcomes the chal-­
the church crusaders and disperse them. In another lenges confronted on his way to the village.
incident, when Ijiji realizes that the church bought While Rev. Fr. Joshua is conducting a healing
a piece of land to build a church, he goes to that land crusade, Eunice continues to attack him. A spiritual
at night and buries a charm in an effort to prevent battle ensues. At the end, Rev. Fr. Joshua wins the
them from building a church on that land. This is spiritual confrontation though the power of the true
evidence of the conflicts that arise between African Living God. Eunice falls on the ground but the native
Traditional Religion and Christianity. doctor appears and restores her. The Rev. Fr. Joshua
Finally, Ijiji has a motorcycle accident. He is left falls on the ground and cries, "God, why have thou
on the side of the road until a passer-­by who is a forsaken me?" Jesus appears and strikes the spirit of
doctor sees him and takes him to the hospital. The the native doctor. Suddenly everyone Eunice harmed
movie ends. The epilogue of this movie says, “Ijiji was healed. The Rev. Fr. Joshua pulls Eunice up and
was rescued by the doctor who treated him, and later she declares that Jesus is Lord. Finally, Rev. Fr.
converted him, Ijiji became a very strong Christian Joshua and the church members go to Simon and
he stopped persecuting the saints.” Eunice’s compound where she confesses in the
presence of many. The Rev. Fr. Joshua digs out the
Summary of Evil Doers charms Eunice has buried in the compound. She
gives her life to Christ.
Evil Doers (2002) is about a Christian woman, Eu-­ Evil Doers portrays conflicts of faiths and a need
nice, who disputes with her husband, Simon, and her for spiritual powers, which causes Eunice, a Christi-­
in-­laws over some family matters. When Simon tells an, to secretly consult a native doctor to get some
Eunice, his plan to make his two brothers caretakers juju in order to influence and control her husband.
of a new business so they can travel around the A key phrase in the movie is “Ofu Aka n’uka, Ofu
world, she becomes upset. The only thing he needs aka n’ogwu,” which means on one hand in Christian-­
from her is to bear children for him. She frowns and ity and on the other in juju. Juju is a cult that is con-­
leaves her husband alone at the table. Apparently, sulted for one reason or another when in need. This
the husband falls sick with a stroke. When the Si-­ movie resonates with Kwabena-­Essen (2006), who
mon’s brothers hear about their brother’s illness, notes that the commitment to the Christian God does
they come to see their brother. Eunice refuses to let not deter some Africans from the need to seek the
them see Simon at first. She consults a native doctor, help of minor deities to solve pressing everyday
who prepares charm for her and gives her a ring of problems. He says that this explains the paradox of
fire. She terrorizes her in-­laws, the Christians and many otherwise devout followers of other religions
her community. Eventually, she is defeated by the like Christianity and Islam also concurrently consult-­
power of God and she gives her life to Christ. ing diviners, fetishes and other cults. And it answers
Evil Doers showcases conflicts between African one very important point that people find a puzzle-­
Traditional Religion and Christianity. After a con-­ ment: one goes to church, tabernacle or mosque for
frontation between Eunice and her brothers-­in-­law, worship but one goes to a fetish priest or to a secret
she consults a native doctor in order to do away them. cult to seek medical care, psychological cure or reli-­
She receives a charm, which she secretly buries in gious comfort.
the in-­laws’ compound. This charm affects the Nollywood serves as an avenue to portray African
brothers’ families. This shows the inconsistency of culture. Since Nigerian movies contain many of reli-­
some African Christians who consult native doctors. gious overtones, they depict the encounters of the
In another incident, Rev. Fr. Damian is praying African Traditional Religion and Christianity. Nolly-­
for Monica, a member of the Catholic Women’s wood movies may help Africans and those in the
Organization (CWO), to be delivered from her ill-­ Diaspora to reconstruct the past in order to under-­
ness. During the prayer Eunice uses a charm to stand the present and effectively plan the future.
counter the prayers of Rev. Fr. Damian. When she
rubs the ring on her finger, it releases a smoke-­like
power that counters the prayer of Rev. Fr. Damian.
Conclusion
The church council petitions the bishop’s secretary Africans are notoriously religious and each group
and Rev. Fr. Damien is removed from the church. has its own religious system of life so fully that it is
168 THE INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF THE HUMANITIES, VOLUME 6

not easy or possible always to isolate it. As a result, been influenced very strongly by religion as it is
clashes of faiths occur. During the Symposium of found in each group. Up to this contemporary time,
Episcopal Conferences of Africa and Madagascar Africans who live based on traditional ways of life
(SECAM), Sarpong (2006) said that Africans recog-­ are also regarded to be very religious.
nize as well the challenge of inculturation of Chris-­ Finally, the spiritual, cultural, doctrinal, and
tianity in Africa, an evangelization in depth of the practical conflicts between African Traditional Reli-­
African Christian, which respects and affirms his gion and Christianity are obvious due to several
specific cultural identity and seeks to bridge the gap factors, most importantly, that Africans are very re-­
between faith and culture. ligious. The misconception of African Traditional
Sarpong states clearly that “religion permeates the Religion has led it to be called derogatory names
ideal African from cradle to grave” (p.12). African such as animism, paganism, and fetish amongst oth-­
Traditional Religion, therefore, is integral in the ers. Africans are at a crossroads. Due to the fact that
shaping of the African's future. He concludes, “We religion is embedded in African culture, it is difficult
have to know the past in order to understand the for Africans to be fully devoted to Christianity
present and be better equipped to plan the future. We without partaking in some African Traditional Reli-­
cannot know the past of the African if we neglect gion activities. Devoted to African Christians oppose
his or her religion” (p.12). Traditional Religion is the integration of the two faiths because they be-­
part of the African's philosophy;; therefore, spiritual lieved that African Traditional Religion is a Satan-­
or cultural conflicts are eminent when African Tradi-­ driven faith. Nigeria’s Nollywood movies dramatize
tional Religion and Christianity meet. One cannot the conflicts such as the spiritual warfare that exist
understand the African heritage without understand-­ between African Traditional Religion and Christian-­
ing its religious part. Africa’s different cultures have ity.

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About the Author

Uchenna Onuzulike
Uchenna Onuzulike (M.S.P.C., Clark University, 2007;; B.A., Worcester State College, 2005) has just completed
his master’s thesis titled, “Nollywood: The Emergence of the Nigerian Videofilm Industry and Its Representation
of Nigerian Culture.” His research interests focus on gender discourse, religious communication, ethnic/racial
identities, and diasporic film cultures. He has recently published two articles. The first article is entitled “The
Birth of Nollywood: The Nigerian Movie Industry,” in Black Camera: A Micro Journal of Black Film Studies,
Vol.22, No.1, Spring/Summer 2007, pp. 25 – 26. The second article is entitled “Nollywood: The Influence of
the Nigerian Movie Industry on African Culture,” in The Journal of Human Communication: A Journal of the
Pacific and Asian Communication Association, Vol. 10, No.3, pp.231 – 242. He presented four papers in 2007.
The first paper was at the Georgia Communication Association’s 2007 Annual Convention, the second was at
the New York State Communication Association’s 2007 Annual Convention, the other two papers were at the
Eastern Communication Association’s 2007 Annual Convention in Providence, Rhode Island. He starts a PhD
this Fall (2008) in Interdisciplinary Arts at Ohio University.
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