You are bias.

You can't help it, you’re a

WHO WOULD person and people are in some way
bias, normally this is towards their own
YOU RATHER group.

SAVE? So are researchers. You can’t help it and

nor can they unless you are aware of it.

Best Significant
friend? other?
ISSUES AND DEBATE

GENDER BIAS
 SPECIFICATIONS

• Gender and culture in Psychology – universality and bias. Gender

bias including androcentrism and alpha and beta bias; cultural
bias, including ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.
• Free will and determinism: hard determinism and soft determinism;
biological, environmental and psychic determinism. The scientific emphasis
on causal explanations.
• The nature-nurture debate: the relative importance of heredity and
environment in determining behaviour; the interactionist approach.
• Holism and reductionism: levels of explanation in Psychology. Biological
reductionism and environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism.
• Idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation.
• Ethical implications of research studies and theory, including reference to
social sensitivity.
 Paper / Unit links
Paper 3: Issues and Debates

We are learning to…

Understand, discuss and evaluate the issues and debates within
Psychology

Good: Identify and Great: Apply Even better: Discuss

describe the different knowledge and evaluative points of
forms of gender bias understanding of gender bias.
in Psychological Gender bias to a
researches. scenario.
AO1/2/3 AO1/2/3 AO1/2/3

Key terms:
Universality, Gender bias, Androcentrism, Alpha Bias & Beta bias
 KEY QUESTIONS

Is it justifiable if a theory is based on male behaviour

only and then applied to all human behaviour?

Which is preferable: to regard men and women as

being psychologically different, or as the same?
 IMAGINE THIS…
A Psychologist wants to investigate sexual behaviour in males and females.

He studies two participants – Barbie & Ken.

Ken likes to go out Meanwhile Barbie would

every night. He much rather stay in and
babysit her nieces and
often finds himself
nephews.
having a string of
one-night stands…
 HOW MIGHT THE PSYCHOLOGIST
INTERPRET THIS BEHAVIOUR?

Ken likes to go out every Meanwhile Barbie

night. He often finds himself would much rather
having a string of one night stay in and babysit her
stands… nieces and nephews.
Meanwhile in an interview with Barbie, he discovers Barbie’s friend Cindy, like
Ken, enjoys going out most evenings, on the pursuit of another male ‘friend.’

What might the

psychologist say about
Cindy’s behaviour?
A Psychologist might explain Ken’s sexual promiscuity using
evolutionary psychology. Ken increasing the chance of his
genes being passed onto the next generation. This is called
Alpha Bias!
Cindy on the other hand, is going against her female nature
and should protect any offspring she already has.

Gender bias: refers to the tendency to favour one gender over the other, leading to
skewed or unfair conclusions in research, often affecting the accuracy and validity
of psychological theories and findings.
Example: Asch’s Conformity Study used an all-male sample, making it harder to
generalize findings to females, showing gender bias in research.

Universality: This refers to the idea that psychological principles or findings should apply to
all people, regardless of gender. In a research context, it’s the assumption that what’s true
for one gender is true for both.
Example: Ainsworth’s Strange Situation assumed attachment patterns applied universally,
ignoring cultural differences in parenting styles.
 TYPES OF GENDER BIAS
ALPHA BIAS: This occurs when differences between genders are exaggerated,
often leading to the portrayal of one gender as superior or more valued.
Example: Freud's Psychosexual Development Theory suggested women were
inferior to men, exaggerating gender differences.
BETA BIAS: This occurs when gender differences are ignored or minimized,
often if findings from one gender can apply to both.
Example: Fight or Flight Response (Cannon, 1932) assumed male-based
findings applied to both genders, later challenged by Taylor et al. (2000).
Women tend and befriend (seek comfort and help + protect those around).

ANDROCENTRISM: This refers to the practice of centring male

experiences or perspectives as the standard or default, often
marginalizing or misinterpreting women’s experiences.
Example: Studying stress using male-oriented models of behaviour.
Early editions of the DSM were criticized for reflecting male-centred
perspectives, pathologizing women’s behaviours.
 EVALUATION: GENDER BIAS
- DIFFERENCES ARE GIVEN AS FIXED AND ENDURING
Maccoby and Jacklin (1974) claimed that girls have better verbal ability and boys better
spatial ability due to biological brain differences. However, Joel et al. (2015) found no such
gender differences using brain scans, suggesting that these differences might be better
explained by social stereotypes rather than biology.
Counterpoint: Ingalhalikar et al. (2014) found that females may be better at multitasking due to
better connectivity between brain hemispheres, hinting at some biological differences.
However, it’s important to be cautious about exaggerating the impact of these differences on
behaviour.

- PROMOTION OF SEXISM IN RESEARCH PROCESS

Women are underrepresented in university departments (Murphy et al. 2014). Research is more
likely to be conducted by males which may disadvantage females. For example, a male
researcher may expect female participants to be irrational and unable to complete complex
tasks (Nicolson 1995), which may mean they underperform. This means that the institutional
structures and methods of psychology may produce findings that are gender-biased.
 EVALUATION: GENDER BIAS
- PUBLICATION BIAS IN RESEARCH
Formanowicz et al. (2018) analysed 1000 articles relating to gender bias – such research is
funded less often and is published by less prestigious journals. This still held true when gender
bias was compared to ethnic bias, and when other factors were controlled (e.g. the gender
of the author(s) and methodology). This suggests that gender bias in psychological research
may not be taken as seriously as other forms of bias.

- GOOD OR BAD?
Gender-biased research can lead to misleading assumptions about female behaviour,
reinforce negative stereotypes, and support discriminatory practices. However, modern
researchers now acknowledge these biases through reflexivity, recognizing their influence on
the research process. For example, Dambrin and Lambert (2008) reflected on how their own
gender-related experiences shaped their study of women's underrepresentation in executive
positions, showing that being open about gender bias can enhance the depth of research.
 ADDITIONAL EVALUATION: GENDER BIAS
Green evaluations are summarised
- Implication of gender bias versions of prior evaluations.
Gender bias research may create misleading information about female behaviour, fail to challenge stereotypes
and validate any discriminatory practices. This could affect lives and prospects of women. For example, the
statistic that females are around twice as likely to be diagnosed with depression than men.

- Sexism in research
A lack of women appointed at senior research level means that female concerns may not be reflected in the
research questions. Nicolson et al. (1995) – male researchers may expect females to be irrational and unable to
complete a complex tasks. Expectations are likely to cause the female participants to underperform.

+ Reflexivity
Many modern researchers are beginning to recognise the effect their own values and assumptions have on their
work. For instance, in their study of the lack of women in executive positions in accountancy firms, Claire
Dambrin and Caroline Lambert (2008) include reflections on how their gender-related experiences influence
their reading of events.

- Publication bias in research

Magdalena Formanowicz et al. (2018) analysed over 1000 articles and found that research into gender is less
funded and published by less prestigious journals. Similar findings were found for other bias such as ethnic bias.

+ Feminist Psychology
Judith Worrell and Pamela Remer (1992) proposed a set of criteria to avoid gender-bias in research such as
women should be studied within meaningful real-life contexts and genuinely participate in research, rather than
being the objects of study.
 EXAM PRACTICE

Briefly outline one problem associated with alpha bias in psychological

research, and one problem associated with beta bias in psychological
research.

(Total 4 marks)
SELF ASSESSMENT
WHY?
 BECAUSE IT MAKES THEM MORE ATTRACTIVE!

Mursi Tribal Kayan “ giraffe

women, Ethiopia women” Thailand

• Women of the Kayan Lahwi tribe are known for

Piercing and lip plates are a strong part wearing neck rings made of brass coils, which
of the Suri culture. Having a lip plate is a appear to lengthen their necks.
sign of beauty and the bigger the plate,
• This practice is believed to be linked to the desire
the more cattle the woman is worth. This
is important when the women are ready to enhance sexual dimorphism, as women
to get married. typically have more slender necks than men,
and the coils may accentuate this difference to
enhance attractiveness.
 ARE WE SO DIFFERENT?

• Hair – a different colour, straightened then cut,

then curled, pinned and sprayed in place.
• Facial hair – plucked, waxed or trimmed
• Eyes - fake lashes, mascara, eye shadow.
• Ears - pieced with expensive adornments
• Lips – enhanced, lipstick, lip gloss,
• Teeth - Whitened & artificially straightened
• Skin – foundation, concealer, blusher.
• Scent - flowers and spice extracts, Human
and animal pheromones and alcohol.
 WHICH TYPE OF MARRIAGE LEADS
TO A HAPPIER RELATIONSHIP?
Arranged or Love marriage? A partner you pick or a partner that is picked for
you?
Based upon our western cultural ideas we would suggest Love but research in
fact suggest otherwise!
Gupta & Singh (1982) - 100 Indian marriages, 50 arranged, 50 romantic.
• Assessed after 1.5 years and 10 years.
• In love marriage liking was high to start but decreased over time.
• In arranged however it started low but grew to the extent that by 10 years it
exceeded romantic marriages.
This suggests that arrange marriages are more successful than romantic.
Showing that predictions made based upon our western cultural norms are
incorrect.
Did you seriously think that would be the case? Why?
ISSUES AND DEBATE

CULTURAL BIAS
 SPECIFICATIONS

• Gender and culture in Psychology – universality and bias. Gender

bias including androcentrism and alpha and beta bias; cultural
bias, including ethnocentrism and cultural relativism.
• Free will and determinism: hard determinism and soft determinism;
biological, environmental and psychic determinism. The scientific emphasis
on causal explanations.
• The nature-nurture debate: the relative importance of heredity and
environment in determining behaviour; the interactionist approach.
• Holism and reductionism: levels of explanation in Psychology. Biological
reductionism and environmental (stimulus-response) reductionism.
• Idiographic and nomothetic approaches to psychological investigation.
• Ethical implications of research studies and theory, including reference to
social sensitivity.
 Paper / Unit links
Paper 3: Issues and Debates

We are learning to…

Understand, discuss and evaluate the issues and debates within
Psychology

Good: Identify and Great: Apply Even better: Discuss

describe the different knowledge and evaluative points of
types of cultural bias understanding of cultural bias.
in Psychological cultural bias to a
researches. scenario.
AO1/2/3 AO1/2/3 AO1/2/3

Key terms:
Cultural bias, Ethnocentrism & Cultural relativism
AMERICA, THE USA, THE UNITED STATES…

A review found that 68% of research participants came from the United States, and 96%
from industrialised nations (Henrich et al. 2010). Another review found that 80% of research
participants were undergraduates studying psychology (Arnett 2008).
 ANSWERS
1 ETHNOCENTRISM J A type of cultural bias that involves judging other cultures by the standards and
values of one’s own culture.
2 CULTURAL D The idea that human behaviour can only be meaningful and understood within
RELATIVISM specific social and cultural contexts.
3 CULTURAL BIAS E Overlooking cultural differences by looking at human behaviour from the
perspective of your own culture.
4 ETIC APPROACH F Looks at behaviour from the outside of a given culture, and attempts to find
trends that can be generalised, universal behaviours.
5 CULTURE BOUND H Groups of syndromes classified as treatable illnesses in certain cultures that are
SYNDROME not recognised as such in the West.
6 EMIC APPROACH G Studying cultures in isolation by identifying behaviours that are specific to that
culture.
7 INDIVIDUALIST I Refers to Western countries (like the US) that are thought to be more
CULTURE independence focus.
8 COLLECTIVIST A Refers to eastern cultures such as India and China that are said to be more
CULTURE conformist and group orientated.
9 IMPOSED ETICS C A test, measure or theory devised in one culture that is used to explain
behaviour in another culture.
1 RESEARCH B The familiarity a certain culture has with taking part in psychological
0 TRADITION investigations.
 DEFINITIONS
Example: Henrichbias
Culture et al. (2010)
reviewed hundreds of studies.
Found 68% of research Cultural relativism
Tendency to ignoreparticipants
cultural
were American, 98% from the principle of regarding the
differences and interpret things
industrialised nation. Arnett (2008)
through
found 80% ofyour ownparticipants
research cultural beliefs, values, and practices of
perspective.
were undegraded psychology a culture from the viewpoint of
students that culture itself.

Ethnocentrism Etics
Judging other cultures by the A theoretical idea that is
standards and values of one’s assumed to apply in all cultural
own culture. E.g. ‘primitive, groups. E.g. Ainsworth and Bell's
‘undeveloped’ etc. strange situation.
 WEIRD PEOPLE
What we know about human behaviour has a
strong cultural bias. Henrich et al. coined the term
WEIRD to describe the group of people most likely to
be studied by psychologists – Westernised,
Educated people from Industrialised, Rich
Democracies.
If the norm or standard for a particular behaviour is
set by WEIRD people, then the behaviour of people
from non-Western, less educated, agricultural and
poorer cultures is inevitably seen as ‘abnormal’,
‘inferior’ or ‘unusual’.
WHICH TOPIC IS THIS IMAGE
FROM?
 VAN IJZENDOORN AND KROONENBERG
(1988)

Country Secure Resistant Avoidant

America 70% 15% 15%
Israel 62% 33% 5%
Japan 68% 32% Nil
Germany 40% 11% 49%
If secure attachment is seen as the best type of attachment,
which country is doing the best?
If Type C is seen as having the worst type, which country is
doing the worst?
 WHAT WAS WRONG IN THE
THINKING OF THE LAST SLIDE?
1. It is making negative Ainsworth’s (1970) “Strange situation” for
statements about attachment; overall is not appropriate for
cultures in both assessing children from non-US or UK populations.
questions. Cultural differences in child-rearing styles make
2. The assumption is that results liable to misinterpretation. For example,
there can be a “best Japanese babies were likely to be classed as
type of attachment” is insecurely attached because they showed high
based upon one levels of distress from separation (Takahashi 1986).
culture so bias against
all others. Ainsworth and Bell's research is an example of
imposed etic – they studied behaviours inside a
3. The method used to
single culture (US) and then assumed their ideal
detect the attachment
attachment type could be applied universally.
itself in culturally bias!
 EVALUATION OVERVIEW
- CULTURAL BIAS OF CLASSIC STUDIES
Both Asch’s and Milgram’s original studies were conducted with white, middle-class US
participants, and when replicated in different countries, produced varying results. For
example, Asch-type experiments in collectivist cultures showed higher rates of conformity
than in the US, an individualist culture (e.g., Smith and Bond, 1993). This suggests that findings
on social influence may be more applicable to individualist cultures.
Counterpoint: However, the distinction between individualism and collectivism may no longer
be relevant due to global media. Takano and Osaka (1999) found that 14 of 15 studies
comparing the US and Japan showed no differences in individualism versus collectivism,
suggesting cultural bias in research is becoming less of an issue.

+ CULTURAL PSYCHOLOGY
Cultural psychology is the study of how people shape and are shaped by their cultural
experience (Cohen 2017). It is an emerging field that takes an emic approach. Research is
conducted from inside a culture, often alongside local researchers using culturally-based
techniques. Fewer cultures are considered when comparing differences (usually just two). This
suggests that modern psychologists are mindful of the dangers of cultural bias and are taking
steps to avoid it.
 EVALUATION OVERVIEW
- ETHNIC STEREOTYPING
Gould (1981) explained how the first intelligence tests led to eugenic social policies in
America. During WWI psychologists gave IQ tests to 1.75 million army recruits. Many test
items were ethnocentric (e.g. name US presidents) so recruits from south-eastern Europe and
African-Americans scored lowest and were deemed genetically inferior. This illustrates how
cultural bias can be used to justify prejudice and discrimination towards ethnic and cultural
groups.

+/- RELATIVISM VS UNIVERSALITY

Cross-cultural research challenges individualist views by showing that some concepts are
socially constructed rather than biologically hardwired, providing a better understanding
of human nature. While not all psychology is culturally relative, as certain behaviours are
culturally specific (e.g., the "OK" sign in the US means the middle finger in Brazil), Ekman
(1989) found that basic facial expressions for emotions, like happiness or disgust, are
universal. This suggests that a full understanding of human behaviour requires both cultural
and universal perspectives, as the universal view has historically dominated.
 ANSWER THE FOLLOWING
QUESTION

Discuss gender bias in

psychological research. Refer
to one topic you have studied
in your answer.