Materials selection without shape constraints

In design, the shape and the material may or may not be coupled. As a result, techniques to account for the shape
of the component may be necessary. We will start by considering cases where the components shape is not
important (as is the case in many instances).

The selection process starts with the determination of the performance indices, by which the performance is
maximized. These indices are ratios of material properties and are plotted on material selection charts to aid
selection.

Performance indices:
Structural elements are designed by specifying the functional requirements, the geometry and the material it is
made of. This is specified in equation form as:
𝑝 = 𝑓[𝐹, 𝐺, 𝑀]
where:
𝐹 = functional requirement,
𝐺 = geometry,
𝑀 = material properties,
𝑝 = performance indicator.

Design optimization is undertaken to maximize or minimize the index 𝑝. When the function, geometry and
material parameters are separable, the equation takes the form:
𝑝 = 𝑓1 [𝐹 ]. 𝑓2 [𝐺 ]. 𝑓3 [𝑀]

In this case, the optimum choice of the material is independent of the shape and geometry of the component. The
choice of the material can therefore be made without completing the design or even determining the function.

The determination of 𝑝 may follow the following procedure:

i. Determine the attribute 𝑝 to be maximized or minimized;
ii. Develop an equation of the attribute in terms of the functional requirements, the geometry and the
material it is made of;
iii. Identify the free variables - those that are not specified in the definition of the problem;
iv. Identify the constraints (e.g. induced stress versus yield levels, combination of flaw size and stress
versus fracture levels, etc) and rank them in order of importance;
v. Develop the equations for the constraints;
vi. Substitute for the free variables using the constraint equations;

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 Materials selection without shape constraints
vii. Organize the performance index equation into the three groups; function, geometry and material
properties;
viii. Determine the optimization requirement of the material property index as function of the optimization of
the performance index.

Primary constraints:
These are non-negotiable constraints on a material property index. They appear as vertical or horizontal lines on
a material selection chart. The application of these constraints is intuitive as there may be other ways of
circumventing the constraint e.g. an excessive temperature may be avoided by cooling.

Maximizing criteria:
Using the selected indices, guidelines are drawn on the material selection chart. These guidelines define regions
of acceptable properties and together with the primary constraints, they enclose certain envelopes of acceptable
material properties. The section process is therefore made easier where multiple constraints are available.
If the problem is over constrained, then judgment is used to select the constraints to eliminate the free variables,
leaving the remaining constraints to be applied in the optimization phase. It is important to ensure that the
remaining group of constraints is large enough to enable definition of the region of acceptable materials.

When multiple design parameters are to be met, then weighting factors are applied to the design parameters,
normalized to one set of units, and the resulting sum yields the final design performance index.

Exercise 1:
A design for a torque tube of polar moment of area, 𝐽, length, 𝑙, to carry a torque 𝑇, with the requirement that the
mass of the tube be of minimum.

Solution:
𝑚 = 𝐴′ 𝑙𝜌
𝐺𝜃
𝑇= 𝐽
𝑙
𝑙
𝐽= 𝑇
𝐺𝜃
𝜋(𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 )
𝐴′ =
2
𝜋(𝑅4 − 𝑟 4 ) 𝜋(𝑅2 − 𝑟 2 )(𝑅2 + 𝑟 2 )
𝐽= = = 𝐴′ (𝑅2 + 𝑟 2 )
2 2
𝐽 𝑙 1
𝐴′ = 2 2
=𝑇 2 2
(𝑅 + 𝑟 ) (𝑅 + 𝑟 )𝜃 𝐺
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 Materials selection without shape constraints
𝑇 𝑙2 𝜌
𝑚 = ( )[ 2 2
]( )
𝜃 (𝑅 + 𝑟 ) 𝐺

where:
𝑚= mass (performance indicator),
𝑇
= torque (functional requirement),
𝜃
𝑙2
[(𝑅2 ] = geometry,
+𝑟 2 )

𝐴′ = area (free variable),

𝐺𝜃
𝑇= 𝐽: (constraint equation),
𝑙
𝜌
= material property ratio.
𝐺

To minimize the mass 𝑚, at the prescribed load 𝑇 (see first bracket), and at the specified tubular dimensions (see
𝜌 𝐺
second bracket), one minimizes the material property ratio . This is equivalent to maximizing .
𝐺 𝜌

The process of development requires that one develop constraint relationships in terms of:
 Performance of device;
 Relating performance and geometry and material;

Examples of constraint equations:

Bending:
𝑀 𝐸 𝜎𝑦
= =
𝐼 𝑅 𝑦
𝛿 = 𝐾𝑓(𝑃, 𝑥, 𝑙)
𝐾 = constant
𝛿 ≤ 𝛿𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝜎 ≤ 𝑓𝑠 𝜎𝑦
𝑃𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ≤ 𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
𝑀𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ≤ 𝑀𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
Torsion:
𝑇 𝜏𝑦 𝐺𝜃
= =
𝐽 𝑦 𝑙
𝛿 = 𝐾𝑓(𝑇, 𝜙, 𝑙)
𝐾 = constant
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 Materials selection without shape constraints
𝛿 ≤ 𝛿𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝜎 ≤ 𝑓𝑠 𝜎𝑦
𝑃𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ≤ 𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
𝑇𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ≤ 𝑇𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
Spring:
8𝐹𝐷
𝜏 = 𝐾𝑠 (Helical spring)
𝜋𝑑 3

𝐹 = 𝐾𝑥
𝛿 ≤ 𝛿𝑐𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙
𝜎 ≤ 𝑓𝑠 𝜎𝑦
𝑃𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ≤ 𝑃𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
𝑀𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 ≤ 𝑀𝑑𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛
Longitudinal wave speed:
1
𝐸 2
𝑣=( )
𝜌
Fracture strength:
𝜎 = 𝐾𝐼𝐶 √𝜋𝑎𝑐
𝜎 2 𝜋𝑎𝑐
𝐺=
𝐸
Corrosion penetration rate equation:
𝑊𝑙
𝐶𝑃𝑅 = 𝐾
𝜌𝐴𝑇
𝐾 = constant
𝑊𝑙 = total weight loss
Archard wear equation:
𝐾𝑊𝐿
𝑄=
𝐻
𝑄 = total volume of wear debris removed
𝐾 = dimensionless constant
𝑊 = total normal load
𝐻 = hardness of the softest contacting surface
𝐿 = sliding distance
Thermal conductivity, diffusivity and expansion:
𝑄 𝑘𝐴∆𝑇
=
𝑡 𝑑

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 Materials selection without shape constraints
𝑘
𝛼=
𝜌𝑐𝑝
∆𝑙
= 𝛼𝑙 ∆𝑇
𝑙
𝑑 = depth of section
𝛼 = thermal diffusivity
𝑘 = thermal conductivity
𝑐𝑝 = specific heat capacity
𝛼𝑙 = linear coefficient of expansion
Electrical conductivity and resistivity:
1 𝐽𝑐
𝜎𝑐 = =
𝜌𝑟 𝐸𝑐
𝐴
𝜌𝑟 = 𝑅
𝑙
𝜎𝑐 = electrical conductivity
𝐽𝑐 = magnitude of the current density
𝐸𝑐 = magnitude of the electrical field
𝜌𝑟 = electrical resistivity
𝑅 = electrical resistance

Examples of performance indicators:

Minimum mass:
mass = 𝜌𝐴𝑙
Minimum cost (used where cost is critical):
Cost = Cp ρAl
𝐶𝑝 = cost index per unit weight
Minimum volume (used where density is not critical for the application e.g. fiberglass / Styrofoam insulation of
walls):
volume = 𝐴𝑙
Minimum thermal losses:
𝑘𝐴∆𝑇
thermal loss = 𝑡
𝑑
Minimum electrical losses:
electrical loss = 𝐼 2 𝑅
Minimum energy consumption:

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 Materials selection without shape constraints
energy consumed = 𝑄̇ ∆𝑡
𝑄̇ = energy consumption rate
Minimum water use:
water used = 𝑞̇ ∆𝑡
𝑞̇ = water flow rate