Helwan University

Faculty of Engineering - Mataria

Automotive & Tractors Engineering Department

Designing And Manufacturing An Energy-Efficient

Electric Vehicle Model

Supervised By:

Prof. Dr. Sameh Metwaly

Prof. Dr. Samir Mohamed El Demerdash

Prof. Dr. Walid Abdelhady Orabi

Dr. Mahmoud Atef Ali

Dr. Sayed Abbas

August 2021
Designing And Manufacturing An Energy-Efficient
Electric Vehicle Model

Prepared By:

Nour El-Din Maher Abdel Kader

Mahmoud Abd El Aziz Sayed

Mohamed Abbas Mohmadeen Abbas

Mohamed Mostafa Mohamed

Mostafa Mohamed Ibrahim Sawah

Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................12
ABSTRACT....................................................................................................................................................................................... 13

1.ELECTRIC ................................................................................................................14
1.1. INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................................. 14
1.1.1 Battery: .................................................................................................................................................................................... 14
Battery parameters: ......................................................................................................................................................................15
Common types of batteries: ..........................................................................................................................................................16
1.1.2 Electric Motors: ........................................................................................................................................................................ 19
The ‘Brushed’ DC Electric Motor....................................................................................................................................................20
1.2. POWER-TRAIN DESIGN AND FOR TWO ELECTRIC VEHICLES ......................................................................................................... 24
1.2.1 Tractive effort .......................................................................................................................................................................... 24
Motor Selection .............................................................................................................................................................................27
Battery Selection ...........................................................................................................................................................................30
Battery management system (BMS) ..............................................................................................................................................33
1.2.3 Urban Control unit ................................................................................................................................................................... 34
KELLY controller .............................................................................................................................................................................34
1.2.4 MATLAB & SIMULINK Analysis .................................................................................................................................................. 36
1.2.5 joulemeter ............................................................................................................................................................................... 40
Joulemeter Components: ..............................................................................................................................................................40
Joulemeter Connection Diagram: ..................................................................................................................................................42
1.2.6 WIRING .................................................................................................................................................................................... 42
Propulsion system wiring:..............................................................................................................................................................42
Lighting and accessories wiring: ....................................................................................................................................................44
Wiring protection ..........................................................................................................................................................................45
1.3. DATA ACQUISITION ....................................................................................................................................................... 47
1.4. EMBEDDED CONTROL SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS: MODEL-BASED DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE BASICS. ............................... 50
1.4.1 Introduction. ............................................................................................................................................................................ 50
1.4.2 Model-Based Design. ............................................................................................................................................................... 53
V-Model. ........................................................................................................................................................................................53
1.4.3 Test Stage:................................................................................................................................................................................ 55
Model-in-the-Loop (MiL): ..............................................................................................................................................................55
Software-in-the-Loop (SiL): ............................................................................................................................................................55
Processor-in-the-Loop (PiL) ...........................................................................................................................................................56
Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL). ..........................................................................................................................................................56
1.4.4 MBD Process. ........................................................................................................................................................................... 57
1.5. TRAPEZOIDAL CONTROL TECHNIQUE: ................................................................................................................................. 58
1.5 FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL: ......................................................................................................................................................... 61
1.5.1 Introduction. ............................................................................................................................................................................ 61
1.5.2 The main philosophy behind the FOC: ..................................................................................................................................... 61
1.5.3 Technical Background: ............................................................................................................................................................. 63
1.5.4 Space Vector Definition and Projection :.................................................................................................................................. 64
1.6. THE BASIC SCHEME FOR THE FOC: ....................................................................................................................................... 67
1.6.1 Rotor Flux Position: .................................................................................................................................................................. 69
 1.7. TEXAS INSTRUMENTS SOLUTION FOR MOTOR CONTROL: .......................................................................................................... 71
1.7.1 Benefits of 32-bit C2000 Controllers for Digital Motor Control: ............................................................................................... 71
1.7.2 controllers can also perform the following: ............................................................................................................................. 72
1.7.3 C2000 Piccolo MCU F28069M LaunchPad™ development kit: ................................................................................................. 73
Key features: ..................................................................................................................................................................................74
FAST estimator: .............................................................................................................................................................................75

2.FRAME ...................................................................................................................77
2.1. INTRODUCTION: -.......................................................................................................................................................... 77
2.2. DESIGN CONSIDERATION: - .................................................................................................................................................. 78
2.2.1 Types of frame: - ...................................................................................................................................................................... 78
Monocoque: - ................................................................................................................................................................................78
ladder frame: - ...............................................................................................................................................................................80
Space frame: - ................................................................................................................................................................................80
CHASSIS STRUCTURE: - ..................................................................................................................................................................82
ERGONOMICS: - .............................................................................................................................................................................83
2.3. DESIGN PROCESS: - ....................................................................................................................................................... 84
2.3.1 MATERIAL SELECTION: - ........................................................................................................................................................... 85
2.3.2 Design cad model: - .................................................................................................................................................................. 86
2.3.3 stress analysis: - ....................................................................................................................................................................... 88
2.4. MANUFACTURING: - ......................................................................................................................................................... 100
2.4.1 Aluminum Cutting: - ............................................................................................................................................................... 100
2.4.2 Tube Bending: - ...................................................................................................................................................................... 101
2.4.3 Welding Process: -.................................................................................................................................................................. 101
2.4.4 Use of Jigs: - ........................................................................................................................................................................... 102
Wooden jig system concept: - .....................................................................................................................................................103
Metal jig system concept: - ..........................................................................................................................................................103

3.BODY ................................................................................................................... 104

3.1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................................................................ 104
3.1.1 Aerodynamic principles .......................................................................................................................................................... 104
Drag .............................................................................................................................................................................................104
Frontal pressure...........................................................................................................................................................................105
Rear vacuum ................................................................................................................................................................................106
Drag coefficient ...........................................................................................................................................................................108
Frontal Area .................................................................................................................................................................................111
Lift/Downforce ............................................................................................................................................................................112
3.2. DESIGN .......................................................................................................................................................................... 114
3.2.1 Cad Design ............................................................................................................................................................................. 114
3.2.2 compactness and minimizing the vehicle ............................................................................................................................... 116
3.2.3 Displays .................................................................................................................................................................................. 118
3.2.2.1 ..........................................................................................................................................................................................118
controls ........................................................................................................................................................................................119
3.2.4 Design improvement .............................................................................................................................................................. 120
3.2.5 Analysis .................................................................................................................................................................................. 120
Pressure contours .......................................................................................................................................................................120
Velocity contours .........................................................................................................................................................................121
3.3. VEHICLE APPEARANCE STYLE .............................................................................................................................................. 122
3.4. MANUFACTURING ............................................................................................................................................................ 123
3.4.1 CAD Sectioning ....................................................................................................................................................................... 124
 3.4.2 2D Routing and foam assembly .............................................................................................................................................. 124
3.4.3 Foam assembly....................................................................................................................................................................... 125
3.4.4 Filling and sculpting ................................................................................................................................................................ 125
3.4.5 creating mold ......................................................................................................................................................................... 126
3.4.6 Creating the final product ...................................................................................................................................................... 127
3.5. VEHICLE STYLING .............................................................................................................................................................. 127

4. SUSPENSION SYSTEM .......................................................................................... 130

4.1. INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................................................................... 130
4.1.1. Requirements of an automobile suspension system: ............................................................................................................. 131
4.1.2. Objectives of Suspension System: .......................................................................................................................................... 131
4.1.3. Principles of Suspension System ............................................................................................................................................ 132
4.1.4. Types of Suspension System: ................................................................................................................................................. 132
4.1.4.1. Independent Suspension: ...............................................................................................................................................132
4.1.5. suspension Kinematic: ........................................................................................................................................................... 137
4.1.5.1 camber .............................................................................................................................................................................137
4.1.5.2 caster: ..............................................................................................................................................................................137
4.1.5.3. Toe -in and toe-out: ........................................................................................................................................................137
4.1.5.4. king pin inclination:.........................................................................................................................................................138
4.2. DESIGN ................................................................................................................................................................................ 138
4.2.1. Design consideration:............................................................................................................................................................. 138
4.2.2. Calculations: .......................................................................................................................................................................... 139
4.2.2.1. Vehicle's Data Inputs:....................................................................................................................................................139
4.2.2.2. Result .............................................................................................................................................................................140
4.2.3. 2D sketch: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 140
4.2.4. 3D sketch: .............................................................................................................................................................................. 141
4.2.5. Assembly on solid work: ......................................................................................................................................................... 142
4.2.5.1. front: ..............................................................................................................................................................................142
4.2.5.2. rear: ...............................................................................................................................................................................142

5. STEERING SYSTEM............................................................................................... 143

5.1 INTRODUCTION .................................................................................................................................................................. 143
5.1.1. REQUIREMENTS OF STEERING SYSTEM: ................................................................................................................................ 143
5.1.2. FUNCTIONS OF A STEERING SYSTEM:..................................................................................................................................... 144
5.1.3. HISTORY OF STEERING MECHANISM: ..................................................................................................................................... 144
5.1.3.1 PARALLELOGRAM STEERING SYSTEM: .............................................................................................................................145
5.1.3.2. POWER STEERING DEVELOPMENT:................................................................................................................................145
5.1.3.3. HYDRAULIC POWER STEERING CONSISTS OF: ................................................................................................................146
5.1.3.4. RECIRCULATING-BALL STEERING: ..................................................................................................................................146
5.1.3.5 Electronic power steering: ...............................................................................................................................................147
5.1.3.6. RACK AND PINION STEERING SYSTEM: ...........................................................................................................................147
5.1.4. STEERING GEOMETRY ............................................................................................................................................................ 148
5.1.5. NATURE OF STEERING (OVERSTEER OR UNDERSTEER) .......................................................................................................... 150
5.1.5.1. OVERSTEER: ....................................................................................................................................................................150
5.1.5.2. UNDERSTEER:.................................................................................................................................................................150
5.1.6. TIRE SELECTION: .................................................................................................................................................................... 153
5.2. DESIGN ................................................................................................................................................................................. 158
5.2.1. VEHICLE TURNING PATHS: ..................................................................................................................................................... 158
5.2.2. Tire selection.......................................................................................................................................................................... 159
5.2.3. Steering Box Design: .............................................................................................................................................................. 160
5.2.4 Total mechanism assembly for urban: .................................................................................................................................... 161
 5.2.5. Total mechanism assembly for prototype: ............................................................................................................................. 161
5.2.6. Wheel assembly for urban: .................................................................................................................................................... 162
5.2.7. Wheel assembly for prototype:.............................................................................................................................................. 163
5.2.8. components manufacturing: ................................................................................................................................................. 163
5.2.9. Stress analysis: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 164
5.3. TESTING OF HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS: ..................................................................................................................... 165
5.3.1. PROCEDURE OF CONSTANT RADIUS TEST: ............................................................................................................................. 166
5.3.2. PROCEDURE OF CONSTANT SPEED TEST: ............................................................................................................................... 168
5.3.3. PROCEDURE OF CONSTANT STEER ANGLE TEST: .................................................................................................................... 170
5.3.4. PROCEDURE OF LANE CHANGE TEST...................................................................................................................................... 171

6. BRAKE SYSTEM.................................................................................................... 172

6.1. INTRODUCTION: ..................................................................................................................................................................... 172
6.1.1. FUNDAMENTALS OF BRAKE SYSTEMS .................................................................................................................................... 173
6.1.2. Design Targets: ...................................................................................................................................................................... 173
6.1.3. Brake System Types: ............................................................................................................................................................. 173
6.1.3. 1. Park brake: ....................................................................................................................................................................173
6.1.3.2. Hydraulic brake system: ................................................................................................................................................174
6.1.4. Hydraulic brake system components: ................................................................................................................................... 174
6.1.4. 1. Brake Pedal: ..................................................................................................................................................................174
6.1.4.2. Master cylinder: .............................................................................................................................................................174
6.1.4.3. Brake Fluid: ....................................................................................................................................................................175
6.1.4.4. Brake lines: ....................................................................................................................................................................175
6.1.4.5. Calipers: .........................................................................................................................................................................176
6.1.4.6. Disc brakes: ....................................................................................................................................................................176
6.2. DESIGN: ................................................................................................................................................................................ 177
6.2.1. Selection of hydraulic system components: ........................................................................................................................... 177
6.2.1.1. Master cylinder: .............................................................................................................................................................177
6.2.1.2 Brake fluid: .......................................................................................................................................................................178
6.2.1.3. calipers ...........................................................................................................................................................................178
6.2.1.4. Disc brakes VS Drum brakes ...........................................................................................................................................178
6.2.2. Calculations:........................................................................................................................................................................... 180
6.2.2.1. Vehicle's Data Inputs for urban:.....................................................................................................................................180
6.2.2.2. Vehicle Performance Equations: ....................................................................................................................................180
6.2.2.3. final data for protype: .....................................................................................................................................................184
6.2.2.4. Selected and purchased parts: .......................................................................................................................................185
6.3. MANUFACTURING................................................................................................................................................................... 186
6.3.1. Faults, Causes & Repair: ......................................................................................................................................................... 186
6.3.2. Tests and Inspections: ............................................................................................................................................................ 186
6.3.2.1. Stopping distance test: ...................................................................................................................................................186
6.3.2.2. Fitting and adjustment inspection: .................................................................................................................................186

REFERENCES ........................................................................................................... 187

 List of Figures
Figure 1: Schematic of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) powertrain .............................. 14
Figure 2: powertrain construction ............................................................................... 20
Figure 3:commutator Figure 4 Torque/speed graph for a brushed DC motor
..................................................................................................................................... 21
Figure 5 Supply voltage change with power and torque .............................................. 21
Figure 6 Typical torque/speed curve for an induction motor ....................................... 23
Figure 7 Forces acting on a vehicle climbing a hill ........................................................ 24
Figure 8: Power required to reach certain velocity for urban vehicle ........................... 26
Figure 9: Power required to reach certain velocity for prototype vehicle .................... 27
Figure 10: BLDC hub motor for Urban Vehicle ............................................................. 28
Figure 11: BLDC hub motor for Protottype Vehicle ...................................................... 29
Figure 12: Tractive effort and Acceleration Curves for Prototype Vehicle .................... 29
Figure 13: Tractive effort and Acceleration Curves for Urban Vehicle .......................... 30
Figure 14: Lithium-ion battery ..................................................................................... 31
Figure 15: KELLY controller .......................................................................................... 35
Figure 16: full model .................................................................................................... 37
Figure 17: Driver input signal ....................................................................................... 38
Figure 18: Simulation Results for prototype vehicle ..................................................... 39
Figure 19: Simulation Results for Uran vehicle ............................................................. 39
Figure 20: joulemeter .................................................................................................. 41
Figure 21: Joulemeter Connection Diagram ................................................................. 42
Figure 22 Propulsion system wiring for Urban vehicle ................................................. 43
Figure 23: Propulsion system wiring for prototype vehicle .......................................... 44
Figure 24: accessories wiring for Urban Vehicle ........................................................... 45
Figure 25: Cycle analyst ............................................................................................... 47
Figure 26 V-model........................................................................................................ 54
Figure 27 MBD setup application in an MCU ................................................................ 57
Figure 28 Block diagram of BLDC motor control using hall-sensors.............................. 58
Figure 29 Stator current space vector and its component in (a,b,c) ............................. 65
Figure 30 Stator current space vector and its components in the stationary reference
frame ........................................................................................................................... 66
Figure 31 Stator current space vector and its component in (α,β) and in the d,q rotating
reference frame ........................................................................................................... 67
Figure 32Basic scheme of FOC for AC motor ................................................................ 68
Figure 33Current, voltage and rotor flux space vectors in the d,q rotating reference
frame and their relationship with a,b,c and (α,β) stationary reference frame ............. 70
Figure 34Overall block diagram of sensorless field oriented control of PMSM ............ 71
Figure 35 F28069M LaunchPad .................................................................................... 73
Figure 36 Fast Estimator block diagram ....................................................................... 75
Figure 37 Integral frame .............................................................................................. 79
Figure 38 Semi Integral Frame ..................................................................................... 79
Figure 39 Ladder frame ................................................................................................ 80
Figure 40 Space frame ................................................................................................. 81
Figure 41 front clip of an FSAE race car ........................................................................ 82
Figure 42 cockpit of an FSAE race car ........................................................................... 83
Figure 43 rear clip of an FSAE race car ......................................................................... 83
Figure 44 Mockup Wooden Model CAD ....................................................................... 84
Figure 45 Prototype frame ........................................................................................... 87
Figure 46 urban frame ................................................................................................. 87
Figure 47 Stresses on main hoop ................................................................................. 89
Figure 48 Maximum deformation ................................................................................ 89
Figure 49 Max. factor of safety .................................................................................... 90
Figure 50 Stresses on main hoop ................................................................................. 91
Figure 51 Driver weight of prototype ........................................................................... 92
Figure 52 Driver weight of urban ................................................................................. 93
Figure 53 batteries weight of prototype ...................................................................... 94
Figure 54 batteries weight of urban ............................................................................. 95
Figure 55 Rear wheel fixation prototype ...................................................................... 96
Figure 56 Rear wheel fixation urban ............................................................................ 97
Figure 57 suspension fixation (front) ........................................................................... 98
Figure 58 suspension fixation (Rear) ............................................................................ 99
Figure 59 Laser cut ..................................................................................................... 100
Figure 60 Welding Process prototype ........................................................................ 102
Figure 61 Welding Process ......................................................................................... 102
Figure 62 Metal jig system ......................................................................................... 103
Figure 63 Frontal pressure ......................................................................................... 105
Figure 64 Rear vacuum .............................................................................................. 106
Figure 65 Frontal Area ............................................................................................... 111
Figure 66 Air flows over car body ............................................................................... 112
Figure 67 Urban Body ................................................................................................ 117
Figure 68 Prototype ‘s view........................................................................................ 119
Figure 69 Urban ‘s view.............................................................................................. 119
Figure 70 Pressure contours (urban) .......................................................................... 121
Figure 71 Velocity contours (prototype) .................................................................... 121
Figure 72 Velocity contours (urban ............................................................................ 122
Figure 73 Prototype ................................................................................................... 122
Figure 74 Urban ......................................................................................................... 123
Figure 75 CAD Sectioning ........................................................................................... 124
Figure 76 Foam assembly ........................................................................................... 125
Figure 77 vehicle styling (prototype) .......................................................................... 128
Figure 78 vehicle styling(urban) ................................................................................. 129
Figure 79 MacPherson strut suspension .................................................................... 133
Figure 80 Double-wishbone ....................................................................................... 134
Figure 81 Sports independent suspension ................................................................. 134
Figure 82 Pushrod and pull-rod suspensions .............................................................. 136
Figure 83 Negative camber ........................................................................................ 137
Figure 84 Side view of a front left side wheel to define caster ................................... 137
Figure 85 Toe-in Fig. Figure 86 Toe-out .............................................................. 138
Figure 87 SIDE VIEW OF SUSPENSION DESIGN ........................................................... 141
Figure 88 FRONT VIEW OF SUSPENSION DESIGN ....................................................... 141
Figure 89 3D SKETCH OF SUSPENSION DESIGN ......................................................... 141
Figure 90 . FRONT SUSPENSION ................................................................................. 142
Figure 91 REAR SUSPENSION ..................................................................................... 142
Figure 92: PARALLELOGRAM STEERING SYSTEM ........................................................ 145
Figure 93: POWER STEERING ..................................................................................... 146
Figure 94: power steering components ..................................................................... 146
Figure 95: RECIRCULATING-BALL STEERING ............................................................... 146
Figure 96: Electronic power steering.......................................................................... 147
Figure 97: RACK AND PINION STEERING SYSTEM ....................................................... 148
Figure 98: STEERING GEOMETRY ............................................................................... 148
Figure 99: Ackerman steering geometry .................................................................... 149
Figure 100 .................................................................................................................. 149
Figure 101: Ackerman steering angles ....................................................................... 150
Figure 102: NATURE OF STEERING (OVERSTEER OR UNDERSTEER) ............................ 151
Figure 103: steering angles ........................................................................................ 151
Figure 104: Yaw velocity response ............................................................................. 152
Figure 105: Lateral acceleration response.................................................................. 152
Figure 106: Curvature response ................................................................................. 153
Figure 107 Tyre types of comparison ......................................................................... 154
Figure 108: tread patterns ......................................................................................... 156
Figure 109: Tire selection ........................................................................................... 159
Figure 110: Steering Box Design ................................................................................. 160
Figure 111: rack and pinion ........................................................................................ 160
Figure 112: Total mechanism assembly for urban ...................................................... 161
Figure 113: Total mechanism assembly for prototype ............................................... 161
Figure 114 Wheel assembly for urban: ...................................................................... 162
Figure 115: Wheel assembly for prototype ................................................................ 163
Figure 116: Stress analysis ......................................................................................... 165
Figure 117: CONSTANT RADIUS TEST ......................................................................... 166
Figure 118: constant radius test curve ....................................................................... 167
Figure 119: constant speed test curve ....................................................................... 169
Figure 120 constant steer angle test curve ................................................................ 170
Figure 121 LANE CHANGE TEST .................................................................................. 172
Figure 122: Master cylinder ....................................................................................... 177
Figure 123: Diagonal split braking system .................................................................. 177
Figure 124: Brake fluid ............................................................................................... 178
Figure 125: caliper ..................................................................................................... 178
Figure 126: Disc brakes and drum brakes................................................................... 179
 List of Tables
Table 1 Lead acid battery parameters .......................................................................... 17
Table 2 Nickel cadmium battery parameters ............................................................... 18
Table 3 Comparison between motor types .................................................................. 27
Table 4 Protoype vehicle tracks’ results ....................................................................... 31
Table 5 Urban vehicle tracks’ results............................................................................ 31
Table 6 LiFePO4 battery specifications for Urban Vehicle ............................................ 32
Table 7 Six State commutation table............................................................................ 60
Table 8 comparison between space frame and monocoque ........................................ 82
Table 9 comparison materials ...................................................................................... 85
Table 10 properties of Al 6063 ..................................................................................... 86
Table 11 Results of prototype frame ............................................................................ 90
Table 12 Results of urban frame .................................................................................. 91
Table 13 Results of Driver weight of urban .................................................................. 93
Table 14 Results batteries weight of prototype ........................................................... 94
Table 15 Results batteries weight of urban .................................................................. 95
Table 16 Results Rear wheel fixation prototype ........................................................... 96
Table 17 Results Rear wheel fixation urban ................................................................. 97
Table 18 Results suspension fixation............................................................................ 98
Table 19 Results suspension fixation Rear................................................................... 99
Table 20 Drag Coefficients ......................................................................................... 110
Table 21Pressure contours (prototype) ..................................................................... 120
Table 22 VEHICLE'S DATA INPUTS............................................................................. 140
Table 23 DATA ........................................................................................................... 140
Table 24 RESULT........................................................................................................ 140
Table 25 load index .................................................................................................... 154
Table 26 speed index ................................................................................................. 154
Table 27 Vehicle's Data Inputs for urban ................................................................... 180
Table 28DATA AND RESULTS URBAN BRAKE .............................................................. 183
Table 29 FINAL DATA FOR PROTYPE ........................................................................... 184
CONTENTS

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
“Those who are truly grateful are deeply moved by the privilege of living”
Oscar Auliq-ice.
We always seek help from others when we truly need it and for those who
provided this help for us, we will always be grateful because without you we
wouldn’t make it. For that we would like to thank everyone who helped us
through our project.
We would like to thank Prof. Dr. Maged fahmy Negm, President of Helwan
University, Prof. Dr. Mohamed Hasaneen Rabiee Dean of the Faculty of
Engineering, Mattaria branch. Also, we would like to show appreciation For
Prof. Dr. Sameh Metwaly Head of Automotive and Tractors Engineering
Department, Prof. Dr. Samir Eldemerdash, Prof. Dr. Waleed Abdelhady Orabi
Dr. Mahmoud Atef Ali and Dr. Said Abbas, our project advisors who believed
in us and kept providing us with all the support needed through the different
stages of the project.
We are also grateful for Dr. Mahmoud Sakr – president of the academy of
scientific research and technology, for his support and the role the academy
played in our project and how they made it possible and for our sponsors for
providing the necessary needs for our project to succeed.
Finally, we express our gratitude toward our families and colleagues for their
kind co-operation and encouragement which help us in completion of this
project.
Thank you!

E-Rally team
 DESIGNING AND MANUFACTURING AN ENERGY EFFICIENT ELECTRIC VEHICLE
ABSTRACT

ABSTRACT

“
Electric vehicles represent a huge share in automobile industry, everyday people get
to know more about it, and they become more curious as time passes, as automotive
engineers, exploring this industry has become a must in our time not just some extra
information besides internal combustion engines. Also, electric vehicles are not only
involved in transportation but also in construction and heavy equipment. In our
project the focus lies on the passenger vehicles where we want to achieve the
highest possible range without any additional influences, We started with a complete
design of an electric powered vehicle of an urban concept which is similar to
passenger vehicles and then we wanted to get into details of powertrain , in more
specific way the motor controller , So we implemented a smaller scale which is the
prototype concept to test that motor controller in a reliable way.

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 DESIGNING AND MANUFACTURING AN ENERGY EFFICIENT ELECTRIC VEHICLE
ELECTRIC

1.ELECTRIC

1.1. INTRODUCTION

Future mobility has been always associated with clean energy, better performance and
less manual control, The electric vehicle combines all these benefits and much more .
The electric powertrain replaces old traditional internal combustion engines with their
low efficiency and greenhouse gases and introduces better efficiencies, lighter weight
compact design that produces extremely low vibrations and generates instant torque.
This powertrain delivers a high quality, smooth and very responsive drive.

1.1.1 Electric Powertrain:

Figure 1: Schematic of a battery electric vehicle (BEV) powertrain

An electric vehicle (EV) is a vehicle that is powered, at least in part, by electricity. EV
configurations include battery electric vehicles (BEVs) which are powered by 100%
electric energy, various hybrid-electric vehicles (HEVs), and plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles (PHEVs). The BEV power-train consists of Battery, charger port , dc-dc
converter for low voltage systems , converter inverter , motor and final drive .

1.1.1 Battery:
A battery is an electrochemical device that converts the chemical energy stored in its
active materials directly into electric energy by means of an electrochemical oxidation-

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 DESIGNING AND MANUFACTURING AN ENERGY EFFICIENT ELECTRIC VEHICLE
ELECTRIC

reduction (redox) reaction. In the case of a rechargeable system, the battery is

recharged by reversing of the process.
Battery parameters:
Storage Capacity:
It determines for number of hours for which the battery can be discharged at a constant
current to a defined cut-off voltage. It is represented by the Coulomb SI unit (Amperes
per second) but since this unit is usually very small, the Ampere-hour (Ah) unit is used
instead (1 Ah represents 3600 C).
Energy Density:
The energy density is the amount of energy that can be stored, per cubic meter of
battery volume, expressed in Watt-hour per cubic meter (WH/M3 ). This is a critical
parameter in the process of battery selection, where it affects two major problems in
the design 1st one is weight and the 2nd is space.
Specific Power:
This parameter is defined as the power capacity per kilogram of battery, in W/kg . Some
battery technologies offer high energy density but low specific power, which means that
even though they can store a large amount of energy, they can only supply a small
amount of power instantly
Cell & battery voltages
Open circuit voltage is a direct indication of state of charge. How to ensure modelling of
dynamic behaviour of battery voltage change.
The basic equation: V=E - I.R
State of Charge:
The state of charge (SoC) defines the amount of stored energy relative to the total
energy storage capacity of the battery. Depending on the battery technology, different
methods are used to estimate this value.
Battery Life and Number of Deep Cycles
Most rechargeable batteries will only undergo a few hundred deep cycles to 20% of the
battery charge. However, the exact number depends on the battery type, and also on
the details of the battery design and on how the battery is used. This is a very important

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ELECTRIC

figure in a battery specification, as it reflects the lifetime of the battery, which in turn
reflects the EV running costs. More specific information about this, and all the other
battery parameters mentioned, are given in the sections that follow on particular
battery types.
Common types of batteries:
• Lead Acid batteries
• Nickel-Based batteries
• Lithium Batteries
lead acid battery

Until recently the best known and most widely used battery for EVs is the lead acid
battery. Lead acid batteries are widely used for starting IC engine vehicles. However, for
EVs, more robust lead acid batteries that withstand deep cycling and use a gel rather
than a liquid electrolyte are used. These batteries are more expensive to produce. In the
lead acid cells the negative plates have a spongy lead as their active material, while the
positive plates have an active material of lead dioxide. The plates are immersed in an
electrolyte of dilute sulfuric acid.

Advantages

• Has a high voltage per cell of 2V

• Manufactures can supply a high variety of volume (width, length and height)
• Low internal resistance
Limitations

• For EVs more expensive batteries to make it more roust for the deep cycling.
• High self-discharge and not at the same rate in all cells
• result in some cells being overcharged to make sure that all cells are charged
• Produce unwanted gases
• Low thermal resistance
• Low specific energy

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Specific energy 20–35 Wh.kg-1 depending on usage

Energy density 54–95Wh.L-1
Specific power 250 W.kg−1 before efficiency falls very greatly
Nominal cell voltage 2V
AH efficiency 80%, varies with rate of discharge & temp.
Internal resistance Extremely low, 0.022Ω per cell for 1 AH cell
Commercially available Available from many manufacturers
Operating temperature Poor performance in high temperature
Self-discharge 2% per day, but see text below
Number of life cycles Up to 800 to 80% capacity
Recharge time 8 h (but 90% recharge in 1 h possible)
Table 1 Lead acid battery parameters
Nickel Cadmium Battery
The nickel cadmium (NiCad) battery was considered to be one of the main competitors
to the lead acid battery for use in EVs and these batteries have nearly twice the specific
energy of lead acid batteries.
The NiCad battery uses a nickel oxyhydroxide for the positive electrode and metallic
cadmium for the negative electrode. Electrical energy is obtained from the following
Advantages
• Twice the specific energy of the lead acid batteries
• Long life cycle up to 2500 cycles
• High specific power
• Wide range of operating temperature (-40 to 80 °C)
• Low self-discharge

Limitations
• High cost due to the high price of cadmium and the cell voltage is only 1.2V
• Environmentally harmful because cadmium is carcinogenic

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Specific energy 40–55 Wh.kg-1 depending on current

Energy density 70–90Wh.L-1 depending on current
Specific power 125 W.kg-1 before becoming very inefficient
Nominal cell voltage 1.2V
AH efficiency Good
Internal resistance Very low, 0.06Ω per cell for a 1 AH cell
Commercially available Good in smaller sizes, difficult for larger batteries
Operating temperature −40◦C to +80◦C
Self-discharge 0.5% per day, very low
Number of life cycles 1200 to 80% capacity
Recharge time 1 h, rapid charge to 60% capacity 20 mins
Table 2 Nickel cadmium battery parameters
Lithium-ion Battery
The term lithium ion battery refers to a rechargeable battery where the negative
electrode (anode) and positive electrode (cathode) materials serve as a host for the
lithium ion (Li+). Lithium ions move from the anode to the cathode during discharge and
are intercalated into (inserted into voids in the crystallographic structure of) the
cathode. The ions reverse direction during charging. Since lithium ions are intercalated
into host materials during charge or discharge, there is no free lithium metal within a
lithium-ion cell. In a lithium ion cell, alternating layers of anode and cathode are
separated by a porous film (separator). An electrolyte composed of an organic solvent
and dissolved lithium salt provides the media for lithium ion transport. For most
commercial lithium ion cells, the voltage range is approximately 3.0 V (discharged, or 0
% state-of-charge, SOC) to 4.2 V (fully charged, or 100% SOC).
Advantages
• High energy density - potential for yet higher capacities.
• Does not need prolonged priming when new. One regular charge is all that's needed.

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• Relatively low self-discharge - self-discharge is less than half that of nickel-based

batteries.
• Low Maintenance - no periodic discharge is needed; there is no memory.
• Specialty cells can provide very high current.
Limitations
• Requires protection circuit to maintain voltage and current within safe limits.
• Subject to aging, even if not in use - storage in a cool place at 40% charge reduces the
aging effect.
• Transportation restrictions - shipment of larger quantities may be subject to regulatory
control. This restriction does not apply to personal carry-on batteries.
• Expensive to manufacture - about 40 percent higher in cost than nickel-cadmium.
• Not fully mature - metals and chemicals are changing on a continuing basis.

1.1.2 Electric Motors:

Electric motors are a key part of an electric vehicle, and in this section, we consider the
primary kinds of motors used. Electric propulsion systems are the core of electric
vehicles (EVs) and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs). They consist of electric motors, power
converters, also, electronic controllers. The electric motor converts the electric energy
into mechanical energy to propel the vehicle, or, vice versa, to enable regenerative
braking and/or to generate electricity for the purpose of charging. The power converter
is used to supply the electric motor with suitable voltage and current. The electronic
control unit controls the power converter by providing signals to it, and then controls
the operation of the electric motor to produce suitable torque and speed, according to
the command from the driver.

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Figure 2: powertrain construction

Types of Electric Motors:
The ‘Brushed’ DC Electric Motor
It is a DC motor, equipped with permanent magnets and brushes. This simplified motor
has one coil, and the current passing through the wire near the magnet causes a force
to be generated in the coil. The current flows through brush X, commutator half ring A,
round the coil, and out through the other commutator half ring B and brush Y (XABY).
On one side (as shown in the diagram) the force is upwards, and on the other it is
downwards, because the current is flowing back towards the brushes and commutator.
The two forces cause the coil to turn. The coil turns with the commutator, and once the
wires are clear of the magnet the momentum carries it on round until the half rings of
the commutator connect with the brushes again. When this happens the current is
flowing in the same direction relative to the magnets, and hence the forces are in the
same direction, continuing to turn the motor as before. However, the current will now
be flowing through brush X, half ring B, round the coil to A and out through Y, so the
current will be flowing in the opposite direction through the coil (XBAY). The
commutator action ensures that the current in the coil keeps changing direction, so that
the force is in the same direction, even though the coil has moved.

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Figure 3:commutator Figure 4 Torque/speed graph for

a brushed DC motor
Controlling the Brushed DC Motor
Brushed DC motor can be very easily controlled.
If the supply voltage Es is reduced, then the maximum torque falls in proportion, and
the slope of the torque/speed graph is unchanged. In other words, any torque and speed
can be achieved below the maximum values. That the supply voltage can be controlled
simply and efficiently, so this is a good way of controlling this type of motor. However,
reducing the supply voltage is not the only way of controlling this type of motor.
In some cases we can also achieve control by changing the magnetic flux . This is possible
if coils rather than permanent magnets provide the magnetic field. If the magnetic flux
is reduced then the maximum torque falls, but the slope of the torque/speed graph
becomes flatter.

Figure 5 Supply voltage change

with power and torque

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Brushless Electric Motors

A) The Brushless DC Motor
It called a ‘brushless DC motor’ because the alternating current must be variable
frequency and so derived from a DC supply, and because its speed/torque characteristics
are very similar to the ordinary ‘with brushes’ DC motor. it is also known as a ‘self-
synchronous AC motor’, a ‘variable frequency synchronous motor’, a ‘permanent
magnet synchronous motor’ and an ‘electronically commutated motor’ (ECM).
The rotor consists of a permanent magnet. The current flows in the direction that
magnetises the stator so that the rotor is turned clockwise. The rotor passes between
the poles of the stator, and the stator current is switched off. Momentum carries the
rotor on, the stator coil is re-energised, but the current and hence the magnetic field are
reversed. So the rotor is pulled on round in a clockwise direction. The process continues,
with the current in the stator coil alternating. Obviously, the switching of the current
must be synchronised with the position of the rotor. This is done using sensors. These
are often Hall effect sensors that use the magnetism of the rotor to sense its position,
but optical sensors are also used.
B) Switched Reluctance Motors
The basic operation is that the iron stator and rotor are magnetised by a current through
the coil on the stator. Because the rotor is out of line with the magnetic field a torque
will be produced to minimise the air gap and make the magnetic field symmetrical. The
rotor is aligned with the stator, and the current is switched off. Its momentum then
carries the rotor on round over a quarter of a turn. Here the magnetic field is reapplied,
in the same direction as before. Again, the field exerts a torque to reduce the air gap
and make the field symmetrical, which pulls the rotor on round. When the rotor lines up
with the stator again, the current is switched off. In the SRM, the rotor is simply a piece
of magnetically soft iron. Also, the current in the coil does not need to alternate.
Essentially then, this is a very simple and potentially low-cost motor.
C) The Induction Motor
Induction motors require an AC supply which might make them seem unsuitable for a
DC source such as batteries or fuel cells. However, as we have seen, alternating current

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can easily be generated using an inverter, and in fact the inverter needed to produce
the alternating current for an induction motor is no more complicated or expensive than
the circuits needed to drive the BLDC motors or SRMs we have just described. The
principle of operation of the three-phase induction. Three coils are wound right around
the outer part of the motor, known as the stator. The rotor usually consists of copper or
aluminium rods, all electrically linked (short-circuited) at the end, forming a kind of cage.
Although shown hollow, the interior of this cage rotor will usually be filled with
laminated iron. The three windings are arranged so that a positive current produces a
magnetic field If these three coils are fed with a three-phase alternating current, the
resultant magnetic field rotates anti-clockwise. This rotating field passes through the
conductors on the rotor, generating an electric current. A force is produced on these
conductors carrying an electric current, which turns the rotor. It tends to ‘chase’ the
rotating magnetic field. If the rotor were to go at the same
speed as the magnetic field, there would be no relative velocity between the rotating
field and the conductors, and so no induced current and no torque. The result is that the
torque/speed graph for an induction motor has the characteristic shape in figure (1.3).
The torque rises as the angular speed ‘slips’ behind that of the magnetic field, up to an
optimum slip, after which the torque declines somewhat. The winding arrangement is
known as ‘two-pole’. It is possible to wind the coils so that the magnetic field has four,
six, eight or any even number of poles. The speed of rotation of the magnetic field is the
supply frequency divided by the number of pole pairs. So, a four-pole motor will turn at
half the speed of a two-pole motor, given the same frequency AC supply, a six-pole
motor a third the speed, and so on.

Figure 6 Typical torque/speed curve for an induction motor

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1.2. POWER-TRAIN DESIGN AND FOR TWO ELECTRIC VEHICLES

1.2.1 Tractive effort

The first step in vehicle performance modelling is to produce an equation for the
tractive effort. This is the force propelling the vehicle forward, transmitted to the
ground through the drive wheels.

Consider a vehicle of mass m, proceeding at a velocity v, up a slope of angle ψ, as in

Figure 34. The force propelling the vehicle forward, the tractive effort, must
accomplish the following:
- overcome the rolling resistance;
- overcome the aerodynamic drag;
- overcome the component of the vehicle’s weight acting down the slope;

Figure 7 Forces acting on a vehicle climbing a hill

We will consider each of these in turn.

1. Rolling resistance force
The rolling resistance is primarily due to the friction of the vehicle tyre on the
road.
Frr = μrr*m*g
where μrr is the coefficient of rolling resistance. The main factors
controlling μrr are the type of tire and the tire pressure. Typical values of
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μrr are 0.015 for a radial ply tire, down to about 0.005 for tires developed
especially for electric vehicles.
2. Aerodynamic drag
This part of the force is due to the friction of the vehicle body moving
through the air. It is a function of the frontal area, shape, protrusions such
as side mirrors, ducts and air passages, spoilers, and many other factors.
Fad = ½*ρ*Af*Cd *V2
where ρ is the density of the air, Af is the frontal area, and V is the velocity.
Cd is a constant called the drag coefficient. The drag coefficient Cd can be
reduced by good vehicle design. A typical value for a saloon car is 0.3, but
some electric vehicle designs have achieved values as low as 0.19.
3. Hill climbing force
The force needed to drive the vehicle up a slope is the most straightforward
to find. It is simply the component of the vehicle weight that acts along the
slope. By simple resolution of forces we see that:
Fhc = m*g*sin(ψ)
4. Acceleration force
If the velocity of the vehicle is changing, then clearly a force will need to be
applied in addition to the forces shown in Figure 7.1. This force will provide
the linear acceleration of the vehicle, and is given by the well-known
equation derived from Newton’s second law,
Facc = m*a
Design Considerations
Based on design considerations the following curve shows the power required by the
urban vehicle to overcome total resistances to reach the assumed speed. The same
method is done for prototype vehicle.
For urban vehicle:-

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Body frontal area 1.58 m2 Rolling resistance coefficient 0.0136

Vehicle mass 320 kg Max Speed 100km/hr

Dynamic radius 0.3 m Adhesion coefficient 0.8

drag coefficient 0.254 Air velocity 0 km/h

Power vs Velocity
7000

6000

5000
Power in Watt

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Velocity in km/hr

Figure 8: Power required to reach certain velocity for urban vehicle

For Prototype Vehicle:-
Body frontal area 0.4 m2 Rolling resistance coefficient 0.0136

Vehicle mass 136.5 kg Max Speed 50km/hr

Dynamic radius 0.17 m Adhesion coefficient 0.8

drag coefficient 0.25 Air velocity 0 km/h

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Power Vs Velocity
600

500
Power in Watt

400

300

200

100

0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Velocity in Km/hr

Figure 9: Power required to reach certain velocity for prototype vehicle

Motor Selection
Type DC Motor BLDC Motor SRM Induction Motor

Adv. Easily speed Low maintenance Low maintenance Inflexible way of

control High efficiency High efficiency controlling speed
Low initial cost Can be used as a No permanent magnets Very high volume of
generator Low cost production makes for
of electricity, and for Simple construction a
regenerative or dynamic very reasonably
braking. priced product.
greater Reliable
specific power. Self-starting

Dis- Maintenance Higher initial cost Mechanical resonance High starting current
adv. (brushes) Requires EC controller Possible Lower efficiency
Costly with closed-loop control High iron losses due to need of
commutator and Lower efficiency than BLDC magnetization.
brushes Motor

Table 3 Comparison between motor types

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Selected Motor for Urban Vehicle

Figure 10: BLDC hub motor for Urban Vehicle

Two BLDC hub motors have been selected with these specifications:
Motor Type BLDC hub motor Max Torque 190.1 N.M
Rim size 3.5*17 Efficiency 90%
Rated Power 4000W Max Current 120 A
Rated Voltage 72V (42-72) Matching Tire 120/70-R17
Speed 100 km/hr Pole Pair No. 16
Max No Load RPM 900RPM Mass 21/22 Kg

Selected Motor For Prototype Vehicle

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Figure 11: BLDC hub motor for Prototype Vehicle

Motor Type BLDC hub motor Max Torque 83 N.M
Rim size 10*2.5 inch Efficiency 86%
Rated Power 1000W Max Current 60 A
Rated Voltage 48V (42-72) Matching Tire 110/90 R13
Speed 30-50 km/hr Pole Pair No. 23
Max No Load RPM 800RPM Mass 10.7 Kg

After selection process the two motors of the two vehicles were tested based on design
considerations, By using Optimum Lab and Excel spread sheet the results were as
follows:-

For Prototype Vehicle

Max Grade 10 degrees Time taken to Reach 50 km/hr 10.2 Seconds
Max Acc. 1.7 m/s2 Total Resistances at 50 km/hr 28.56N

Figure 12: Tractive effort and Acceleration Curves for Prototype Vehicle

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For Urban Vehicle

Max Grade 23.056 degrees Time taken to Reach 97 km/hr 20.1 Seconds
Max Acc. 3.836 m/s2 Total Resistances at 97 km/hr 222N

Figure 13: Tractive effort and Acceleration Curves for Urban Vehicle
Battery Selection
By Using optimum lap software, the consumption of vehicles were estimated
during different driving conditions on different tracks. The results came as follows.
Track Energy Spent
KM/KWH Track Name
Distance KJ
1.05 KM 36.64 102.94 Erftlandring
0.98 KM 43.9 80.36 Motorsport Arena Stefan Bellof

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0.8 KM 68.76 41.88 FSAE endurance Germany 2010

1.4 126.34 39.89 FASE endurance Germany 2012
Table 4 Protoype vehicle tracks’ results

Track Energy Spent

KM/KWH Track Name
Distance KJ
1.05 KM 350.76 10.8 Erftlandring
0.98 KM 269.32 13.10 Motorsport Arena Stefan Bellof
0.8 KM 303.19 9.5 FSAE endurance Germany 2010
1.4 8.37 39.89 FASE endurance Germany 2012
Table 5 Urban vehicle tracks’ results

LiFePO4 24V 80Ah For Urban Vehicle

Figure 14: Lithium-ion battery

Specifications
Nominal Voltage 25.6V

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Nominal Capacity 80Ah

Cell Inside LiFePO4 3.2V 80Ah

Configuration 8S1P

Standard Charge Current 16A (0.2C)

Max. Charge Current 80A (1C)

Battery management System (BMS) BMS-8S200200-LWS

Continuous Discharge Current 200A

Peak Discharge Current 400A

Full Charged Voltage 29.2V(3.65V per cell)

Charge Cut-off Voltage 31.2V (3.9V any single cell)

Discharge Cut-off Voltage 16V (2.0V per cell)

Net Weight 21.40kg

Dimensions 350*250*160mm(341*246*156mm)

Connector Anderson connector

Charging: 0°C ~ 45°C

Operating Temperature
Discharging: -20°C ~ 55°C

Storage Temperature (Recommended to store 20 ± 5°C for long

term storage)
Cycle Life 2000 times (80% of initial capacity at 0.2C
rate, IEC Standard)
Table 6 LiFePO4 battery specifications for Urban Vehicle

Li-Ion 48V 20Ah for prototype vehicle

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Table 7 LiPO4 Specifications For prototype vehicle

Nominal Voltage 48.1 V

Nominal Capacity 20Ah
Cell Inside 3.7V NMC Cylindrical
Configuration 13S1P
Standard Charge Current 1~10A (0.5C)

Max. Charge Current 10A (0.5C)

Battery management System (BMS) BMS-8S200200-LWS

Continuous Discharge Current 1~30 A

Peak Discharge Current 60 A

Full Charged Voltage 48.1V(3.71V per cell)

Charge Cut-off Voltage 55.25V±0.25V

Discharge Cut-off Voltage 35.75V±0.50V

Net Weight 4.5kg

Dimensions 175mmX250X70mm

Connector Anderson connector

Operating Temperature Charging: 0°C ~ 40°C
Discharging: -20°C ~ 45°C
Storage Temperature (Recommended to store 20 ± 5°C for long
term storage)
Battery management system (BMS)

Battery management systems, as mentioned above, are basically monitoring systems to

evaluate how efficiently a battery is working and to pick up any irregularities in its

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operation. This is vital for Li-ion technology as the batteries are quite sensitive to being
overcharged. While traditional batteries will take a full charge and then stop charging,
Li-ion technology continues to absorb the current. This has the same effect,
metaphorically, as overfilling a water balloon – the result is an explosive release of the
extra content! Therefore, Li-ion batteries have overcharge protection which warns the
user if the battery is at capacity. Battery management systems can also contain a switch
that can release the battery once charged to capacity, to prevent continued charging
from damaging the battery – think of it as being like a circuit breaker or a fuse cutting
out to prevent damage to the system as a whole.
Battery management systems can monitor almost everything that the battery does,
ensuring that temperature is regulated, that power output is kept even and that the
pressure that the battery is under does not exceed advisable limits. These systems can
even pick up the fact that the battery may have shifted and may be discharging its
current incorrectly, for example into the conductive body of the vehicle where it can
cause harm to the operator and other people around the machine.
Battery monitoring systems are a mechanic’s friend, helping to ensure that the business’
vehicles keep running smoothly and safely. The better the system works, the more
productive the vehicle can be and the lower its operating costs will be.
The common functions of the BMs include:
1- cell voltage measurement and control
2- contactor control
3- isolation monitoring
4- temperature measurement and control
5- state of charge/health calculation
1.2.3 Urban Control unit
KELLY controller
The control unit for the vehicle was chosen to be a purchased KELLY controller
which has safety features and flexibility in controlling various types of BLDC
motors with different power ratings. Figure 35 shows the KELLY controller.
Two controllers have been used (one for each motor).

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Figure 15: KELLY controller

Features
1) Intelligence with powerful microprocessor.
2) Synchronous rectification, ultra-low drop and fast PWM to achieve high efficiency.
3) Electronic reversing.
4) Voltage monitoring on 3 motor phases, bus, and power supply.
5) Voltage monitoring on voltage source 12V and 5V.
6) Current sense on all 3 motor phases.
7) Current control loop.
8) Hardware over current protection.
9) Hardware over voltage protection.
10) Support torque mode, speed mode, and balanced mode operation.
11) Configurable limit for motor current and battery current.
12) Low EMC.
13) LED fault code.
14) Battery protection: current cutback, warning, and shutdown at configurable high
and low battery voltage.
15) Standard PC/Laptop computer is used to do programming.
16) User program provided. Easy to use. No cost to customers.
Specifications
•Frequency of Operation: 16.6kHz.
•Standby Battery Current: < 0.5mA.
•5V Sensor Supply Current: 40mA.

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•Controller supply voltage range, PWR, 8V to 30V for KBL 24V controllers.
18V to 90V for KBL controllers rated equal or lower than 72V. 18V to 120V
for 96V controllers.
•Configurable battery voltage range, B+. Max operating range: 18V to 1.25*Nominal
Voltage for controller rated equal or higher than 36V. 8V to 30V for controller rated
equal 24V.
•Standard Throttle Input: 0-5 Volts (3-wire resistive pot), 1-4 Volts (hall active throttle).
•Analog Brake and Throttle Input: 0-5 Volts. Producing 0-5V signal with 3-wire pot.
•Reverse Alarm, Main Contactor Coil Driver, Meter.
•Full Power Operating Temperature Range: 0℃ to 50℃ (controller case temperature).
•Operating Temperature Range: -30℃ to 90℃,100℃ shutdown (controller case
temperature).
•Boost Current, 10 seconds: 150A-550A, depending on the model.
•Motor Current Limit, 1 minute: 100A-500A, depending on the model.
•Motor Current Limit, continuous: 60A-200A, depending on the model.
•Max Battery Current: Configurable.

1.2.4 MATLAB & SIMULINK Analysis

To estimate the vehicle’s performance, we have used MATLAB & SIMULINK software.
Each of the two vehicle’s design parameters like the vehicle’s weight, drag coefficient
and the tires-road adhesion have been put in the SIMULINK model. The output of these
models tells the estimated performance of the vehicle like [torque, speed, power
consumption, traveled distance, battery state of charge] in time according to the design
parameters and the state of the accelerator pedal.

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The figure illustrates the full SIMULINK model of the vehicle which is very similar for our
car except for the values of the design parameters which could be changed in the
MATLAB code.

Figure 16: full model

After design and selection phases are done the vehicle performance is tested with some
standard drive cycles through data driven model, In this model the parameters are taken
from datasheets and design considerations made by the team members. This model
estimates state of charge, power, torque, change in battery voltage, distance travelled
and changes in velocity through a period.

Driving Cycle

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A standard driving cycle has been used to simulate the driving behavior in city where
different speeds are obtained for some intervals of time, this is done to test the energy
consumption of the vehicles

Figure 17: Driver input signal

Simulation Results
As said before, the MATLAB/SIMULINK model has been made to estimate the
performance of the vehicles and determine what improvement or modifications should
be done to get better performance.
The modeling test has been made for about 12-kilometer distance and the results of the
models were showing the scopes of the speed, torque, power, battery state of charge
(soc), electric current, and the traveled distance.

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For Prototype Vehicle:-

Figure 18: Simulation Results for prototype vehicle

Figure 19: Simulation Results for Uran vehicle

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1.2.5 joulemeter
A joulemeter is an electronic device used to measure the energy
transfer by electricity in a circuit.
Joulemeter Components:
▪ 300A Joulemeter Shunt
▪ Joulemeter Display Monitor
▪ Joulemeter Wiring Harness

Joulemeters can be used to measure the energy transferred to an electrical

component in a circuit.

A joulemeter can be used measure the total energy transferred to an immersion

heater.

A joulemeter can be made by attaching an ammeter in series with

a component a voltmeter in parallel with the component and using
a stopwatch to calculate the energy transferred using the equation

E=IVt
Where
E = The energy transferred (or electrical work done).
I = The current through the component.
V = The potential difference across the component.
t = The time over which energy has been transferred.

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Figure 20: joulemeter

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Joulemeter Connection Diagram:

Figure 21: Joulemeter Connection Diagram

1.2.6 WIRING
Propulsion system wiring:
One of the major design considerations is systems’s wiring, the main aim from wiring is
minimize voltage drop across wires, reduce wiring length and cost.
This schematics show the wiring for both Urban vehicle and prototype vehicle showing
• Internal emergency switch: inside the vehicle accesable by the driver
• External emergency switch: outside the vehicle for extreme situations
• Dead man’s switch : that the driver is always pressing to ensure it’s safety and the
vehicle immediately stops when he is not pressing it.

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For Urban Vehicle:-

Figure 22 Propulsion system wiring for Urban vehicle

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For Prototype Vehicle:-

Figure 23: Propulsion system wiring for prototype vehicle

Lighting and accessories wiring:

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This schematic shows the wiring of the head lights, rear lights, brake lights and
indicators.
The buck converter step down the voltage from 48v to 12v so the lighting and
accessories can operate safely.
We used LEDs for low current consumption.
The LEDs are connected in parallel connection so when one of them has connection
issues the other is still working.
The horn reaches 85db for higher range.

Figure 24: accessories wiring for Urban Vehicle

Wiring protection
• we used stranded conductor wires and calculated the cross-section by American
wire gauge.
• for wiring connection protection, we used soldering and heat shrinks.

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• For components protection we used a fuse box.

• All wires are protected by insulation cover.
Wiring calculations for Urban Vehicle:

Wire type Length Voltage Current cross section Fuse rate

B+ 1 meter 48v 170 peak 35mm^2 200 A
Wiper 2.5meter 12v 2A 2mm^2 3A
Horn 2.5meter 12v 2A 2mm^2 3A
Lighting 2.5meter 12v 0.3A 1mm^2 1A
Accessories 2.5 meter 12v 40mA 1mm^2 1A
Cycle analyst 0.5meter 5v 1.6A 1mm^2 2A
Resistance = V/I fuse rate = 1.2*current intensity
Area=ρ * Length/R

Wiring calculations for Prototype Vehicle:

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1.3. DATA ACQUISITION

Figure 25: Cycle analyst

• By using (Cycle analyst V3) to represent the velocity, current and state of charge.
Cycle analyst will monitor the Velocity by the speedometer sensor and spoke
magnet and the current by the shunt resistor. It will also detect how much
regenerative brake energy are used as a percentage of the power consumption
according to the distance that the driver passed.

It has display screens shown in the following:

Display #1 – Main Screen

The primary display screen shows at a glance all of the key info you would want to see from
the bike. There is a battery fuel gauge in the top left, plus a readout of your pack voltage,
speed, and battery power draw. The button right corner toggles between showing your
accumulated trip distance and accumulated battery amp-hours, and if a temperature sensor
is enabled it will show the temperature too.

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Meanwhile, on the bottom left there are two additional graphic blocks. A throttle slider icon
shows visually where your input throttle is at, switching to a flashing mode if throttle auto-
cruise is latched, and then to a brake lever if e-brakes are engaged. Adjacent to this is a human
power indicator that works if you have a PAS sensor enabled, indicating either your human
power or your pedal cadence.
Also note that if you exceed the speed limit, then the speed units will flash, and if you hit the
battery low voltage cutoff then the voltage sign will flash. If you are below the minimum start
speed, then the speed number itself will flash.

Display #2 – Electrical Only

The 2nd screen only shows electrical stats; Volts, Watts, Amps, and Amp-Hours. It is useful
when using the CA on non-vehicle systems where all the additional details on the first screen
are not relevant.

Display #3 – Human Power

The 3rd screen is interesting for people who have a torque sensor in their system. The top line
shows key vehicle stats: your voltage, amps, and speed, while the 2nd line displays your
human power input and pedal cadence.
Display #4 – Energy Mileage

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The next display is the same popular readout from the V2 CA devices which shows the net
watthours taken from the battery pack, as well as your energy ‘mileage’ in units of Wh/km or
Wh/mi. This is the EV equivalent to gas mileage in L/100km, and the smaller the number the
better energy economy and longer range you’ll get from a battery pack.

Display #5 – Human Stats

Screen number 5 is a summary of the human power statistics for the trip, showing the total
human watt-hours, along with the average watts and average pedal cadence. Note that the
human watts are only averaged while the rider is pedaling, so if you coast or ride throttle only
for a while this won’t reduce your average.

Display #6 – Regenerative Braking

The relative benefits of regen are debated at length in the e-bike community, and the point of
this screen is to at least help provide analytic numbers to the discussion. On the left you will
see the % by which your range has increased as a result of regen, and on the right, it toggles
between the total forwards and reverse amp-hours that were accumulated. (The Ah display
on the 1st and 3rd screen is the net difference).

Display #7 – Max and Mins

The next stat shows the electrical max and mins on the system. Usually the max amps is not
all that interesting since it will be the same as your controller current limit, but the Amin will
show the max regen current, and the multiplication of Amax and Vmin will typically coincide
with the maximum power draw as well.

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1.4. EMBEDDED CONTROL SYSTEM DEVELOPMENT PROCESS:

MODEL-BASED DESIGN AND ARCHITECTURE BASICS.

1.4.1 Introduction.
In different markets, such as industry, appliances, automotive, marine, and
avionics, rotating electrical machines are widely used. The adjustable speed drive
(ASD) with DC machines had been used widely to control the torque and speed.
However, the AC machine drive system driven by a variable-voltage/variable-
frequency (VVVF) is widely used due to their high-performance control thanks to
the improvements in the power electronics devices, in the machine efficiency,
and in the performance of the microprocessors. In the literature, it is possible to
find different nomenclatures to specify a variable speed ACdrive such as variable-
frequency drive (VFD), adjustable frequency drive (AFD)where both provide a
VVVF. The common part of these drives is the control of the speed/torque
variation in electromechanical systems where the speed/torque is adapted
according to the necessity of the system. The most used electronic power system
(sometimes designed as AC drive) able to perform a VVVF is known in the
literature as an inverter. As it will be discussed, the inverter topology can be
single-phase, or poly-phase, and basically consists in transform a DC source into a
single- or poly-phase AC source. The control system of the AC drive and therefore
the control of the AC machine are increasingly complex systems and usually
consist of embedded systems. The embedded system is referred to as an
electronic system that is designed to perform a dedicated function by using a
combination of computer hardware and software, which is often embedded
within a larger system. A generic embedded system architecture is composed of a
microprocessor, its memory, and the inputs and outputs. The embedded software
is commonly stored in the non-volatile memory devices such as flash memory,
read-only memory (ROM), or erasable programmable ROM (EPROM). The
microprocessor uses the random-access memory (RAM) for its runtime
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computation. Once the embedded system is powered, the software code stored
in the non-volatile memory is read to execute the instructions to process the
input information and set the outputs according to the needs of the external
control system. In the control systems, the inputs usually are sensors, while the
outputs are actuators. Both are managed by dedicated peripherals such as
general-purpose input/output (I/O), timers, and analog-to-digital converter (ADC
or A/D). When the microprocessor, memory, and peripherals are integrated
together on a single chip, the device consists of a microcontroller. The
microprocessor with an architecture optimized for digital signal processing is the
digital signal processor (DSP). The DSP is an idea processor choice for applications
with intensive math computations in constrained environments. For example, the
analog input signals, such as audio or video signals, are converted to digital with
ADC, and then, it is manipulated digitally with sophisticated algorithms and finally
converted back to analog form with a digital-to-analog converter
(DAC).Nowadays, some DSPs have dedicated peripherals for a control system so
that they compete with microcontrollers thanks to their increasingly affordable
price and the tools improvements. New platforms based in programmable system
on-chip (SoC) which combine programmable logic, DSP, and microprocessor cores
on the same chip are increasingly used in electric machine control. The advantage
of using programmable logic or DSP is its high-performance computation where
complex control algorithms can be implemented inside, while the microprocessor
can be dedicated to other tasks such as communication interfaces. The field-
programmable gate array (FPGA) contains programmable logic blocks such as
AND and XOR with faster and parallelizable processing where the performance is
higher than the microprocessor and DSPs. They are generally more expensive and
more difficult to use, and its uses are limited for applications where the high
performance is a requirement. DSPs, microcontroller, SoC, and FPGAs are valid
options to perform a machine control units (MCU), the microcontroller option will
be studied, The embedded systems can combine any combination of a

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microprocessor, microcontrollers, DSPs, FPGA, and SoCs. The embedded systems

have to manage millions of lines of code where their integration and debugging
with other systems are increasingly more complex. To deal with the complexity of
embedded software development in different markets, and especially in
electronic control units (ECU) or more specifically, in MCUs of modern
automobiles, the development is increasingly based in the model-based design.
Hence, in the automotive sector, the traditional way of building embedded code,
where lines of code are written by hand, has become obsolete. The model-based
design (MBD) focuses on the models that describe the desired control and the
behavior of the system under development. The MBD has been discussed for a
few decades, but it is not until these recent years where it is being involved in the
flow of system design. In theMBD, the engineer focuses on the functionality, the
modeling of physical phenomena, the interface of modules, the general behavior
of the system, and verification through their own simulations. On the other hand,
the definition of fundamental standard software architecture is mandatory if
certain security, reliability, and interactive work methodology requirements
between the designers, the client, and the quality regulators should be satisfied.
For example, in automotive, in many occasions, the development of a project is
executed between OEMs (Original Equipment Manufacturers) and their Tier1 and
Tier2 suppliers. To allow the exchange of models and software, the
standardization of a work platform is necessary. In this sense, the AUTOMotive
Open System Architecture (AUTOSAR) partnership guarantees a process for the
development of standard automotive software. AUTOSAR offers a framework
guide for electronic automotive control systems which comes with layered
software architecture. Lastly, the MCU and ECUs are tested with selected
methods in agreement with the standards, e.g., the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC), to guarantee and minimum safety requirements. The objective
is to ensure the safety of persons, to measure performances, and to ensure
compatibility with other systems. For example, the IEC 61508 describes the basic

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functional safety standard applicable to all types of industry, while the

International Organization for Standardization (ISO) 26262 specifies the functional
safety for road vehicles which is derived from IEC 61508. In this chapter, it
basically introduces the MBD technique, the software architecture of the ECUs
and MCUs, and the different test systems for each of the development phases.

1.4.2 Model-Based Design.

MBD is a mathematical and visual method that facilitates the complex designs of
embedded systems. Instead of using extensive and complicated programming
codes, designers can use MBD to define models with advanced functional
features using continuous-time and discrete-time simulations. The main
components of a model based design are design and simulation at the system and
component level, automatic code generation, and continuous testing and
verification.
V-Model.
The MBD can be considered a software development methodology based on the
V-model. The V-model was first presented in 1991 (Forsberg and Mooz 1991), and
it is a variation of the waterfall model in a V shape folded in half at the lowest
level of decomposition. Figure 1.1 shows the V-model adapted for the software
development process. V-model is denoted as a linear refinement process that
follows a top-down approach shown on the left side of the V, while validation and
verification take a bottom-up approach that is shown on the right side of V. V-
model demonstrates the relationships between each phase of the development
life cycle and its associated testing phase. The horizontal and vertical axes
represent the time or integrity of the project (from left to right) and the level of
abstraction (the abstraction of coarser grain upwards), respectively. The project
starts with the system requirements where the system specification is derived.
This defines a detailed specification where is specified the functionality

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Figure 26 V-model.
The left side is denoted as a linear life-cycle process that follows a top-down
approach, while the right side of the V is the validation and verification using a
bottom-up approach to meet and allows designing a software architecture. For
example, it could define the speed control functionality of an electric machine. In
this step is developed a basic MiL, which in the mentioned example, should
consist of a speed control loop on a plant model. Taking into account the different
functionalities, the architecture software platform can be designed. On this
architecture, the design of the different modules or software components (SWC)
is perfectly defined with their respective inputs and outputs. The code generation
can be generated for each one of the SWCs designed to finally be tested by means
of a unit test (UT). If the UT meets the requirements, a hardware/software
integration test with the rest of the modules can be performed using a processor-
in-the-loop (PiL) or hardware-in-the-loop (HiL). Otherwise, horizontally it would
return to the design of the module to modify its features to rebuild the UT. If the
integration test does not comply with the requirements, in particular, it is

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necessary to proceed with the redesign either of the architecture or of the

different modules. If this is not the case, the functional tests are carried out. As in
the previous cases, if the test requirements are not met, it is returned horizontally
to the refinement.

1.4.3 Test Stage:

As mentioned, it is possible to consider different test stages as illustrated in Fig. 1:
model-in-the-loop (MiL), software-in-the-loop (SiL), PiL, and HiL. MiL stage is
implemented during the refinement process in order to validate demodel
according to the requirements specification. The rest of the test stage is usually
implemented in the validation and verification of the model, as explained before.
In the following section, each of them is explained separately.
Model-in-the-Loop (MiL):
The MiL scenario is a technique used to abstract the behavior of a system or
subsystem so that this model can be used to test, simulate, and verify that model.
For example, the control system of an electric machine based on a PID regulator
with a power stage, it would be possible to adjust and test its correct operation
on a modeled plant formed by the power stage and the electric machine. By using
a chain of industry standard tools such as Simulink® to define the model, it is
possible to test and refine that model within a personal computer (PC), which
allows managing a complex system efficiently.
Software-in-the-Loop (SiL):
Unlike the MiL, the SiL scenario allows testing the code generated from the model
also on a PC where it is possible to perform the simulation, but based on the
model code. That is, on the same example of the previous control system, the PID
controller based on a model, its code is generated and therefore tested in the
same environment. This phase requires only the simulation model and is

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independent of the hardware, focusing on software interfaces and numerical

results. The requirements and specifications of the software can be analyzed and
verified here. The first phase of refinement of the requirements is carried out
during the SiL simulations.
Processor-in-the-Loop (PiL)
The PiL scenario allows developing real-time control over a microprocessor target
connected to a digital platform that emulates, in this case, themost complicated
parts to obtain at the beginning of the project, such as the power stage and the
electric machine. Unlike MiL and SiL, in this case, the real microprocessor of the
ECU is tested, where the software not only consists of the application layer
control algorithm but a part of the software architecture. Unlike the simulation in
the SiL scenario, where the runtimemetrics were not obvious, due to the higher
calculation capacity of a PC, the PiL has the ability to detect insufficient hardware
capabilities. For example, PiL provides real-time metrics, detects bottlenecks,
adds used memory, supervises hardware and software interruptions, analysis of
waveforms, thermal effects, and electromagnetic interferences, among others.
On the other hand, the digital platform that emulates the power stage and the
machine can be a PC, a field-programmable gate array (FPGA), or even a DSP. The
increase in the speed of processing of the DSPs and of their reduction in cost
make that the option of using a DSP to emulate an electrical machine is one of the
best alternatives.
Hardware-in-the-Loop (HiL).
The hardware-in-the-loop (HIL) scenario tends to become the standard electronic
development tool for testing ECUs, MCUs, and, more particularly, its software for
different OEMs. Especially during development, the individual software change
tests (MBD changes) of the ECU can be tested using the HiL in real time.
Increasing the complexity of control algorithms requires the use of this scenario,
which advances the problems that can be encountered before testing in real

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conditions. In the case of an MCU, consisting of a power stage based on a three-

phase inverter, and its control logic for an electrical machine, the HiL scenario can
be used as a tool to develop and validate control strategies in all operating
conditions, including extreme conditions, such as non-destructive failures in the
machine itself.

1.4.4 MBD Process.

Figure 27 MBD setup application in an MCU

The MBD begins with the MiL scenario (Lamberg et al. 2004), which consists of
developing models submitted to simulated test environments at the beginning of
the design. The models are then refined and transformed into software. This
software can be tested in the SiL scenario, or in the microprocessor, PiL scenario.
Finally, the HiL scenario (Hanselmann 1993) contains the real hardware and
software (MCU), integrated into a simulated environment. The plant (electric
machine) controlled by MCU is developed during the functional specification
phase, which can be used by the HiL scenario, defining the simulated
environment. The model-based design allows systems to be developed with a
model-centered approach, since the basic idea is to develop the model without
the need for a physical prototype, in a simulation-based verification environment.
The model includes all the relevant components for the behavior of the system:

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algorithms, control logic, physical components, and the environment. Once the
model has been developed and verified that it works according to the
requirements, code of the control logic can be generated in the chosen
programming language, for its later implementation in a microcontroller, FPGA, or
DSP. The programming language will vary depending on the chosen hardware,
being typically C/C++ language for the microcontroller and DSP, while VHSIC (very
high speed integrated circuit) hardware description language (VHDL) is reserved
for the FPGA.

1.5. TRAPEZOIDAL CONTROL TECHNIQUE:

To control BLDC motors, 6-step, or 120 degrees trapezoidal control based on hall-
sensors offers a very elegant and cost-effective solution. Figure 1 shows the block
diagram of this scheme in which the motor is driven by a 3-phase H-bridge
inverter. The commutation table block provides logic sequence to drive 6-
switches of inverters and plays a very important role in the 6-step commutation
control.

Figure 28 Block diagram of BLDC motor control using hall-sensors

The 6-step commutation or 120 degrees trapezoidal control is characterized by a
two-phase ON operation to control the 3-phase inverter. In this control scheme,
torque production follows the principle that current should flow in two of the

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three phases at the same time and that the angle between the stator magnetic
field and the rotor flux is kept close to 90 degrees to get the maximum generated
torque. Figure 2 describes the electrical waveforms of motor voltage, current and
hall-sensor signals with respect to rotor angle of BLDC motor. Typically most of
BLDC motors are supplied with 3 integrated hall-sensors placed 120 degrees from
each other. This provides the required digital signals (high/low) for the controller
to determine the rotor position in intervals of 60 electrical degrees. The 120
degrees hall placement is the most popular configuration because in normal
conditions it never generates the codes in which all three hall-sensors signal are
high or low simultaneously. This means binary codes 111 or 000 are invalid and
this allows for an easier fault detection mechanism.
The information given in figure 2 can be easily deducted in the form of six state
commutation table for 3-phase inverter, as shown in table 1. This table provides
the proper sequence of excitation of motor phases with respect to binary code
generated from 3-hall sensors. The correct commutation table is fundamental for
a 6-step commutation algorithm to rotate the motor efficiently and to make sure
that current is injected to proper phase at right time duration when its back-emf
is in the flat-top region. For clarity of symbol convention, + sign in table1 means
that back-emf in particular phase is positive and a positive current must be
injected in phase, and –sign means back-emf is negative and negative current
must be injected in the phase. Positive direction of current is assumed to be
entering the motor phase terminal and negative current direction means leaving
out of motor phase terminal. OFF means current is zero in the phase.

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Figure 32 Phase voltage, current and hall-sensor waveforms with respect to rotor electrical angle

Hall Sensors Motor Phases

HA HB HC PH_A PH_B PH_C

1 1 0 OFF + -

0 1 0 - + OFF

0 1 1 - OFF +

0 0 1 OFF - +

1 0 1 + - OFF

1 0 0 + OFF -
Table 7 Six State commutation table
If you’re able to get the above diagram of motor phases voltages with respect to
hall-sensors from the datasheet or motor manufacturer, you can easily deduct the

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commutation table for a 3-phase inverter. However, it is found that there is

significant inconsistency in the information provided by the manufacturer. There
are several standards for labeling the motor phases: A,B,C or U,V,W or R, Y B.
Likewise the hall-effect sensor connections are named and labeled: HALL A, B, C
or Hall 1,2,3. In these circumstances, it becomes difficult for the end user to
determine the right commutation table.
The good thing among all these inconsistencies is that hall sensors are always
consistent if they are placed 120 degrees apart. This means that in between two
consecutive commutation sequences only one hall-effect signal changes the logic
either from high to low or from low to high, as evident in figure 2 and table 1.

1.5 FIELD ORIENTED CONTROL:

1.5.1 Introduction.
In order to achieve better dynamic performance, a more complex control scheme
needs to be applied, to control the PM motor. With the mathematical processing
power offered by the microcontrollers, we can implement advanced control
strategies, which use mathematical transformations in order to decouple the
torque generation and the magnetization functions in PM motors. Such de-
coupled torque and magnetization control is commonly called rotor flux oriented
control, or simply Field Oriented Control (FOC).

1.5.2 The main philosophy behind the FOC:

In order to understand the spirit of the Field Oriented Control technique, let us
start with an overview of the separately excited direct current (DC) Motor. In this
type of motor, the excitation for the stator and rotor is independently controlled.
Electrical study of the DC motor shows that the produced torque and the flux can
be independently tuned. The strength of the field excitation (i.e. the magnitude of

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the field excitation current) sets the value of the flux. The current through the
rotor windings determines how much torque is produced. The commutator on the
rotor plays an interesting part in the torque production. The commutator is in
contact with the brushes, and the mechanical construction is designed to switch
into the circuit the windings that are mechanically aligned to produce the
maximum torque. This arrangement then means that the torque production of
the machine is fairly near optimal all the time. The key point here is that the
windings are managed to keep the flux produced by the rotor windings
orthogonal to the stator field.
AC machines do not have the same key features as the DC motor. In both cases
we have only one source that can be controlled which is the stator currents. On
the synchronous machine, the rotor excitation is given by the permanent magnets
mounted onto the shaft. On the synchronous motor, the only source of power
and magnetic field is the stator phase voltage. Obviously, as opposed to the DC
motor, flux and torque depend on each other.
The goal of the FOC (also called vector control) on synchronous and asynchronous
machine is to be able to separately control the torque producing and magnetizing
flux components. The control technique goal is to (in a sense), imitate the DC
motor’s operation. FOC control will allow us to decouple the torque and the
magnetizing flux components of stator current. With decoupled control of the
magnetization, the torque producing component of the stator flux can now be
thought of as independent torque control. To decouple the torque and flux, it is
necessary to engage several mathematical transforms, and this is where the
microcontrollers add the most value. The processing capability provided by the
microcontrollers enables these mathematical transformations to be carried out
very quickly. This in turn implies that the entire algorithm controlling the motor
can be executed at a fast rate, enabling higher dynamic performance. In addition
to the decoupling, a dynamic model of the motor is now used for the

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computation of many quantities such as rotor flux angle and rotor speed. This
means that their effect is accounted for, and the overall quality of control is
better. According to the electromagnetic laws, the
torque produced in the synchronous machine is
equal to vector cross product of the two existing magnetic fields:
This expression shows that the torque is maximum if stator and rotor magnetic
fields are orthogonal meaning if we are to maintain the load at 90 degrees. If we
are able to ensure this condition all the time, if we are able to orient the flux
correctly, we reduce the torque ripple and we ensure a better dynamic response.
However, the constraint is to know the rotor position: this can be achieved with a
position sensor such as incremental encoder. For low-cost application where the
rotor is not accessible, different rotor position observer strategies are applied to
get rid of position sensor.
In brief, the goal is to maintain the rotor and stator flux in quadrature: the goal is
to align the stator flux with the q axis of the rotor flux, i.e. orthogonal to the rotor
flux. To do this the stator current component in quadrature with the rotor flux is
controlled to generate the commanded torque, and the direct component is set
to zero. The direct component of the stator current can be used in some cases for
field weakening, which has the effect of opposing the rotor flux, and reducing the
back-emf, which allows for operation at higher speeds.

1.5.3 Technical Background:

The Field Orientated Control consists of controlling the stator currents
represented by a vector. This control is based on projections which transform a
three phase time and speed dependent system into a two co-ordinate (d and q
co-ordinates) time invariant system. These projections lead to a structure similar
to that of a DC machine control. Field orientated controlled machines need two
constants as input references: the torque component (aligned with the q co-

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ordinate) and the flux component (aligned with d co-ordinate). As Field

Orientated Control is simply based on projections the control structure handles
instantaneous electrical quantities. This makes the control accurate in every
working operation (steady state and transient) and independent of the limited
bandwidth mathematical model. The FOC thus solves the classic scheme
problems, in the following ways:

• The ease of reaching constant reference (torque component and flux

component of the stator current)
• The ease of applying direct torque control because in the (d,q) reference
frame the expression of the torque is:

By maintaining the amplitude of the rotor flux ( ψR ) at a fixed value we have a

linear relationship between torque and torque component (iSq). We can then
control the torque by controlling the torque component of stator current vector.

1.5.4 Space Vector Definition and Projection :

The three-phase voltages, currents and fluxes of AC-motors can be analyzed in
terms of complex space vectors. With regard to the currents, the space vector can
be defined as follows. Assuming that ia, ib, ic are the instantaneous currents in
the stator phases, then the complex stator current vector is is defined by:

where and represent the spatial operators. The following

diagram shows the stator current complex space vector:

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Figure 29 Stator current space vector and its

component in (a,b,c)

where (a,b,c) are the three phase system axes. This current space vector depicts
the three phase sinusoidal system. It still needs to be transformed into a two time
invariant co-ordinate system. This transformation can be split into two steps:

• (a,b,c) ⇒(α ,β ) (the Clarke transformation) which outputs a two co-

ordinate time variant system
• (α ,β )⇒ (d,q) (the Park transformation) which outputs a two co-ordinate
time invariant system

The (a,b,c) ⇒(α,β ) Projection (Clarke transformation):

The space vector can be reported in another reference frame with only two
orthogonal axis called (α ,β ) . Assuming that the axis a and the axis α are in the
same direction we have the following vector diagram:

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Figure 30 Stator current space vector and its components in the stationary
reference frame

The projection that modifies the three phase system into the (α ,β ) two
dimension orthogonal system is presented below.

The two phase (α ,β ) currents are still depends on time and speed.

The (α,β )⇒ (d,q) Projection (Park Transformation):

This is the most important transformation in the FOC. In fact, this projection
modifies a two phase orthogonal system (α ,β ) in the d,q rotating reference
frame. If we consider the d axis aligned with the rotor flux, the next diagram
shows, for the current vector, the relationship from the two reference frame:

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Figure 31 Stator current space vector and its component in (α,β) and in the d,q rotating reference
frame

where θ is the rotor flux position. The flux and torque components of the current
vector are determined by the following equations:

These components depend on the current vector (α ,β ) components and on the

rotor flux position; if we know the right rotor flux position then, by this
projection, the d,q component becomes a constant. Two phase currents now turn
into dc quantity (time-invariant). At this point the torque control becomes easier
where constant isd (flux component) and isq (torque component) current
components controlled independently.

1.6. THE BASIC SCHEME FOR THE FOC:

The following diagram summarizes the basic scheme of torque control with FOC

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Figure 32Basic scheme of FOC for AC motor

Two motor phase currents are measured. These measurements feed the Clarke
transformation module. The outputs of this projection are designated isα and isβ.
These two components of the current are the inputs of the Park transformation
that gives the current in the d,q rotating reference frame. The isd and isq
components are compared to the references isdref (the flux reference) and isqref
(the torque reference). At this point, this control structure shows an interesting
advantage: it can be used to control either synchronous or HVPM machines by
simply changing the flux reference and obtaining rotor flux position. As in
synchronous permanent magnet a motor, the rotor flux is fixed determined by
the magnets; there is no need to create one. Hence, when controlling a PMSM,
isdref should be set to zero. As HVPM motors need a rotor flux creation in order
to operate, the flux reference must not be zero. This conveniently solves one of
the major drawbacks of the “classic” control structures: the portability from
asynchronous to synchronous drives. The torque command isqref could be the

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output of the speed regulator when we use a speed FOC. The outputs of the
current regulators are Vsdref and Vsqref; they are applied to the inverse Park
transformation. The outputs of this projection are Vsαref and Vsβref which are
the components of the stator vector voltage in the (α ,β ) stationary orthogonal
reference frame. These are the inputs of the Space Vector PWM. The outputs of
this block are the signals that drive the inverter. Note that both Park and inverse
Park transformations need the rotor flux position. Obtaining this rotor flux
position depends on the AC machine type (synchronous or asynchronous
machine). Rotor flux position considerations are made in a following paragraph.

1.6.1 Rotor Flux Position:

Knowledge of the rotor flux position is the core of the FOC. In fact if there is an
error in this variable the rotor flux is not aligned with d-axis and isd and isq are
incorrect flux and torque components of the stator current. The following
diagram shows the (a,b,c), (α ,β ) and (d,q) reference frames, and the correct
position of the rotor flux, the stator current and stator voltage space vector that
rotates with d,q reference at synchronous speed.

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Figure 33Current, voltage and rotor flux space vectors in the d,q rotating reference frame and their
relationship with a,b,c and (α,β) stationary reference frame

In the synchronous machine the rotor speed is equal to the rotor flux speed. Then
θ (rotor flux position) is directly measured by position sensor or by integration of
rotor speed.
Theoretically, the field-oriented control for the PMSM drive allows the motor
torque be controlled independently with the flux like DC motor operation. In
other words, the torque and flux are decoupled from each other. The rotor
position is required for variable transformation from stationary reference frame
to synchronously rotating reference frame. As a result of this transformation (so
called Park transformation), q-axis current will be controlling torque while d-axis
current is forced to zero. Therefore, the key module of this system is the
estimation of rotor position using FAST estimator. The overall block diagram of
this project is depicted in Figure below.

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Figure 34Overall block diagram of sensorless field oriented control of PMSM

1.7. TEXAS INSTRUMENTS SOLUTION FOR MOTOR CONTROL:

1.7.1 Benefits of 32-bit C2000 Controllers for Digital Motor

Control:
C2000 family of devices posses the desired computation power to execute
complex control algorithms along with the right mix of peripherals to interface
with the various components of the DMC hardware like the ADC, ePWM, QEP,
eCAP etc. These peripherals have all the necessary hooks for implementing
systems which meet safety requirements, like the trip zones for PWMs and
comparators. Along with this the C2000 ecosystem of software (libraries and
application software) and hardware (application kits) help in reducing the time

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and effort needed to develop a Digital Motor Control solution.The DMC Library
provides configurable blocks that can be reused to implement new control
strategies. IQMath Library enables easy migration from floating point algorithms
to fixed point thus accelerating the development cycle.
Thus, with C2000 family of devices it is easy and quick to implement complex
control algorithms (sensored and sensorless) for motor control. The use of C2000
devices and advanced control schemes provides the following system
improvements.

• Favors system cost reduction by an efficient control in all speed range

implying right dimensioning of power device circuits
• Use of advanced control algorithms it is possible to reduce torque ripple,
thus resulting in lower vibration and longer life time of the motor
• Advanced control algorithms reduce harmonics generated by the inverter
thus reducing filter cost.
• Use of sensorless algorithms eliminates the need for speed or position
sensor.
• Decreases the number of look-up tables which reduces the amount of
memory required
• The Real-time generation of smooth near-optimal reference profiles and
move trajectories, results in better-performance
• Generation of high resolution PWM’s is possible with the use of ePWM
peripheral for controlling the power switching inverters
• Provides single chip control system For advanced controls, C2000

1.7.2 controllers can also perform the following:

• Enables control of multi-variable and complex systems using modern
intelligent methods such as neural networks and fuzzy logic.

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• Performs adaptive control. C2000 controllers have the speed capabilities to

concurrently monitor the system and control it. A dynamic control
algorithm adapts itself in real time to variations in system behaviour.
• Performs parameter identification for sensorless control algorithms, self
commissioning, and online parameter estimation update.
• Performs advanced torque ripple and acoustic noise reduction.
• Provides diagnostic monitoring with spectrum analysis. By observing the
frequency spectrum of mechanical vibrations, failure modes can be
predicted in early stages.
• Produces sharp-cut-off notch filters that eliminate narrow-band mechanical
resonance. Notch filters remove energy that would otherwise excite
resonant modes and possibly make the system unstable.

1.7.3 C2000 Piccolo MCU F28069M LaunchPad™ development

kit:

Figure 35 F28069M LaunchPad

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Key features:
•
Up to 90-MHz, 32-bit Floating-Point C28x™ CPU
•
128-kB or 256-kB embedded Flash, up to 96kB RAM
•
12-bit ADC, up to 3.46 MSPS
•
150-ps high-resolution ePWM
•
Optional Control Law Accelerator (CLA)
•
Optional Viterbi and Complex Math Unit (VCU)
•
Motor ROM including FAST™ software encoder and InstaSPIN™-FOC
solutions
Key benefits:

• Leading 32-bit floating-point performance for real-time control

• Unique, precision control peripherals
• Lowers system cost
• Increased ease of use
• Small package size

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FAST estimator:
FAST rotor observer/estimator Provides rotor Flux, rotor flux Angle, rotor flux
Speed and shaft Torque estimations.

Figure 36 Fast Estimator block diagram

FAST™ estimator features:

• Unified observer structure which exploits the similarities between all motors
that use magnetic flux for energy transduction
o Both synchronous (BLDC, SPM, IPM), and asynchronous (ACIM) control
are possible
o Salient compensation for Interior Permanent Magnet motors: observer
tracks rotor flux and angle correctly when Ls-d and Ls-q are provided
• Unique, high quality motor feedback signals for use in control systems
o High-quality Flux signal for stable flux monitoring and field
weakening
o Superior rotor flux Angle estimation accuracy over wider speed range
compared to traditional observer techniques (independent of all
rotor parameters for ACIM)
o Real-time low-noise motor shaft Speed signal

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o Accurate high bandwidth Torque signal for load monitoring and

imbalance detection
• Angle estimator converges within first cycle of the applied waveform,
regardless of speed
• Stable operation in all power quadrants, including generator quadrants
• Accurate angle estimation at steady state speeds below 1 Hz (typ.) with full
torque
• Angle integrity maintained even during slow speed reversals through zero
speed
• Angle integrity maintained during stall conditions, enabling smooth stall
recovery
• Motor Identification process measures required electrical motor
parameters of unloaded motor in under 2 minutes (typ.)
• “On-the-fly” stator resistance recalibration (online Rs) tracks stator
resistance changes in real time, resulting in robust operation over
temperature. This feature can also be used as a temperature sensor of the
motor's windings (basepoint calibration required)
• Superior transient response of rotor flux angle tracking compared to
traditional observer

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2.FRAME

2.1. INTRODUCTION: -
Chassis is a French term and was initially used to denote the frame parts or basic
structure of the vehicle. It's the backbone of the vehicle. It's also called as carrying
unit Therefore the chassis is considered as the most important element of the
vehicle as it holds all the parts and components together. Having a well-designed
chassis is important to ensure the safety, performance, and roadworthiness of the
vehicle. In the event of crash, the chassis must be able to protect the occupant
from injury. In the roll over crash, the occupant will be protected by the main and
front hoops which are the main part of the chassis. The side impact bar protects
the occupant during side impact. The performance and characteristics of a chassis
can be accessed from the strength and stiffness of the chassis.

So, we have to choose a suitable material with the characteristics we need such as
low weight, strength, and stiffness.

1) stiffness
Chassis stiffness characteristic is usually referred to bending stiffness and the
torsion stiffness. Bending stiffness is a stiffness that relates to the vertical
deflection of the point near the center wheelbase to multiples of the total
static loads on the vehicle symmetrically. Torsion stiffness is the stiffness that
is related to the torsion deflection of the chassis structure.

2) Strength Yield strength is the minimum strength that will cause plastic
deformation which is also maximum strength for the elastic behavior of a
material. Elastic behavior is a region in a stress-strain curve where the
deformation will return to its original shape and size when the loading is
removed. Any load exceeding the yield strength can cause permanent
deformation or a plastic deformation.

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2.2. DESIGN CONSIDERATION: -

The purpose of this is to design and manufacture a tubular space frame chassis that
is strong enough to absorb the energy resulting from being subjected to possible
impact and torsional loads. To achieve such a goal, the following design
considerations were:

• Driver safety: as the main object of the frame is to maintain the driver safety at
all conditions it was our first priority in the design goals.

• Simplicity in design: as a new team designing the vehicle it was important to keep
our design simple and to also to facilitate the manufacturing process

• Low weight: The frame of the vehicle needs to be lightweight and structurally
sound to be competitive but still protect the driver. Where the weight of the vehicle
is highly affecting the performance of the vehicle so it was important to obtain a
low weight as possible for the final frame.

• Low cost: due to insufficient in budget it was important to maintain low cost for
the project.

2.2.1 Types of frame: -

There are three basic types of chassis:

1. monocoque
2. Ladder frame
3. Spaceframe
Monocoque: -
The monocoque frame divided into: -

• Integral Frame: -

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This frame is used now a days in most of the cars. There is no frame and all the
assembly units are attached to the body, all the functions of the frame carried out
by the body itself. Due to elimination of long frame it's cheaper and due to less
weight most economical also. Only disadvantage is repairing is difficult.

Figure 37 Integral frame

• Semi Integral Frame: -
In some vehicle’s half frame is fixed in the front end on which engine gearbox
and front suspension is mounted. It has the advantage when the vehicle is met
with accident the front frame can be taken easily to replace the damaged frame.

Figure 38 Semi Integral Frame

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ladder frame: -
This design suited the production methods of the early 20th century where a
chassis and drive train were manufactured and then sent to a coachbuilder for the
body to be attached to the top. The Ladder frame is simple to design and
manufacture, but tends to be heavy if rigid. Also, with the Ladder frame, the body
is ‘along for the ride’ and contributes little to the overall rigidity of the vehicle. The
Ladder frame consists mainly of longitudinal beams – which need depth and mass
for rigidity. This design particularly suits trucks / trailers where an open Ladder
frame is needed to carry loads of varying shape, size and mass. The manufacture of
a Ladder frame may be fully automated or by hand, depending on production
requirements (e.g. mass-produced trucks or specialized sports cars).

Figure 39 Ladder frame

Space frame: -
Space frame chassis have been in use since the start of the motor sport scene A
space frame consists of steel or aluminum tubular pipes placed in a triangulated
format to support the loads from the vehicle caused by; suspension, engine, driver

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and aerodynamics. Although spaceframes are the traditional style, they are still
very popular today in amateur motorsport. Their popularity maintains because of
their simplicity, the only required to construct a spaceframe is a saw, measuring
device and welder. The spaceframe still has advantages over a monocoque as it can
easily be repaired and inspected for damage after a collision. The chassis has to
contain the various component required for the race car as well as being based
around a driver’s cockpit. The safety of the chassis is a major aspect in the design,
and should be considered through all stages. The design also has to meet strict
requirements and regulations set by the limited budgets and time constraints the
design of the chassis will need to be geared towards simplicity and strength.

Figure 40 Space frame

We chose the space frame chassis due to the material availability, low cost, and
Ease of manufacturing.

objectives Rank monocoque Space frame

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Mass 5 5 3
cost 4 1 5
Simplicity 4 2 5
maintenance 4 2 5
Availability 5 2 5
modifiability 5 2 5
total 65 125
Table 8 comparison between space frame and monocoque
CHASSIS STRUCTURE: -
- We split the chassis into three main volumes:

a) Front Clip The front clip of the chassis will carry the front axle assembly, the
steering system, suspension and the pedal box volume.

Figure 41 front clip of an FSAE race car

b) Cockpit The cockpit holds the driver in his place during impacts and protects
the driver. It also contains all the instruments the driver uses during the race
time.

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Figure 42 cockpit of an FSAE race car

c) Rear Clip The rear clip holds the propulsion system, the drivetrain, the rear
suspension, and the rear axle assembly.

Figure 43 rear clip of an FSAE race car

ERGONOMICS: -
- Ergonomics is basically the science of comfort and accessibility for everything the
driver touches, from seat belt to pedals and buttons on the steering wheel.

- In order to choose the best seating position for the driver, a mockup wooden
model was made; the mockup model is adjustable so every angle and dimension
can be altered to fit the chosen driver.

- Basically, we‟ve chosen to start designing the chassis around the cockpit, so we‟ll
start the design process from the cockpit outwards towards the front and rear clips.

- The cockpit dimensions will affect the body shape, the main dimensions
(wheelbase and track width), the weight of the vehicle and the center of gravity
position. So it was crucial not to compromise vehicle dynamics over driver comfort.

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Figure 44 Mockup Wooden Model CAD

-The driver sits in the mockup model and we start altering the dimensions of the
model to best fit the driver size. After that we fix the mockup at the best position
chosen by the driver and we raise all the dimensions and angles to the CAD
software where we will start molding the rest of the chassis around.

- For the current requirements by the competition, it is not needed to have any
suspension compliance, thus we‟ve chosen to design rigid suspension at the front
and to install rubber bushing for the rear suspension links.

2.3. DESIGN PROCESS: -

- The cockpit ergonomics is essential to take the most out of the driver
performance on track. If the driver is distracted by any discomfort his
performance will be affected and it might affect his safety as well.

- After taking the driver dimensions from the mockup model; we started to design
different CAD models using different materials.

Stages of building the frame: -

1. Material selection
2. Design cad model
3. Stress analysis
4. Manufacturing

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2.3.1 MATERIAL SELECTION: -

The where 3 abundant materials were available are widely used

1) St-37
2) Aluminum Alloy 6063
3) Stainless Steel 304
As for the cost; the steel 37 costs the lowest amongst all the material available in
the market not to mention the welding and treatment cost of the aluminum
which was very high comparing to the welding cost of both St37 and St 304, whilst
the density of the aluminum alloy is the lowest amongst all. Both St 304 and St37
where abundant in the market, with a little shortage for the Aluminum alloy 6063.
The matrix suggested we use Stainless Steel 304 or St37, but as the St37 available
in the market was locally manufactured one, and the quality may not be
guaranteed, we opted for Aluminum Alloy 6063 as it is imported.

Table 9 comparison materials

Stainless Aluminum
parameters Steel37
Rank steel 304 6063

weight 4 1 1 5
Cost 5 3 5 3
Availability 5 5 5 5
strength 3 4 5 2
Total 57 70 71

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Table 10 properties of Al 6063

2.3.2 Design cad model: -

The purpose of the thesis is to design and manufacture a tubular space frame
chassis that is strong enough to absorb the energy resulting from being subjected
to possible impact and torsional loads.

To achieve such a goal, the following design considerations were pared in mind:

● High strength to weight ratio.

● High stiffness to weight ratio.

● Reasonable material and manufacturing costs

● Suitable driving position.

● Simple design which provides good accessibility.

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Figure 45 Prototype frame

Figure 46 urban frame

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2.3.3 stress analysis: -

Stresses can be measured and calculated using various techniques. The common
methods used are to physically apply loads to the chassis and measure the
deflections by sight or by attaching strain gauges. When the deflection is known
the stress can be calculated. Stresses can also be calculated using simple formulas
and hand calculations, but this usually requires many simplifications to be made.
When complex structures such as chassis are analyzed, the formulas become very
large and complex, therefore computer programs are required to calculate the
stresses involved. When analyzing the formula SAE chassis both physical and
numerical tests will be performed to calculate realistic stresses that might be
experienced in the chassis un-der race conditions. Using both methods,
comparisons can be made to verifying the accuracy of the results.

• Numerical Testing:

Because of the complexity of the spaceframe chassis, hand numerical calculations

would prove extremely lengthy. Therefore, the numerical tests will be completed
using finite element analysis (FEA) software. This software allows complex
numerical calculations to be performed in feasible time. Property settings required
to conduct FEA can often be complicated to simulate the real conditions

rollbar analysis

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Prototype frame

Figure 47 Stresses on main hoop

Figure 48 Maximum deformation

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Figure 49 Max. factor of safety

Applied force value 1400 N

Maximum Stress 85.7 Mpa

Maximum deformation 3.4 mm

Factor of safety 3

Table 11 Results of prototype frame

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Urban frame

Figure 50 Stresses on main hoop

Applied force value 6000N

Maximum Stress 25 Mpa

Maximum deformation 0.431 mm

Factor of safety 8

Table 12 Results of urban frame

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Driver weight: -

Figure 51 Driver weight of prototype

Applied force value 800 N

Maximum Stress 31.906 Mpa

Maximum deformation 2.319 mm

Factor of safety 6.7

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Figure 52 Driver weight of urban

Applied force value 900 N

Maximum Stress 17.08 Mpa
Maximum deformation 1.13 mm

Factor of safety 9.1

Table 13 Results of Driver weight of urban

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Batteries weight: -

Figure 53 batteries weight of prototype

Battery mass 6.5 Kg

Applied force value 65 N

Maximum Stress 31.906 Mpa

Maximum deformation 2.319 mm

Factor of safety 6.7

Table 14 Results batteries weight of prototype

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Figure 54 batteries weight of urban

Battery mass 39 kg

Applied force value 390 N

Maximum Stress 7.865 Mpa

Maximum deformation 0.42 mm

Factor of safety 12.3

Table 15 Results batteries weight of urban

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Rear wheel fixation: -

Figure 55 Rear wheel fixation prototype

Applied Torque value 80 N.m

Maximum Stress 179.454 Mpa

Maximum deformation 0.375 mm

Factor of safety 2.81

Table 16 Results Rear wheel fixation prototype

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Figure 56 Rear wheel fixation urban

Applied Torque value 200 N.m

Maximum Stress 134.468 Mpa

Maximum deformation 0.016 mm

Factor of safety 1.86

Table 17 Results Rear wheel fixation urban

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suspension fixation of frame (urban): -

Figure 57 suspension fixation (front)

Value of applied force 1500 N on each point

Max. stress 63.533 Mpa

Max. deformation 2.97 mm

Safety factor 3.21

Table 18 Results suspension fixation

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Figure 58 suspension fixation (Rear)

Value of applied force 1920 N

Max. stress 118.095 Mpa

Max. deformation 5.93 mm

Safety factor 1.86

Table 19 Results suspension fixation Rear

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2.4. MANUFACTURING: -
The work processes to be used for the manufacture of the frame were as follows:

1. Aluminum Cutting
2. Tube Bending
3. Welding Process
4. Use of Jigs

2.4.1 Aluminum Cutting: -

The tubes were laser cut to ensure optimum accuracy.

Figure 59 Laser cut

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2.4.2 Tube Bending: -

To construct the space frame chassis, it was necessary to bend the tubes very
precisely to achieve the proper geometries. This was accomplished by using the
hydraulic bender. We bend the tube by using CNC machine to get more accurately.

2.4.3 Welding Process: -

For the welding we chose to work with Argon welding for its optimum strength and
finish then we made heat treatment.

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Figure 60 Welding Process prototype

Figure 61 Welding Process

2.4.4 Use of Jigs: -

A general definition for a jig is that it is a device that holds a set of workpieces
together for their final assembly process, in this case, the workpieces would be the
frame tubes, welded system parts ...etc. It ensures that the workpieces are
assembled according to their intended design with minimal deviation.

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There are different jig concepts as well as various variants of those concepts.

Wooden jig system concept: -

The jigs’ material would be balsa or similar wooden materials (hence the name).
The concept has complex (CNC machined ...etc.) or rather simpler (manual, using
boards, blocks ...etc.) variants, based on the application at hand, available
resources and required quality.

Metal jig system concept: -

The jigs’ material would be steel of adequate thickness, depending on fixture
conditions. There are various variants of that concept as well, also based on the
application at hand, available resources and required quality such systems
generally have lower accuracy and endurance than their metal counterparts. Such
systems are generally more expensive than their wooden counterparts due to
material cost and incorporated manufacturing processes (being more complex,
expensive or higher in number).

Figure 62 Metal jig system

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3.BODY

3.1. INTRODUCTION
Aerodynamics is the science of how air flows around and inside objects. More
generally, it can be labeled “Fluid Dynamics” because air is really just a very thin
type of fluid. Above slow speeds, the air flow around and through a vehicle begins
to have a more pronounced effect on the acceleration, top speed, energy efficiency
and handling.

Therefore, to build the best possible car we need to understand and optimize how
the air flows around and through the body, its openings and its aerodynamic
devices.

3.1.1 Aerodynamic principles

Drag
No matter how slowly a car is going, it takes some energy to move the car through
the air. This energy is used to overcome a force called Drag.

Drag, in vehicle aerodynamics, is comprised primarily of three forces:

• Frontal pressure, or the effect created by a vehicle body pushing air out of
the way.
• Rear vacuum, or the effect created by air not being able to fill the hole left
by the vehicle body.
• Boundary layer, or the effect of friction created by slow moving air at the
surface of the vehicle body.

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Between these three forces, we can describe most of the interactions of the airflow
with a vehicle body.

Frontal pressure
Frontal pressure is caused by the air attempting to flow around the front of the
vehicle as shown in figure below.

Figure 63 Frontal pressure

Frontal Pressure is a form of drag where the vehicle must push air molecules out of
the way as it travels through the air.

As millions of air molecules approach the front of the car, they begin to compress,
and in doing so raise the air pressure in front of the car. At the same time, the air
molecules travelling along the sides of the car are at atmospheric pressure, a lower
pressure compared to the molecules at the front of the car.

Just like an air tank, if the valve to the lower pressure atmosphere outside the tank
is opened, the air molecules will naturally flow to the lower pressure area,
eventually equalizing the pressure inside and outside the tank. The same rules
apply to any vehicle. The compressed molecules of air naturally seek a way out of

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the high-pressure zone in front of the vehicle, and they find it around the sides, top
and bottom of the vehicle as demonstrated in diagram.

Rear vacuum
Rear vacuum is caused by the “hole” left in the air as a vehicle passes through it. To
visualize this, let’s take a look at our demonstration car below. As it drives down a
road, the blocky sedan shape of the car creates a hole in the air. The air rushes
around the body as described above.

At speeds above a crawl, the space immediately behind the car’s rear window and
trunk is “empty” or like a vacuum. These empty areas are the result of the air
molecules not being able to fill the hole as quickly as the car can make it. The air
molecules attempt to fill into this area, but the car is always one step ahead, and
as a result, a continuous vacuum suck in the opposite direction of the car

Figure 64 Rear vacuum

Rear Vacuum (Also known as flow detachment) is another form of drag where the
air the vehicle is passing through cannot fill the space of the hole left behind by the
vehicle, leading to what amounts to a vacuum.

This inability to fill the hole left by the car is technically called Flow detachment.

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Flow detachment applies only to the “rear vacuum” portion of the drag forces and
has a greater and greater negative effect as vehicle speed increases. In fact, the
drag increase with the square of the vehicle speed, so more and more horsepower
is needed to push a vehicle through the air as its speed rises.

Therefore, when a vehicle reaches high speeds it becomes important to design the
car to limit areas of flow detachment. Ideally, we give the air molecules time to
follow the contours of a car’s bodywork, and to fill the hole left by the vehicle, its
tires, its suspension and its protrusions (i.e. mirrors, roll bars).

The force created by the rear vacuum exceeds that created by frontal pressure, so
there is very good reason to minimize the scale of the vacuum created at the rear
of the vehicle.

Turbulence is created by the detachment of an air flow from the vehicle. The final
unavoidable detachment at the very rear of the vehicle leaves a turbulent wake.

When the flow detaches, the air flow becomes very turbulent and chaotic when
compared to the smooth flow on the front of an object.

If we look at a protrusion from the car such as the mirror in diagram above, we see
flow detachment and turbulence in action. The air flow detaches from the flat side
of the mirror, which of course faces toward the back of the car.

The turbulence created by this detachment can then affect the air flow to parts of
the car which lie behind the mirror. Intake ducts, for instance, function best when
the air entering them flows smoothly. Wings generate far more downforce with
smooth flows over them as well. Therefore, the entire length of the car really needs
to be optimized (within reason) to provide the least amount of turbulence at high
speed.

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Drag coefficient
To enable the comparison of the drag produced by one vehicle versus another, a
dimensionless value called the Coefficient of Drag or Cd was created. Every vehicle
has a Cd which can be measured using wind tunnel data. The Cd can be used in drag
equations to determine the drag force at various speeds. In his comprehensive
book “Race Car Aerodynamics: Designing for Speed “, Joseph Katz provides a table
of common vehicles and their Cds and Frontal Areas. Here is an excerpt from that
table:

Car Drag Coefficients (Excerpt from “Race Car Aerodynamics” by Joseph Katz.

Vehicle Type Drag Frontal area

Coefficient Cd A[m2] CDA [m2]
Ford Escort 1.3 GL 0.39-0.41 1.83 0.71-0.75
Nissan Cherry GL 0.39-0.41 1.83 0.71-0.75
Volvo 360 GLT 0.40-0.41 1.95 0.78-0.80
Honda Accord 1.8 EX 0.40-0.42 1.88 0.75-0.79
Nissan Stanza SGL 1.8 0.40-0.42 1.88 0.75-0.79
Mazda 323 1.5 0.41-0.43 1.78 0.73-0.77
Nissan Sunny 0.41-0.43 1.82 0.75-0.78
Talbot Horizon GL 0.41-0.44 1.85 0.76-0.81
Alfa Romeo Giulietta 1.6 0.42-0.44 1.87 0.79-0.82
Toyota Corolla 1300 DX 0.45-0.46 1.76 0.79-0.81
VW Golf Cabrio GL 0.48-0.49 1.86 0.89-0.91
Full-size sedans
Renault 25 TS 0.30-0.31 2.04 0.61-0.63
Audi 100 1.8 0.30-0.31 2.05 0.62-0.64

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Mercedes 190 E (190 D) 0.33-0.35 1.90 0.63-0.67

Mercedes 380 SEC 0.34-0.35 2.10 0.71-0.74
Mercedes 280 SE 0.36-0.37 2.15 0.77-0.80
Mercedes 500 SEL 0.36-0.37 2.16 0.78-0.80
BMW 518i (520i, 525e) 0.36-0.38 2.02 0.73-0.77
Citroen CX 25 Gti 0.36-0.39 1.99 0.72-0.78
BMW 323i 0.38-0.39 1.86 0.71-0.73
Alfa Romeo 90 2.0 0.38-0.40 1.95 0.74-0.78
Mazda 929 2.0 GLX 0.39-0.44 1.93 0.75-0.85
Saab 900 Gli 0.40-0.42 1.95 0.78-0.82
Volvo 740 GLE 0.40-0.42 2.16 0.86-0.91
Volvo 760 Turbo w/intercooler 0.40-0.42 2.16 0.86-0.91
Peugeot 505 STI 0.41-0.43 1.97 0.81-0.85
Peugeot 604 STI 0.41-0.43 2.05 0.84-0.88
BMW 728i (732i/735i) 0.42-0.44 2.13 0.89-0.94
BMW 745i 0.43-0.45 2.14 0.92-0.96
Ford Granada 2.3 GL 0.44-0.46 2.13 0.94-0.98
Sports cars
Porsche 924 0.31-0.33 1.80 0.56-0.59
Porsche 944 Turbo 0.33-0.34 1.90 0.63-0.65
Nissan 300 ZX 0.33-0.36 1.82 0.60-0.66
Mazda 626 Coupe 0.34-0.36 1.88 0.64-0.68
Opel Monza GSE 0.35-0.36 1.95 0.68-0.70
Renault Fuego GTX 0.34-0.37 1.82 0.62-0.67

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Honda CRX Coupe 0.35-0.37 1.72 0.60-0.64

Audi Coupe GT 5E 0.36-0.37 1.83 0.66-0.68
Chevrolet Corvette 0.36-0.38 1.80 0.65-0.68
Chevrolet Camaro Z 28 E 0.37-0.38 1.94 0.72-0.74
Mazda RX-7 0.36-0.39 1.69 0.61-0.66
Toyota Celica Supra 2.8i 0.37-0.39 1.83 0.68-0.71
VW Scirocco GTX 0.38-0.39 1.74 0.66-0.68
Porsche 911 Carrera 0.38-0.39 1.78 0.68-0.69
Honda Prelude 0.38-0.40 1.84 0.70-0.74
Mitsubishi Starion Turbo 0.38-0.40 1.84 0.70-0.74
Porsche 928 S 0.38-0.40 1.96 0.74-0.78
Porsche 911 Carrera Cabrio 0.40-0.41 1.77 0.71-0.73
Jaguar XJ-S 0.40-0.41 1.92 0.77-0.79
Table 20 Drag Coefficients
From this table and our knowledge of the body shape of some of these vehicles, we
can conclude that the best Cd is achieved when a vehicle has these attributes:

• Has a small nose/grill, to minimize frontal pressure.

• Has minimal ground clearance below the grill, to minimize air flow under the
car.
• Has a steeply raked windshield (if any) to avoid pressure build up in front.
• Has a “Fastback” style rear window/deck or sloped bodywork, to permit the
air flow to stay attached.
• Has a converging “Tail” to keep the air flow attached, and to minimize the
area against which flow detachment eventually occurs

If it sounds like we’ve just described a sports car, you’re right. In truth though, to
be ideal, a car body would be shaped like a tear drop, as even the best sports cars

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experience flow detachment. However, tear drop shapes are not conducive to the
area where a car operates, and that is close to the ground. Airplanes don’t have
this limitation, and therefore teardrop shapes work.

The best road cars today manage a Cd of about 0.28. Formula 1 cars, with their
wings and open wheels (a massive drag component) manage a minimum of 0.75.

If we consider that a flat plate has a Cd of about 1.0, an F1 car really seems
inefficient, but what an F1 car lacks in aerodynamic drag efficiency, it makes up
for in downforce and horsepower.

Frontal Area
Drag coefficient, by itself is only useful in determining how “Slippery” a vehicle is.
To understand the full aerodynamic effect of a vehicle’s body shape, we need to
take into account the frontal area of the vehicle. The frontal area defines the size
of the hole the vehicle makes in the air as it drives through it.

Figure 65 Frontal Area

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Lift/Downforce
Downforce is the same force as the lift experienced by airplane wings, only it acts
to press down instead of lifting up. Every object travelling through air creates either
a lifting or downforce situation. Most race cars and some road cars use
aerodynamic devices such as inverted wings to force the car down onto the road,
increasing traction. The average street car however tends to create lift. This is
because the car body shape generates a low-pressure area above itself.

According to Bernoulli’s principle, for a given volume of air, the higher the velocity
the air molecules are travelling, the lower the pressure becomes. Likewise, for a
given volume of air, the lower the velocity of the air molecules, the higher the
pressure becomes. This applies to air in motion across a still body, or to a vehicle in
motion, moving through relatively still air.

In the Frontal Pressure section above, we said that the air pressure was high as the
air rammed into the front grill of the car. What is happening is that the air slows
down as it approaches the front of the car, and as a result more molecules are
packed into a smaller space. Once the air stagnates at the point in front of the car,
it seeks a lower pressure area, such as the sides, top and bottom of the car

Figure 66 Air flows over car body

As the air flows over the hood of the car, it’s loses pressure, but when it reaches
the windscreen, it again comes up against a barrier, and briefly reaches a higher
pressure. The lower pressure area above the hood of the car creates a small lifting
force that acts upon the area of the hood (Sort of like trying to suck the hood off

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the car). The higher-pressure area in front of the windscreen creates downforce.
This is akin to pressing down on the windshield.

Where most road cars get into trouble is the fact that there is a large surface area
on top of the car’s roof. As the higher-pressure air in front of the wind screen travels
over the windscreen, it accelerates, causing the pressure to drop. This lower
pressure literally lifts on the car’s roof as the air passes over it.

Worse still, once the air makes its way to the rear window, the notch created by
the window dropping down to the trunk creates a vacuum (or low-pressure space)
that the air is not able to fill properly. The flow is said to detach and the resulting
lower pressure creates lift that then acts upon the surface area of the trunk. Prior
to the use of aerodynamic devices to reduce these effects, race car drivers would
feel the car becoming “light” in the rear when travelling at high speeds.

Not to be forgotten, the underside of the car is also responsible for creating lift or
downforce. If a car’s front end is lower than the rear end, then the front end
restricts the air flow under the car and the widening gap between the underside
and the road creates a low-pressure area. If there is neutral or higher air pressure
above the car, then we get downforce due to the difference in the pressure above
and below the car.

So, as you can see, the airflow over a car is filled with high- and low-pressure areas,
the sum of which indicate that the car body either naturally creates lift or
downforce.

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3.2. DESIGN

3.2.1 Cad Design

Prototype Design

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Urban ‘design

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3.2.2 compactness and minimizing the vehicle

We decided to design our vehicle to the minimum dimensions to achieve the lowest
weight possible and enhance its handling capabilities, so we chose the body design
to be a hatchback-fastback hybrid style due to its compactness and complying with
our targets. Making the vehicle’s general dimensions as following.

Figure 67 Prototype Body

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Figure 67 Urban Body

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3.2.3 Displays
A display device is an output device for presentation of information for visual,
tactile or additive reception, acquired, stored, or transmitted in various forms.
There are analog or digital display devices.

Display devices will be effective if they have:

• Good visibility: You can easily and clearly see the displays. To attract attention
visually, the display must be within your field of vision and should flash or
change in some other way.
• Good comprehension: You can make the correct decisions and control actions
with minimum effort and delay, and with as few errors as possible, because you
have understood the displayed information.
• Good compatibility: The display can be used easily with others and you are not
confused by any different types used. It can easily be seen and understood in
the space and lighting in which it is used. The movement and layout of displays
matches those of their controls.

3.2.2.1 Good visibility

The driver must see clearly at all directions and at side mirrors, we used careo
program to confirm that the visibility for the driver is good.

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Figure 68 Prototype ‘s view

Figure 69 Urban ‘s view

controls
A control is a device that allows you to communicate with objects and to
manipulate them. The main function of a control is to transmit information to an
object.

Controls in the cockpit include all switches, pedal box and hand brake. All of them
must be easily operated by the driver. They will be effective if they are:

• Accessible: Controls must be able to be reached comfortably and efficiently.

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• Usable: Can be operated with the required force, speed and accuracy.

3.2.4 Design improvement

Minimizing Frontal Area

The smaller the hole your car punches through the air, the better it will accelerate,
the higher the top speed, and the lower the fuel consumption it will have. It is
usually much easier to reduce FA (frontal area) than the Cd (Drag coefficient).

3.2.5 Analysis
Pressure contours

Table 21Pressure contours (prototype)

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Figure 70 Pressure contours (urban)

Velocity contours

Figure 71 Velocity contours (prototype)

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Figure 72 Velocity contours (urban

3.3. VEHICLE APPEARANCE STYLE

Figure 73 Prototype

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Figure 74 Urban

3.4. MANUFACTURING
After finishing the design and ensuring that the body is covering all the mechanical
parts and making sure that it’s complying with SEM rules, the manufacturing steps
will be as follows:

• CAD Sectioning.
• 2D Routing & foam assembly.

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• filling and sculpting.

• creating the female mold.
• compositing & finalizing the product.
• finalizing the body.

3.4.1 CAD Sectioning

Figure 75 CAD Sectioning

3.4.2 2D Routing and foam assembly

CNC Router:

A CNC router is very similar in concept to a CNC milling machine. Instead of routing
by hand, tool paths are controlled via computer numerical control. The CNC router
is one of many kinds of tools that have CNC variants.

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3.4.3 Foam assembly

After cutting up the foam sections on the CNC Router and labeling & serializing the
sections for reassembling stage in the correct order to form the body desired
shape.

Figure 76 Foam assembly

3.4.4 Filling and sculpting

Since the foam sections are cut in a 2D manner, we have after assembly a rough
shape for the body with a step shaped section. So, the foam is reshaped by hand-
sanding all over the body to re-create the desired shape for our body and then it is
covered with filler & clay and then again hand-sanded over and over again until we
have a perfect 1:1 model to the body.

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3.4.5 creating mold

• After making the clay model, we then begin the compositing stage and create the
female mold.

• The clay model is then covered with a thick layer of wax to be able to detach the
mold from it when it is dried out.

• We begin applying layers of fiber glass clothes on the model & applying thin layers
around some desired edges to be sharpened, such as the door seals and the
windows lip frames, and then adding epoxy resin with calculated amount of
hardener in the mix.

• The mold is created from 3 layers of fiberglass cloth and epoxy resin.

• The mold is divided into 2 parts along the body’s length, to be able to be
separated easily from the clay model.

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3.4.6 Creating the final product

After separating the female mold from the clay model, we begin reassembling the
mold’s 2 halves and fastening them together.

• Like the first step we wax up the inner hull of the female mold, after waxing we
apply the grey primer layer for the outer smoothness of the final product.

• After it dries we begin applying the fiberglass layers and the epoxy resin with the
hardener mix, layer after layer (approx. 3 layers).

• After it dries we dismantle the female mold 2 halves and release the final product
carefully and begin cutting its rough edges from the fiberglass layers.

• The final step is styling the final body and prepare it for assembly on the
vehicles chassis.

3.5. VEHICLE STYLING

The aesthetic nature of the vehicle technology should also be an explicit
component of the design and specification process. Vehicle styling, color and
aesthetic features matter greatly in the public’s perception of the system. The
vehicle, along with the stations, are the most visceral and visible elements of the
system.

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Figure 77 vehicle styling (prototype)

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Figure 78 vehicle styling(urban)

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SUSPENSION

4. SUSPENSION SYSTEM

4.1. INTRODUCTION
The suspension system of a vehicle refers to the group of mechanical components
that connect the wheels to the frame or body. A great deal of engineering effort
has gone into the design of suspension systems because of an unending effort to
improve vehicle ride and handling along with passenger safety and comfort. In the
horse and buggy days, the suspension system consisted merely of a beam (axle)
that extended across the width of the vehicle. In the front, the wheels were
mounted to the axle ends and the axle was rotated at the center to provide
steering. The early automobiles used the one‐piece axle design but instead of being
rotated at the center, it was fix‐mounted to the vehicle through springs to provide
the cushioning of shock loads from road inaccuracies. The wheels were rotationally
mounted at the axle ends to provide steering. The first springs consisted of thin
layers of narrow pieces of strip steel stacked together in an elliptical shape and
were called leaf springs. In later installations, leaf springs were replaced by coil
springs. In front‐engine rear‐drive vehicles, the front beam axle was replaced by
independently mounted steerable wheels. The wheels were supported by short
upper and lower hinged arms holding them perpendicular to the road as did the
previous axle beam designs. A coil spring was used to support either the upper or
the lower arm to provide dampening. Shock absorbers began to be used to dampen
shock loads and also to provide resistance to spring oscillations. Later it was learned
by shortening the upper arm; wheel tilt (camber) could be controlled to prevent
edge loading tires while cornering. The power transmitting drive axle in the rear
served as the beam‐type suspension with dampening provided by either leaf or coil
springs as well as shock absorbers

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4.1.1. Requirements of an automobile suspension system:

➢ To provide comfortable ride to the passengers & avoid additional stresses in
the vehicle frame.
➢ The vehicle should neither bounce nor roll nor sway passengers when
cornering pitch, when accelerating, braking or sudden lifting or dropping of
the front wheel with respect to rear wheels. Although some of road
irregularities & inequalities are absorbed by large tyres .
➢ It is necessary to provide a suspension system for reducing the shocks to
passengers for comfortable ride also reduce additional stresses in the
automobile frame & body.
➢ Suspension system acts as a safeguard for the occupants against road shocks
& provide comfort ride.
➢ Suspension system keeps the body perfectly in level while travelling over the
uneven road.

4.1.2. Objectives of Suspension System:

➢ To eliminate road shocks from transmission to vehicle components.

➢ To obtain good road holding while driving, cornering, and braking.
➢ To keep the proper steering geometry.
➢ To obtain a particular height to body structure.
➢ To resist the torque and braking reactions.
➢ To maintain the stability of the vehicle while traveling over rough round or
when turning to minimize the rolling, pitching or vertical movement
tendency.
➢ To safeguard the occupants against road shocks and provide a riding
comfort.

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➢ To minimize the effects of stresses due to road shocks on the mechanism of

the motor vehicle and provide a cushioning effect.
➢ To keep the body perfectly in level while travelling over rough, uneven
ground. i.e., the up and down movements of wheels should be relative to the
body.
➢ To prevent the structure of the vehicle from shock loading and vibration due
to irregularities of the road surface without impairing its stability.
➢ To obtain the requisite height to body structure.
➢ To support the body on the axles and keep the proper geometrical
relationship between the body and wheels.

4.1.3. Principles of Suspension System

The principles of the suspension system are due to springing action of motor
vehicles.

• Supporting the weight of vehicle.

• Absorbing satisfactorily larger and smaller road impacts with the help of a
single springing device.
• The reduction of rolling or pitching of the body to a minimum design and
attachment of springs.

4.1.4. Types of Suspension System:

Generally, the following two basic types of suspension system are given
below.

4.1.4.1. Independent Suspension:

The independent front suspension was developed in the 1930’s to improve vehicle
ride control and riding comfort. In this type of suspension, each front wheel is

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mounted on its own axle and independently supported by a coil or torsion bar or
leaf spring. This allows the wheels to respond individually to road conditions. Now-
a-days, all vehicles use this suspension system. Coil springs are commonly used in
this suspension system. This suspension system completely prevents the wheel
wobble. A greater wheel movement is utilized without affecting the steering
system. The steering conditions and qualities are improved by a wider spacing of
the front springs.

The advantages of such suspension include:

➢ high controllability.
➢ comfortableness.
➢ high stability of a vehicle.
Disadvantages:
➢ construction is much more expensive.
➢ independent suspension is less reliable in real-life exploitation.
4.1.4.1.1. Types of independent suspensions:
4.1.4.1.1.1.McPherson:

Figure 79 MacPherson strut suspension

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4.1.4.1.1.2. Double-wishbone front suspension:

A double wishbone suspension has some peculiarities which impact the automobile’s behavior on the
road. One of the main parameters is the length and location principle of A-shaped levers. It’s worth
mentioning that short levers of the same length are almost never used because they complicate
automobile’s control on an uneven surface.

Figure 80 Double-wishbone

4.1.4.1.1.4. Hydraulic suspension:

Constructional design of pneumatic suspension:
• Compressor.
• sensors tracking body position.
• control system
• pneumatic elastic elements.
• receiver.

4.1.4.1.1.5. Sports independent suspension:

Figure 81 Sports independent suspension

Construction design of sports suspension:

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• shock absorbers.
• elastic details.
• strut seats.
• stopper which limits travel range.
• directing levers.
• fastening elements.

4.1.4.1.3.6. Pushrod and pull-rod suspensions:

Suspensions of such type were developed especially for installation on racing
cars with open wheels. A double fishbone scheme is the core of its construction
design.
The main difference between push-rod and pull-rod suspensions is that dampening
elements are located inside the body. Construction designs of both suspensions are
very similar to each other, the only difference between them is the location of load
carrying elements.
In a push-rod type suspension the push pod, otherwise – the instrument which
carries all load resists compression. In a pull-rod suspension, this component resists
tension. Additionally, the first type has a higher gravity center in comparison to the
second. However, there are no significant differences between these two
suspensions and their overall efficiency is almost equal

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Figure 82 Pushrod and pull-rod suspensions

4.1.4.2. Dependent:
Wheels of the vehicle are firmly connected to each other by means of a solid
beam or truss. Front wheels are rotatable, and as for the vertical position of wheel
pairs – it does not change in respect to the main axis.
Inner constructions of front and rear suspension are identical. There are coiled
spring, plate spring, and pneumatic suspension.

benefits of dependent suspension:

• simplicity and reliability in real-life circumstances.
• good load-carrying ability.
• wheel ruts and clearance remain permanent – it is a rather useful aspect at
off-road driving.
• large suspension travel – it allows overcoming obstacles with no difficulties.

Drawbacks :
• poor controllability.
• the suspension is not very stable at great speeds.
• the suspension is less comfortable.

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4.1.5. suspension Kinematic:

4.1.5.1 camber
Consider a car from the front view. Difference in distance between top end
and bottom end of a pair of wheels coins the term camber.

Figure 83 Negative camber

4.1.5.2 caster:
Consider a wheel from the side view of a car. Inclination of the upper point
of the steering axis towards vehicle frame is considered as a positive caster and
away from frame is Negative caster

Figure 84 Side view of a front left side wheel to define caster

4.1.5.3. Toe -in and toe-out:

Consider a pair of wheels from the top view. Difference in distance between front
end and rear end of a pair of wheels coins the term toe in and toe out

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Figure 85 Toe-in Fig. Figure 86 Toe-out

4.1.5.4. king pin inclination:
King pin inclination determines the scrub radius. The scrub radius plays a
major role while applying brakes. Short long arm suspension usually has positive
scrub radius as scrub radius does not vary. The vehicle with diagonal braking system
has negative scrub radius, this is due the fact that it aids in braking upon failure of
one unit of diagonal braking system. Higher value of scrub radius aids braking and
reduces steering effort but increases steering sensitivity to braking. Hence an
optimum level must be chosen. Prototyping vehicle is equipped with an KPI of 4°.

4.2. DESIGN

4.2.1. Design consideration:

➢ Maximum steady state lateral acceleration (in understeer mode).
➢ Roll stiffness (degrees per g of lateral acceleration).
➢ Ride frequencies.
➢ Lateral load transfer percentage distribution front to rear.
➢ Roll moment distribution front to rear.
➢ Ride heights at various states of load.
➢ Understeer gradient.
➢ Turning circle.
➢ Ackermann.
➢ Jounce travel.

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➢ Rebound travel.

4.2.2. Calculations:
4.2.2.1. Vehicle's Data Inputs:
constant prameter
front rear
lateral g force 0.8
total sprung mass ( kg) 200
c.g height(mm) 350
distance between c.g height and roll axis(mm) 300
distribution of sprung mass on 0.43 0.57
distribution of roll couple 1 0
track width(mm) 1131.5 1063
sprung corner mass single(kg) 43 57
total mass(kg) 320
total corner weight single (N)( max corner
388.4118427
weight transfer ) 413.4412041

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Table 22 VEHICLE'S DATA INPUTS

FRONT 0 REAR 0
max bump(mm) 30 max bump(mm) 40
wheel center rate (N.mm) 12.13787008 whee center rate (N.mm) 9.690028222
motion ratio 0.59479138 motion ratio 0.544639035
spring rate (N/mm) 34.3094023 spring rate(N/mm) 32.66686914
intial compression(mm) 34.75321429 intial compression(mm) 57.70571429
total wheel movment (mm) 64.75321429 total wheel movment (mm) 97.70571429
total spring movment (mm) 38.51465371 total spring movment(mm) 53.21434594
minimum spring length (mm) 77.02930743 minimum spring length (mm) 106.4286919
front ride rate (N/mm) 12.13787008 rear ride rate (N/mm) 9.690028222
front ride frequency (HZ) 2.673973791 rear ride frequency (HZ) 2.075129597
front roll rate (Nm/deg) 383.132873 rear roll rate (Nm/deg) 321.9594591
total roll rate( Nm/deg) 705.0923321 0 0
Table 23 DATA
4.2.2.2. Result

front spring manufacture

parameters calculated
wire dia (mm) 8 no. of active coil 7.51319932
mean dia (mm) 54.5 no of total coil 9.51319932
modulus of rigidity (Gpa) 81.5 max load (Kg) 134.7007899
spring rate (N/mm) 34.3094023 spring index 6.8125
free length(mm) 162

rear spring manufacture

parameters calculated
wire dia 7 no. of active coil 4.755224109
mean dia 54 no. of total coil 6.755224109
modulus of rigidity 81.5 max load 177.2014348
gross weight 300
free length 162
Table 24 RESULT

4.2.3. 2D sketch:

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Figure 87 SIDE VIEW OF SUSPENSION DESIGN

Figure 88 FRONT VIEW OF SUSPENSION DESIGN

4.2.4. 3D sketch:

Figure 89 3D SKETCH OF SUSPENSION DESIGN

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4.2.5. Assembly on solid work:

4.2.5.1. front:

Figure 90 . FRONT SUSPENSION

4.2.5.2. rear:

Figure 91 REAR SUSPENSION

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5. STEERING SYSTEM

5.1 INTRODUCTION
The primary purpose of the steering system is to allow the driver to guide the vehicle.
Steering is the collection of components, linkages, etc.…, which allows any vehicle (car,
motorcycle, bicycle) to follow the desired course. An exception is the case of rail
transport by which rail tracks combined with railroad switches (and also known as
'points' in British English) provide the steering function. Steering system provides the
directional change in the movement of an automobile and maintain in a position as per
the driver’s decision without much strain on him "Turning" is a basic function of the
vehicle born by steering system which changes the direction of the vehicle by directing
tyres through steering wheel operation. The steering system converts the rotation of the
steering wheel into a swiveling movement of the road wheels in such a way that the
steering-wheel rim turns a long way to move the road wheels a short way. The system
allows a driver to use only light forces to steer a heavy car. The steering effort passes to
the wheels through a system of links and pivoted joints. These are designed to allow the
wheels to move up and down with the suspension without adversely changing the
steering angle. They also ensure that when cornering, the inner front wheel - which has
to travel round a tighter curve than the outer one - becomes more sharply angled. The
joints must be adjusted very precisely, and even a little looseness in them makes the
steering dangerously sloppy and inaccurate.

5.1.1. REQUIREMENTS OF STEERING SYSTEM:

For proper and smooth operation and performance of the system, the steering system
of any vehicle should fulfil the following requirements:

✓ The steering mechanism should be very accurate and easy to handle.

✓ The effort required to steer should be minimum and must not be tiresome to
the driver.

✓ The steering mechanism together with the tyres should provide self-aligning

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torque. This implies that the vehicle should have tendency to return to its straight
ahead position after turning.

✓ It should provide pure rolling motion to wheel.

✓ It should be designed in such a manner that road shocks are not transmitted to the
driver.

5.1.2. FUNCTIONS OF A STEERING SYSTEM:

✓ It helps in swinging the wheels to the left or right.
✓ It helps in turning the vehicle at the will of the driver.
✓ It provides directional stability.
✓ It helps in controlling wear and tear of tyres.
✓ It helps in achieving the self-aligning effect.
✓ It converts the rotary movement of the steering wheel into an angular turn of
✓ the front wheels.
✓ It multiplies the effort of the driver by leverage in order to make it fairly easy
to turn the wheels.

✓ It absorbs a major part of the road shocks thereby preventing them to get
transmitted to the hands of the driver.

✓ The complete steering system which performs the above functions, can be
divided into two parts, namely, steering gear provided at the end of the steering
column and the linkage between the steering gear and the wheels.

5.1.3. HISTORY OF STEERING MECHANISM:

Rudolph Ackermann

Around the early 1800 s Rudolph Ackermann invented the first design that

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allowed steering components to turn in their own path (arc).

✓ Designed a steering system made of knuckles and angled steering arms

✓ Not compatible with independent suspension systems
✓ Each wheel moved separately from one another
✓ Inner wheel turned at a sharper angle, minimizing tire wear
5.1.3.1 PARALLELOGRAM STEERING SYSTEM:
Developed in late 1800. Allows steering wheel and suspension system to work together.
Steering system now able to compensate for independent motion of front wheels And
Provides:

✓ Good steering geometry

✓ Directional stability
✓ Good Control

Figure 92: PARALLELOGRAM STEERING SYSTEM

5.1.3.2. POWER STEERING DEVELOPMENT:
First invented in 1876, Steering system that used hydraulic pressure to make
steering easier, in 1903 used on first 5-ton truck.

Components:

✓ Hydraulic cylinder
✓ Actuator

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✓ Torsion bar
✓ Rotary vane pump
✓ Hydraulic fluid lines
✓ Rack and pinion
✓ Steering wheel
Figure 93: POWER STEERING
5.1.3.3. HYDRAULIC POWER STEERING CONSISTS OF:
✓ Hydraulic control valve
✓ Pinion gear
✓ Hydraulic pressure / return lines
✓ Hydraulic piston
✓ Rack housing
Figure 94: power steering components
5.1.3.4. RECIRCULATING-BALL STEERING:
Recirculating ball, also known as recirculating ball and nut or worm and sector, is a
steering mechanism commonly found in older automobiles, off-road vehicles, and some
trucks. The recirculating ball steering mechanism fig (141) contains a worm gear inside
a block with a threaded hole in it; this block has gear teeth cut into the outside to engage
the sector shaft (also called a sector gear) which moves the Pitman arm. The steering
wheel connects to a shaft, which rotates the worm gear inside of the block. Instead of
twisting further into the block, the worm gear is fixed so that when it rotates, it moves
the block, which transmits the motion through the gear to the Pitman arm, causing the
road wheels to turn.

Figure 95: RECIRCULATING-BALL STEERING

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5.1.3.5 Electronic power steering:

Two sensors, one sensor monitors driver input from the steering wheel, second sensor
monitors the steering-gear position and provides feedback to the steering module. and
it Consists of:

✓ Pinion shaft
✓ Steering torque sensor
✓ Rack and pinion housing
✓ Electric motor
✓ Ball screw mechanism
✓ Steering rack
✓ Drive belt

Figure 96: Electronic power steering

5.1.3.6. RACK AND PINION STEERING SYSTEM:

Rack-and-pinion steering is quickly becoming the most common type of steering on cars,
small trucks, and SUVs. The Rack & Pinion system is actually a simple system that only
uses a few different gears to control the direction of the vehicle. The Pinion is the part
of the system that is connected to the steering shaft. As you turn your steering wheel,
the pinion rotates. This rotation occurs in the grooves of the rack, forcing the rack to
move in either direction (depending on the directional change of the steering wheel).
The Rack of the Rack & Pinion system is attached to a tie rod. This tie rod connects the
system to the tires, as the tie rod is connected to the steering arm that is connected to
the tire. When you turn your wheel, the tie rod moves to direct the tires in the direction
of the turn.

It improves ride quality and handling through gear reduction, which allows wheels to
turn easier.

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Figure 97: RACK AND PINION STEERING SYSTEM

5.1.4. STEERING GEOMETRY

There are Three types of steering geometry

Figure 98: STEERING GEOMETRY

Ackermann: In Ackermann geometry, the inner tire in a corner turns more than the outer
tire with the same input steering angle.

Anti-Ackermann: In Anti Ackermann geometry, the inner tire does not turn as much as
the outer tire with the same input steering angle.

Parallel Steer: In parallel steer both the wheels will turn by the same amount with same
input steering angle.

According to the weight transfers in the corners, the different peak lateral forces and
the slip angles for it can be noted according to the Lateral force vs Slip angle graph. Then
depending on it the steering geometry which is preferred by the tires to operate at peak
lateral force can be found out

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In examining the handling characteristics of a road vehicle, it is convenient to begin with

a discussion of the cornering behavior of the vehicle at low speeds, with the effect of
the centrifugal force being neglected. For road vehicles, steering is normally affected by
changing the heading of the front wheels through the steering system, although four-
wheel steering has been introduced to passenger cars. At low speeds, there is a simple
relation between the direction of motion of the vehicle and the steering wheel angle.
The prime consideration in the design of the steering system is minimum tire scrub
during cornering. This requires that during the turn, all tires should be in pure rolling
without lateral sliding. To satisfy this requirement, the wheels should follow curved
paths with different radii originating from a common turn center, as shown in Fig.(142).
This establishes the proper relationship between the steer angle of the inside front
wheel δi and that of the outside front wheel δo it can be readily seen that the steer
angles δi and δo should satisfy the following relationship

cot𝛿𝑜 −cot𝛿𝑖 =𝐵/𝐿

where B and L are the track (or tread) and wheelbase of the vehicle, respectively. The
steering geometry that satisfies Eq. 1 is usually referred to as the Ackermann steering
geometry. (Theory of Ground Vehicles)

Figure 99: Ackerman steering geometry

For B=900 mm , L= 1500 mm

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δi (degree) 10 15 20 25 30 35

δo (degree) 9 13 16.8 19.92 23 25.85

Figure 101: Ackerman steering angles

5.1.5. NATURE OF STEERING (OVERSTEER OR UNDERSTEER)

5.1.5.1. OVERSTEER:
the condition when the vehicle at the time of cornering steers more than the angle
provided by the driver through steering wheel. This happens when the rear tires losses
their traction before the front tires because of the centrifugal force acting on them.
When rear tires losses their traction and they slip out of the corner thus inducing more
steer to the vehicle.

Kus < 0

5.1.5.2. UNDERSTEER:
this condition appears when the front tires losses their traction before the rear tires and
slip out of the turn during cornering at large speeds and smaller curves. In this case, the
vehicle follows a larger curve for cornering then it actually should. In Understeer, the
driver needs to steer the vehicle more than the required angle for making the turn.

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Kus > 0

Figure 102: NATURE OF STEERING (OVERSTEER OR UNDERSTEER)

As the coefficient of understeer is expressed by:

And our car has all the weight in the back (because of the batteries location ) so,

So, our car has an oversteer handling performance

Where Kus < 0

Figure 103: steering angles

• Yaw velocity response:

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Yaw velocity gain is an often-used parameter for comparing the steering response of
road vehicles. It is defined as the ratio of the steady-state yaw velocity to the steer angle.
Yaw velocity R, of the vehicle under steady-state conditions is the ratio of the forward
speed V to the turning radius R the yaw velocity gain Gyaw is given by:

Figure 104: Yaw velocity response

• Lateral acceleration response:

Lateral acceleration gain, defined as the ratio of the steady-state lateral acceleration to
the steer angle, is another commonly used parameter for evaluating the steering
response of a vehicle, the lateral acceleration gain Gacc is given by:

Figure 105: Lateral acceleration response

• Curvature response:

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The ratio of the steady-state curvature 11R to the steer angle is another parameter
commonly used for evaluating the response characteristics of a vehicle, this parameter
is expressed by:

Figure 106: Curvature response

5.1.6. TIRE SELECTION:

Aside from aerodynamic and gravitational forces, all other major forces and moments
affecting the motion of a ground vehicle are applied through the running gear-ground
contact. An understanding of the basic characteristics of the interaction between the
running gear and the ground is, therefore, essential to the study of performance
characteristics, ride quality, and handling behavior of ground vehicles. The running gear
of a ground vehicle is generally required to fulfill the following functions:

✓ to support the weight of the vehicle

✓ to cushion the vehicle over surface irregularities
✓ to provide sufficient traction for driving and braking
✓ to provide adequate steering control and direction stability.
There are three things to understand when buying new tires for your car: the size, speed
rating, and load index. Making the correct selection is very important to maintain
optimal performance, safety, and fuel efficiency.

Load index

The load index rating is the maximum capacity of a passenger car tire, calculated from
the maximum permissible axle load range between two tires

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Table 25 load index

speed index

The speed index rating is also a relevant factor

when choosing a tire. The tire’s speed capability
must be at least equivalent to the top speed of the
vehicle. Its speed rating indicates the maximum
permissible speed (at full load) of a tire, and
whether it’s appropriate for your car.
Table 26 speed index

What Type of Tire Do we Need?

Figure 107 Tyre types of comparison

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In general, radial tires offer lower temperatures (leading to longer life), stiffer
construction, and the ability to have sidewalls with a lower aspect ratio, resulting in less
flex. Bias-ply tires offer a softer, more compliant ride and, typically, a little lower price.
Their other main advantage is load-carrying capability. In a given size, you’ll typically see
a bias handle more weight. It explains why Harley (a big player in the heavy cruiser
market) and certain touring bikes use them.

Interestingly, for some manufacturers, a mix of a bias front and radial rear is the setup
from the factory.

tube or tubeless tires?

Simply put, a single layer of material on the inside of the tyre’s carcass.

All the materials used in a tyre are about performance – a balance of grip, flexibility, and
durability. It may surprise you to hear that the ideal mix of rubber is porous, so will slowly
leak air. In the past, this was overcome by fitting a tube with a completely different
rubber mix that would contain the air much better and have little effect on the overall
performance of the tyre.

The biggest issue with this design is that if it’s subjected to a puncture, the tube will lose
all its air suddenly, which would have typically escaped rapidly through the spoke heads
on the wheel. Rapid deflation of a tyre on any vehicle is not good, particularly when
travelling at speed.

Created predominantly with safety in mind, the tubeless tyre was designed by taking a
section of tube material and making a single continuous layer on the inside of the tyre
carcass, and also saving weight.

Of course, a tubeless tyre can still be punctured, but the offending object usually stays
stuck in the tread and the tyre deflates slowly, giving the rider an opportunity to slow
down. At the same time, cast wheels mean spokes are no longer needed, so the entire
unit has become sealed.

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Now, instead of manufacturing both tubed and tubeless tyres in the same size, most
companies only make tubeless, and recommend that tubes can be fitted if required. The
disadvantage to this is that it adds additional weight to the total wheel assembly, which
can lead to more heat generation, which ultimately means faster tyre wear.

If a tire states that it is ‘tube type’, then it will have no tubeless liner, so it will not hold
air and therefore must be fitted with an inner tube.

What makes a good tire for different conditions, like dry, rain, snow etc?

The design of a decent motorcycle tyre is all about its construction, compound and tread
pattern. Advances in the materials used have developed dramatically, with new
elements offering manufacturers multiple options for both carcass design and
compound variation. The traditional balance of a hard compound for mileage and a soft
compound for grip has been modified by additional elements that make the rubber
behave in very different ways.

Tread design is crucially important for water clearance, while also allowing movement,
which helps to generate heat in the tyre and to improve performance.

• Tread design:
The real purpose of a tire is to get a grip on the road. The ideal tire is one that wears
little, holds the road well to provide sure handling and braking, and provides a cushion
from road shock. The ideal tire should

also provide maximum grip on dry roads, wet road, sand snow and ice, and operate
quietly at any speed.
This is a tall order, so tire manufacturers compromise on one or two of these qualities
for the sake of excelling at another. A tire’s tread design dictates what the tire will excel
at. There are basically three categories of tread patterns:

Figure 108: tread patterns

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• Directional tread patterns: sporty and safe on snow

• Directional tyres are ideal for sporty cars that drive regularly on wet roads.
These tyres usually have a chevron or arrow-shaped tread pattern which aids fast water
displacement due to the unimpeded water flow. They therefore offer high protection
against aquaplaning and greater directional stability. This type of tread pattern is
especially suited to snow- or mud-covered road surfaces and is therefore used on our
winter and all-season tyres.

Directional tyres are designed to work in only one direction of rotation and must be
fitted accordingly. You’ll find an arrow clearly marked on their sidewalls

Symmetrical tread patterns: comfortable and cost-efficient

Unlike directional, symmetric tyres can be fitted and rotated in either direction as both
halves of the tread pattern are identical. They are particularly quiet and provide good
road holding. Their lower rolling resistance reduces fuel consumption and extends the
lifetime of the tyres. They are often used for commercial vehicles and provide.

Asymmetrical tread pattern: safety in all kinds of weather

The first thing you’ll notice about asymmetric tyres is that they have different tread
patterns on their inner and outer shoulders. Each side serves a different purpose.

The inner sides of the tread pattern are responsible for water displacement and
aquaplaning protection. The outer shoulders, with their rigid tread blocks, provide
higher lateral stiffness, which give you high grip when cornering and when driving on dry
surfaces. For this reason, asymmetrical tyres. The even stiffness of the pattern blocks
ensures a quiet interior noise throughout the tyre’s entire lifetime. With asymmetrical
tyres it is essential that you ensure correct fitting. The word “Outside” has always to be
faced on the outside of the car.

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5.2. DESIGN

5.2.1. VEHICLE TURNING PATHS:

The turning radius, or turning path, of a vehicle is the smallest circular turn that it can
make. Turning circles are used to evaluate how easily a specific car can make a U-turn
or park. When the understeer coefficient Kus = 0, which is equivalent to the slip angles
of the front and rear tires being equal (i.e., αf = αr, and W f / C αf = W r l C αr), the steer
angle δf required to negotiate a given curve is independent of forward speed and is given
by: δ𝑓=𝐿/𝑅

Car maximum steering angle = Σ𝑀=2*580.5(0.0136*0.1+0.1*0.8*0.3)

=29.44 Nm.
30 degrees
So, M wheel=29.44/2=14.72 N.m
30∗𝜋180=1.5/𝑅
Steering Wheel Force
Minimum turning radius = 2.88 m.
FSW =Σ𝑀𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙𝐼 /I . 𝑅𝑠𝑤
Steering torque
Where:
Total Torque required (resistive
moment) Fsw: steering wheel force.

Σ𝑀=2(𝑓𝑟×𝜕+0.1×∅×𝑅𝑟)𝑡𝑎𝑙 I: Reduction Ratio.

Where Rs: Steering Wheel Radius.

Ww = Front weight. Fsw=29.44/0.125*7=33.65

Fr =Rolling resistance coefficient.

a = offset between kingpin and wheel

center line.

Ø =Mechanical Efficiency.

Rr =Rolling Radius.

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5.2.2. Tire selection

FIGURE 109: TIRE SELECTION

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5.2.3. Steering Box Design: Advantages Disadvantages

Sensitive to
A rack and pinion are a type of linear actuator
Simple construction impacts
that comprises a circular gear (the pinion)
Economical and Easy to feel
engaging a linear gear (the rack), which
uncomplicated to any
operate to translate rotational motion into
manufacture disturbance
linear motion. Driving the pinion into rotation
Easy to manufacture Can’t be used
causes the rack to be driven linearly). Driving
on rigid axles
the rack linearly will cause the pinion to be
Tie rod can be joined _
driven into a rotation.
directly to the steering
rack
Compact _
Easy to limit angle _

Figure 110: Steering Box Design

Calculations:

Gear width = 20 mm

Module= 2.25

Rack length = 400 mm

Z (number of teeth) = 17

Figure 111: rack and pinion

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5.2.4 Total mechanism assembly for urban:

Figure 112: Total mechanism assembly for urban

5.2.5. Total mechanism assembly for prototype:

Figure 113: Total mechanism assembly for prototype

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5.2.6. Wheel assembly for urban:

Figure 114 Wheel assembly for urban:

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5.2.7. Wheel assembly for prototype:

Figure 115: Wheel assembly for prototype

5.2.8. components manufacturing:

Part Design

Upright plate (st37)

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Tab (st37)

Drag link (st37)

Bushing (copper)

Wheel axle (st37)

5.2.9. Stress analysis:

• Upright tab
Material: St 37

Thickness = 10mm

Applied force = 600 N

FOS = 7

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• Wheel axle
Material: St 37

Diameter = 15 mm

Applied force = 600 N

FOS = 11

• C-hinge
Material: Aluminum 7075 T6

Thickness = 15 mm

Width =45 mm

Applied force =700 N

FOS = 20

FIGURE 116: STRESS ANALYSIS

5.3. TESTING OF HANDLING CHARACTERISTICS:

To measure the handling behavior of a road vehicle under steady-state conditions,
various types of tests can be conducted on a skid pad, which in essence is a large,
flat, paved area. Three types of tests can be distinguished: the constant radius test,
the constant forward speed test, and the constant steer angle test. During the tests,
the steer angle, forward speed, and yaw velocity (or lateral acceleration) of the
vehicle are usually measured. Yaw velocity can be measured by a rate-gyro or
determined by the lateral acceleration divided by vehicle forward speed. Lateral
acceleration can be measured by an accelerometer or determined by the yaw

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velocity multiplied by vehicle forward speed. Based on the relationship between

the steer angle and the lateral acceleration or yaw velocity obtained from tests, the
handling characteristics of the vehicle can be evaluated.

The tests are:

1. Constant radius
2. Constant speed
3. Constant steer angle
4. Lane change
During the tests, the steer angle, forward speed, and yaw velocity (or lateral
acceleration) of the vehicle are usually measured. Yaw velocity can be measured by
a rate-gyro or determined by the lateral acceleration divided by vehicle forward
speed. Lateral acceleration can be measured by an accelerometer or determined
by the yaw velocity multiplied by vehicle forward speed. Based on the relationship
between the steer angle and the lateral acceleration or yaw velocity obtained from
tests, the handling characteristics of the vehicle can be evaluated.

5.3.1. PROCEDURE OF CONSTANT RADIUS TEST:

Figure 117: CONSTANT RADIUS TEST

1. Draw a circle one the area of test with constant radius
2. Drive the vehicle with different speeds to maintain at the same radius
3. Record the reading of different parameter of the vehicle to determine its
characteristics.

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In this test, the vehicle is driven along a curve with a constant radius at various
speeds. The steer angle δf or the angle steering wheel required to maintain the
vehicle on course at various forward speeds together with the corresponding
lateral acceleration are measured. The steady-state lateral acceleration can also be
deduced from the vehicle forward speed and the known turning radius. The
handling behavior of the vehicle can then be determined from the slope of the steer
angle-lateral acceleration curve. From Eq.

𝐝𝐟 = 𝐋/ 𝐑 + 𝐊𝐮𝐬 𝐚𝐲 /𝐠

for a constant turning radius, the slope of the curve is given by:

𝐝𝛅𝒇 /( 𝐚𝐲 𝐠 ) = 𝐤𝐮s

Figure 118: constant radius test curve

This indicates that the slope of the curve represents the value of the understeer
coefficient. If the steer angle required to maintain the vehicle on a constant radius
turn is the same for all forward speeds (i.e., the slope of the steer angle lateral
acceleration curve is zero), the vehicle is neutral steer. The vehicle is considered to
be understeer when the slope of the steer angle lateral acceleration curve is
positive, which being indicates the value of the under-steer coefficient Kus being

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greater than zero. The vehicle is considered Figure 00 Constant Radius Test to be
oversteer when the slope of the curve is negative, which indicates the value of the
understeer coefficient Kus being less than zero For a practical vehicle, owing to the
nonlinear behavior of tires and suspensions, load transfer, and the effects of
tractive (or braking) effort, the value of the understeer coefficient Kus varies with
operating conditions. A curve rather than a straight line to represent the steer
angle-lateral acceleration relationship is usually obtained. It is possible for a vehicle
to have understeer characteristics at low lateral accelerations and oversteer
characteristics at high lateral accelerations.

5.3.2. PROCEDURE OF CONSTANT SPEED TEST:

1. The vehicle will be driven along the curve with constant

speed at a different radius
2. Record the readings of different parameter of vehicle to
determine its characteristics
In this test, the vehicle is driven at a constant forward speed at various turning radii.
The steer angle and the lateral acceleration are measured. The results can be
plotted. The handling behavior of the vehicle can then be determined from the
slope of the steer angle-lateral acceleration curve.

From Equation:

𝛅𝑭 = 𝐋 /𝐑 + 𝐊𝐮𝐬 𝐚𝐲 /𝐠

For a constant speed turn, the slope of the curve is given by:

𝒅𝛅𝑭/ ( / 𝒈 ) = 𝒈𝑳 /𝑽^2+ 𝑲𝑼𝑺

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Figure 119: constant speed test curve

If the vehicle is neutral steer, the value of the understeer coefficient Kus will be
zero and the slope of the steer angle-lateral acceleration line will be a constant of
𝒈𝑳 𝑽�

The vehicle is considered to be understeer when the slope of the steer angle lateral
acceleration curve is greater than that for the neutral steer response at a given
forward speed (𝒈𝑳 /𝑽𝟐 ), which indicates that the value of the understeer
coefficient Kus is positive. The vehicle is considered to be oversteer when the slope
of the curve is less than that for the neutral steer response at a given forward speed
(𝒈𝑳/ 𝑽𝟐 ), which indicates that the value of the understeer coefficient Kus is
negative.

When the slope of the curve is zero / 𝑽𝟐 + 𝑲𝒖𝒔 = 𝟎 and,

𝑽^ 𝟐 = 𝐠𝐥 /−𝑲𝒖𝒔 = 𝑽 ^𝟐𝒄𝒓𝒊𝒕

This indicates that the oversteer vehicle is operating at the critical speed, and that
the vehicle is at the onset of directional instability. If, during the tests, the steer
angle and yaw velocity are measured, then the slope of the steer angle yaw velocity

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curve can also be used to evaluate the steady-state handling behavior of the vehicle
in a similar way.

5.3.3. PROCEDURE OF CONSTANT STEER ANGLE TEST:

1. The vehicle will be driven with constant steer angle at different speeds
2. Record the readings of different parameter to determine its characteristics
In this test, the vehicle is driven with a fixed steering wheel angle at various forward
speeds. The lateral accelerations at various speeds are measured. From the test
results, the curvature 𝟏/R , which can be calculated from the measured lateral
acceleration and forward speed by 𝟏/ 𝑹 = 𝒂𝒚 /𝑽𝟐 , is plotted against lateral
acceleration. The handling behavior can then be determined by the slope of the
curvature-lateral acceleration curve. From Equation

𝜹𝒇 = 𝑳/ 𝑹 + 𝑲𝒖𝒔 𝒂𝒚 /𝒈

for a constant steering wheel angle, the slope of the curve is given by:

𝐝 ( 𝟏/ 𝐑 ) 𝐝 ( 𝐚𝐲/ 𝐠 ) = − 𝐊𝐮𝐬 /𝐋

Figure 120 constant steer angle test curve

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If the vehicle is neutral steer, the value of the understeer coefficient Kus will be
zero, and the slope of the curvature-lateral acceleration curve is zero. The Figure
00 Constant Steer Test characteristics of a neutral steer vehicle is therefore
represented by a horizontal line. The vehicle is understeer when the slope of the
curvature- lateral acceleration curve is negative, which indicates that the value of
the understeer coefficient Kus is positive. The vehicle is oversteer when the slope
of the curvature-lateral acceleration curve is positive, which indicates that the
value of the understeer coefficient Kus is negative.

In general, the constant radius test is the simplest and requires little
instrumentation. The steer angle of the front tire (or the steering wheel angle) and
forward speed are the only essential parameters to be measured during the test,
as the steady-state lateral acceleration can be deduced from vehicle forward speed
and the given turning radius. The constant speed test is more representative of the
actual road behavior of a vehicle than the constant radius test, as the driver usually
maintains a more or less constant speed in a turn and turns the steering wheel by
the required amount to negotiate the curve. The constant steer angle test, on the
other hand, is easy to execute. Both the constant speed and constant steer angle
tests would require, however, the measurement of the lateral acceleration or yaw
velocity.

5.3.4. PROCEDURE OF LANE CHANGE TEST

1. Put sets of cones on the road at the vehicle path and change the lane of the
vehicle and return to first path
2. Record the readings of different parameter of vehicle

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Figure 121 LANE CHANGE TEST

6. BRAKE SYSTEM

6.1. INTRODUCTION:
Braking of a vehicle depends upon the static function that acts between tires and
road surface.

Brakes work on the following principle to stop the vehicle:

• The kinetic energy due to motion of the vehicle is dissipated in the form of
heat energy due to friction between moving parts (wheel or wheel drum)
and stationary parts of vehicle (brake shoes). The heat energy so generated
due to application of brakes is dissipated into air.
Brakes operate most effectively when they are applied in a manner so that wheels
do not lock completely but continue to roll without slipping on the surface of road.

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6.1.1. FUNDAMENTALS OF BRAKE SYSTEMS

Hydraulic pressure to each wheel cylinder or caliper forces friction materials
against brake drum or rotor Friction causes rotating wheel to slow and eventually
stop the vehicle within the smallest possible distance.

6.1.2. Design Targets:

• Stopping the vehicle in straight line
• Good brake balance.
• Achieving least stopping distance
• Effective cooling.
• Decrease parts wearing
• Avoid high pressure in lines.

6.1.3. Brake System Types:

(a) Mechanical brakes

(b) Hydraulic brakes

(c) pneumatic brakes

(d) Electronic brakes

6.1.3. 1. Park brake:

The Park brake is designed with cable mechanical mechanism.

Its advantages:

• Simpler design
• Has flexibility of installation

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6.1.3.2. Hydraulic brake system:

A hydraulic braking system transmits brake-pedal force to the wheel brakes
through pressurized fluid, converting the fluid pressure into useful work of braking
at the wheels.

6.1.4. Hydraulic brake system components:

6.1.4. 1. Brake Pedal:
From elementary statics, the force increase will be equal to the driver’s applied
force multiplied by the lever ratio of the brake pedal assembly.

• The brake pedal transmits force from driver’s foot to master cylinder.

• The brake pedal must be the most reliable part of a brake system because failure
means a complete loss of braking.

• A brake pedal consists of the arm, pad and pivot attachments. The pedal is
connected to a linkage. This linkage transmits force and movement to the master
cylinder.

6.1.4.2. Master cylinder:

The master brake cylinder converts the pressure on the brake pedal to hydraulic
pressure by feeding brake fluid into the brake circuit and controlling this according
to the mechanical force. Master brake cylinders are used both in disc.

Master Cylinder types:

There are two types of master cylinders:

• Single master cylinder

• Tandem master cylinder

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6.1.4.3. Brake Fluid:

Brake fluid is the lifeblood of any hydraulic brake system. It is what makes the
system operate properly. Brake fluid’s functional responsibility is to transmit the
force from the master cylinder piston or pistons to the calipers at the four corners
of the vehicle. It does this by allowing itself to be pressurized. Based on the
hydraulic gain of the brake system, there may be an increase in the force delivered
to the calipers, but the brake fluid and distribution system fundamentally do not
provide any gain on their own.

Brake fluid requirements:

• Must be able to flow freely at extremely high temperatures and at very low
temperatures.
• Serves as a lubricant for many parts to ensure smooth and even operation.
• Must fight corrosion and rust in the brake lines and various assemblies and
components.
• It must resist evaporation.
Types of brake fluid:

1. DOT.3
2. DOT.4
3. DOT 5
6.1.4.4. Brake lines:
• Brake lines designed to transmit brake fluid pressure (the blood) from the
master cylinder (the heart) to the wheel cylinders and calipers (the muscles
and working parts) of the disc brakes.
• Brake hose material is designed offer high heat resistance and withstands
harsh operating conditions.
• Using flexible hoses prevents line breakage as the wheels move up and down

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6.1.4.5. Calipers:
A brake caliper converts hydraulic pressure into mechanical force. A caliper can
contain one, two, or four-cylinder bores and pistons that provide uniform pressure
distribution against the brake’s friction pads. The selection of caliper directly affects
the performance of the brake and the car. For a performance car it is important to
keep the weight of the rotor as light as possible in order to reduce the unsprung
weight of the car.

- Calipers fall into two categories:

(1) Fixed caliper:

As its name implies, the fixed caliper is rigidly connected to its mounting surface.
The fixed caliper thus requires a minimum of two pistons, one on each side. When
the brakes are applied, each piston drives its corresponding brake pad into contact
with the rotor.

(2) Floating:

The floating caliper can slide side-to-side on its mounting surface. Thus, pistons are
required on only one side. When the brakes are applied, the piston drives its pad
into contact with the rotor. This results in a reaction force that causes the caliper
to slide away from the rotor (to the left). This sliding motion brings the opposite
pad into contact with the rotor, and the brakes then are fully applied.

6.1.4.6. Disc brakes:

The friction elements of disc brakes are in the form of pads, which are squeezed or
clamped about the edge of a rotating wheel. With automotive disc brakes, this
wheel is a separate unit mounted inboard of the wheel and tire, called the rotor.

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6.2. DESIGN:

6.2.1. Selection of hydraulic system components:

6.2.1.1. Master cylinder:
Tandem master cylinders:
Tandem master cylinders combine two master
cylinders within a common housing that share a
common cylinder bore. It provides the
independency between front and rear wheels
braking or diagonal type of braking which is the
important safety feature for a vehicle. Hence,
FIGURE 122: MASTER CYLINDER
tandem master cylinder was selected.

Its features:

• 20% lighter than conventional master cylinder

• Its static seals and plunger pistons allow a high brake fluid flow rate even at low
temperatures.
• Needs less space for installation

• Helps to reduce fuel consumption by a weight reduction

Diagonal split braking system:

A dual circuit braking system in which each circuit brakes

one front

wheel and the diagonally opposite rear wheel, so that in the

case of Figure 123: Diagonal split braking system

failure of one circuit reasonably balanced braking can be achieved.

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6.2.1.2 Brake fluid:

High boiling point Consistent and safe brake

performance under severe
braking pressure

Minimum rubber component Reduces leakage and loss of

swell fluid to a minimum

Excellent corrosion protection Extended life and reliability of

brake system components
FIGURE 124: BRAKE FLUID
Features of DOT.4 and its advantages:

6.2.1.3. calipers
Floating calipers features:

• easier to package in the wheel

• have a lower brake fluid operating
temperature
• Cheaper. FIGURE 125: CALIPER
6.2.1.4. Disc brakes VS Drum brakes

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Figure 126: Disc brakes and drum brakes

Disc brakes offer four major advantages over drum brakes:

• Disc brakes are more resistant to heat fade during high-speed brake stops or
repeated stops.
• The design of the disc brake rotor exposes more surfaces to the air and thus
dissipates heat more efficiently.
• They are also resistant to water fade because the rotation of the rotor tends
to throw off moisture. The squeeze of the sharp edges of the pads clears the
surface of water.
• Disc brakes perform more straight-line stops. Due to their clamping action,
disc brakes are less apt to pull.

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6.2.2. Calculations:
6.2.2.1. Vehicle's Data Inputs for urban:
Table 27 Vehicle's Data Inputs for urban
6.2.2.2. Vehicle Performance Equations:

•Normal loads:
During braking, there is a load transfer from the rear axle to the front axle.

By considering the equilibrium of the moments about the front and rear tire-

ground contact points, the normal loads on the front and rear axles, WF and

No. Parameter Value unit

1 Weight of vehicle (W) 3200 N

2 Wheel base (L) 1500 mm

3 Distance In front of C.G (L1) 878 mm

4 Distance behind C.G (L2) 622 mm

5 C.H height (h) 361 mm

6 Tire adhesion (µ) 0.8 _

7 Wheel dynamic radius (Rd) 300 mm

8 Coefficient of rolling resistance (fr) 0.0136 _

WR can be expressed as: -

𝐖 𝐖
WF = [L2 + h (µ + fr)] = 1709 N ,, WR = [ L1 + h (µ + fr)]= 1146 N
𝐋 𝐋

• Max. Braking Force:

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The maximum braking force (that the tire-ground contact can support) is

determined by the normal load and the coefficient of road adhesion. With

four-wheel brakes, the maximum braking forces on the front and rear axles

are given by (assuming the maximum braking force of the vehicle FbmaX = µ ×W)
𝐖 𝐖
Fbfmax= µ [L2 + h (µ + fr)] = 1557 N,, Fbrmax = µ [L1 - h (µ + fr)] = 954.3 N.
𝐋 𝐋

•Brake Force Distribution:

The distribution of the braking forces between the front and rear axles is a function
of the design of the brake system when no wheels are locked. where Kbf and Kbr are
the proportions of the total braking force on the front and rear axles, respectively,
and are determined by the brake system design.
𝐊𝐛𝐟 𝐅𝐛𝐟𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐋𝟐+𝐡( µ+𝐅𝐫) 𝟔𝟐𝟐+𝟑𝟔𝟏(𝟎.𝟖+𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟔) 𝟎.𝟔𝟐
= = = =
𝐊𝐛𝐫 𝐅𝐛𝐫𝐦𝐚𝐱 𝐋𝟏−𝐡( µ+𝐅𝐫) 𝟖𝟕𝟖−𝟑𝟔𝟏( 𝟎.𝟖+𝟎.𝟎𝟏𝟑𝟔) 𝟎.𝟑𝟖

In other words, 61% of the total braking force must be placed on the front axle and
39% on the rear axle to achieve optimum utilization of the potential braking
capability of the vehicle.

•Braking torque
Brake torque is the friction force on the tire multiplied by the rolling radius of the
tire and for design brake system we use maximum brake torque and can be
calculated by:

Front:

𝑇bf= Fbf∗ 𝑅f = 1435.2∗ 300 = 467100 N.mm

Rear:

𝑇br = Fbr ∗ 𝑅r = 916.8 ∗ 300 = 286000 N.mm

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• Deceleration Rate:
the vehicle deceleration rate (in g-units) associated with the impending lock-up
of the front tires can be defined by:
L2
a µ( )+ Kbf∗Fr
L
( )f = h = 0.8145
g Kbf− µ ( )
l

Similarly, it can be shown that the rear tires approach lock-up when the

deceleration rate is:

L1
a µ( )+(1−Kbf)∗Fr
L
( )= h = 0.81295
g 1−Kbf+ µ ( )
l

• Stopping distance:
If the braking force distribution and road conditions are such that the contact
can support are developed at the same time, that is, the braking efficiency , ᵑb=
loo%, the minimum stopping distance will be achieved,, and can be expressed
as:
w Cae ∗ V^2
Smin= ln (1 + ) = 17.7 m
2gCae µW+Fr W COS θs+W sin θs

this additional stopping distance S, may be calculated from:

Sa = td * V1 = 13.33 m.

where t, is the response time of the brake system and V , is the initial speed of
the vehicle.

• Kinetic energy :

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K.E = ½ m v2 = ½ * 300 * (16.67)2 = 41683.3 joules

2.2.3- Hydraulic System Equations:

- We need force to stop front wheels = 1557.7 N
- We need force to stop rear wheels = 954.3 N

• Data and results:

Parameter Value unit

Pedal ratio 4:1 _

Pedal lever efficiency (ɳp) 0.8 _

Master cylinder bore diameter 9.5 mm

Front brake rotor diameter 25 cm

Rear brake rotor diameter 19 cm

Front caliper piston area 491 mm2

Rear caliper piston area 491 mm2

Wheel cylinder efficiency (ɳc) 0.98 _

Pad/rotor friction coefficient µb 0.35 _

Push out pressure (po) 5*104 Pa

Brake factor (B.f) 0.8 _

Table 28DATA AND RESULTS URBAN BRAKE

• Front brake system calculations

a) Front fluid system pressure
𝑭𝒙 = (PLf − P0) ∗ Awcf∗ ɳ𝐜∗ B.f∗ (𝒓bf/𝑹𝒓)

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1557.2 = (PLf − 0.05) * 491 *0.98 * 0.8 * (120/300)

Pf= 4.5 N/ mm2

b) Front pedal force

Pf ∗ Amc
𝑭p = = 220 N
ip ∗ ɳ

• Rear brake system calculations:

a) Rear fluid pressure
𝑭𝒙 = (PLf − P0) ∗ Awcr∗ ɳ𝐜∗ B.f∗ (𝒓br/𝑹𝒓) _

954.3 = (PLf − 0.05) * 491 *0.98 * 0.8 * (85/300)

Pf= 4.5 N/ mm2

b) Rear pedal force

Pf ∗ Amc
𝑭p = = 220 N
ip ∗ ɳ

6.2.2.3. final data for protype:

Table 29 FINAL DATA FOR PROTYPE

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6.2.2.4. Selected and purchased parts:

Selected part Description Image

3/4 bore one for front

Master cylinder
and rear circuit

2 discs for front wheels.

Front disc
275 mm disc diameter

2 floating callipers for

Front calliper front wheels.

907.92mm2 piston area

2 floating callipers for

Rear calliper rear wheels.

907.92mm2 piston area

4 brake lines with different

Brake lines
lengths and same area

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6.3. MANUFACTURING
After design and calculations, we decided to manufacture the pedal box and the
rear disc by using Laser Cutting Machine.

6.3.1. Faults, Causes & Repair:

Faults Diagnosis causes Repair

Oil -Brake pedal response more slowly Absorption of -Flushing

contamination moisture

Calliper faults -car pulls to one side when braking -Seized calliper -Overhaul
or renew
-poor performance when stopping

-brakes overheating

Hydraulic -Spongy pedal -Air in the -bleeding

circuit fault hydraulic circuit

6.3.2. Tests and Inspections:

6.3.2.1. Stopping distance test:

Stopping distance is the total distance you travel before you apply the brakes, plus
the distance you travel while the brakes slow you down. The vehicle is tested and
inspected for stopping from max. speed 60 km/hr to 0 km/hr in min. distance to be
17 meters.

6.3.2.2. Fitting and adjustment inspection:

screws and nuts should be adjusted with its suitable torque, the vehicle is inspected
for oil leakage, adequate fitting of components and maintain minimum vibrations
between the parts.

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REFERENCES

REFERENCES

• Electric vehicle technology explained / James Larminie, John Lowry. Second

Edition.
• Automotive electricity and electronics 5th edition / Barry Hollembeak.
• Hybrid Electric Vehicles: Principles and Applications with Practical Perspectives,
First Edition. / Chris Mi, M. Abul Masrur and David Wenzhong Gao.
• Race Car Design / Textbook by Derek Seward
• Design and construction of a space frame chassis. Brendan.J. waterman.
• Christopher Scott Baker, FoES Formula SAE-A Space Frame Chassis Design,
ENG4112 Research Project, submitted: October, 2004
• Brendan. J. Waterman, Design and Construction of a Space-frame Chassis,
20348559, submitted: November 7th, 2011
• Race Car Aerodynamics: Designing for Speed / Book by Joseph Katz.
• Aerodynamics of Road Vehicles: From Fluid Mechanics to Vehicle Engineering /
Book by Syed Rafeeq Ahmed.
• Amateur Car Aerodynamics Sourcebook / Book by Julian Edgar.
• Competition Car Downforce: A Practical Guide / Book by Simon McBeath.
• Bodyspace Anthropometry, Ergonomics and The Design of Work 2nd Edition.
• Theory of ground vehicles -3rd edition- by J. Y. Wong.
• Automotive Technology: A Systems Approach / Textbook by Jack Erjavec.
• Advanced Vehicle Dynamics / Book by Reza N. Jazar.
• Auto fundamentals- by Martin W. stockel,, Martin T.stockel,, Chris johanson.
• Automotive technology- fourth edition- by James D. Halderman.
• Fundamentals of vehicle dynamics- by Thomas D. Gillespie.

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